GROUP- 1

INTRODUCTION: HISTORY &

ORIGIN OF DELHI
The origin of Delhi is lost in remote antiquity. Also, Delhi is not the oldest name of
the town that first came into existence. The first city of Delhi is believed to be
INDRAPRASTHA or INDRAPRATT (Pali language of Buddhists), a city fit
for gods. According to legends or some historians, the town of Indraprastha was
established by YUDHISHTARA- the eldest brother among the PANDAVAS-
the king of the KURU KINGDOM. It was so called, as it looked like
AMRAVATI, the capital of INDRA [God Of Rain]. It is referred to in the epic
[MAHABHARATA] as PURUTTOMAM [Chief of Towns]. The PURANA
QUILA is widely believed to be on the site of old Indraprastha. After the KURU
KINGDOM, the TOMARS (Timurs) & CHAUHANS take over the control of
the throne of DELHI. Later on, In the second BATTLE OF TARAIN in 1192,
PRITHVIRAJ CHAUHAN was defeated by the ruler of GHAZNI-
Muhammad Ghori- & then, the foundation of INDO- ISLAMIC culture was
laid down in India.
 CULTURE (TRADITION, ART &
ARCHITECTURE: KURU KINGDOM,
TOMARS & CHAUHANS
❑ The KURUs, TOMARs & the CHAUHANs- they all are of HINDU clan.
❑ They usually wear expensive clothes with ornaments of gold, while the people of lower strata
wore simple clothes- as they have lesser amount of money & generally speak Hindi &
Prakrit.
❑ They tend to do many YAGYAs or YAJNAs as part of their culture- some YAGYAs were
exclusively done to showcase their strength in case of armies and wealth, such as the
RAJASUYA YAGYA.
❑ The Hindu Architecture is the traditional system of Indian architecture for structures such as
the Temples, Monasteries, Statues, Homes, market Places, gardens & towns.
❑ The features of the Hindu Architecture includes the MANDAPA- which is built with basic
beam & slab construction method.
❑ Essential elements of Hindu Architecture are- precise & harmonious geometry when viewed
from all four sides and above, the square form and grid group plans, soaring towers, and
elaborate decorate sculpture which include GODS, WORSHIPPERS, ERROTIC SCENES,
ANIMALS & FLORAL and GEOMETRIC PATTERNS.
ARCHITECTURAL STYLE :
 INDO- ISLAMIC DYNASTIES WHICH
CAME IN DELHI:
Following the invasion of the subcontinent
by the Ghurid dynasty, five dynasties
ruled over the Delhi Sultanate:
I. The MAMLUK Dynasty (Slave
Dynasty) [1206- 1290]
II. The KHALJI Dynasty [1290- 1320]
III. The TUGHLAQ Dynasty [1320- 1414]
IV. The SAYYID Dynasty [1414- 1451]
V. The LODI Dynasty [1451- 1526]
In the 1st Battle of Panipat, BABUR- a
central Asian ruler and descendant of the
Mongol conqueror Genghis Khan, 1ST BATTLE OF PANIPAT (1526)
defeated the Lodhis’ & established the
MUGHAL EMPIRE.
SOME OF THE RULERS OF THE DELHI
SULTANATE:
 DEVELOPMENT OF ART & CULTURE UNDER THE
SULTANS OF DELHI:
❑ The establishment of the Sultanate of Delhi in the beginning of the thirteenth century
brought a change in the cultural set-up of northern India.
❑ By the second quarter of the thirteenth century Delhi, the capital of the Turkish empire
known as Delhi Sultante, emerged as a mega-city, a centre of cross-sections of cultural
and professional groups from diverse and vital centres of art and culture.
❑ Delhi was considered the heir to the great cities of Iraq and Ajam.
❑ The process of the enhancement of its prestige as political and administrative centre and
hub of cultural activities never ceased and it became one of the truly grand capitals of
the Islamic world.
❑ The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate with a new set of ruling elite brought significant
changes in the cultural pattern of north India.
❑ The Turkish rulers introduced cultural traditions of the Persianate world which were
equally well developed though different in many ways from those current in northern India.
❑ A slow process of assimilation to indigenous culture, artistic traditions, and
performance practices also started both at court level and folk level which was
instrumental in promoting a composite tradition in art and culture.
❑ The north Indian art traditions changed in accordance with the changes in patronage.
 EMERGENCE OF DELHI AS A
GREAT SUFI CENTRE:
❑ During the thirteenth century Delhi began to emerge as a great centre of the Chishti
silsila. The Chishti saints played an important role in the religious and cultural history of
India as they adapted well to indigenous traditions and played an important role in
promoting friendly relations amongst the followers of all religions.
❑ Their khanqahs (hospices) were the most effective venue of cultural sharing. The
spiritual congregations were held in these khanqahs and people of all caste and creeds
attended these in large numbers.
❑ Amir Khusrau was well versed in the Indian musical system. Amir Khusrau combined
all his knowledge in the form of qaul, tarana, naqsh, nigar, basit, tillana, farsi, fard,
and sohla. In these musical forms he blended Indian and Persian lyric genres and
musical techniques, and in view of mass appeal the songs were composed in desi, the
dialect current during that period in Delhi.
❑ His endeavour linked two diverse musical cultures, and this became the foundation
stone of Hindustani music. It also led to the creation of a common musical culture
which was followed by the classes and the masses. All musical forms were learnt by
Hindus and Muslims alike who used similar ragas and imageries for devotional
music.
 ART & ARCHITECTURE:
❑ The establishment of the Turkish rule in India while gave rise to a new socio-
political system, it also marked the beginning of a new expression in art. The
monuments of Delhi depict an uninterrupted development of architectural styles for
almost three hundred years under the patronage of the Delhi Sultans.
❑ The style of architecture that evolved during the thirteenth century is called the
Indo- Islamic style which was a fusion of two distinct Hindu and Islamic
tradition of arts.
❑ The Turkish patrons put into effect their own concept and beliefs with the help of the
artistry of Indian masons who for centuries were seen in the erection of stone
temples of spectacular designs. They had their own ideals about the methods of
construction.
❑ Islam prohibited the depiction of living beings in any form. Hence it gave rise to
the art of mural calligraphy, and it also employed arabesque patterns for
decorating the buildings.
❑ The Quwwatul Islam mosque, the first Islamic building constructed in north
India, stands here. It represents the first stage of the evolution of the Indo-Islamic
style wherein the materials from pre-existing twenty-seven Hindu and Jain temples
was used.
Quwwat-ul- mosque INDO- ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
Along with the Qutub minar
 DEVELOPMENT OF ART & CULTURE
UNDER THE MUGHALS OF DELHI:

There was a temporary setback to Delhi’s glory as an Imperial city after the shift of
capital to Agra by Sultan Sikandar Lodi which assumed significance as the cultural
node under the great Mughals. However, from about the middle of the seventeenth
century, artistic and cultural activities again shifted from Agra to Shahjahanabad, the
new capital city founded by Shahjahan (1628 –1658) in the year 1638. The shift of the
capital paved the way for the confluence of the rich classical traditions of the Mughal
court with the cultural traditions of Delhi region. The Mughal rulers inherited Persian
and Timuride sense of artistic appreciation and valued Indian legacies as well, which
were synthesized to produce a distinct Mughal identity. These traditions were transmitted
in Delhi during the reign of Muhammad Shah (1719 –1748). The percolation of court
culture and elevation of popular culture were the important factors which contributed to
the cultural setting of the period. While some of the arts, and music also, lost their
sophistication and elitism to a certain extent, the exclusive court techniques and
performance traditions became accessible to a wider group.
SOME OF THE RULERS OF THE
MUGHAL EMPIRE:

SHAHJAHAN

Bahadur
Shah
Zafar

AURANGZEB
 DELHI AS A RELIGIOUS CENTRE:
❑ Delhi always had a two-fold significance: it was the conventional centre of Muslim
rule in India, the dar al-mulk (seat of the empire) of the great sultans. It also had
immense religious significance as it held the dargahs of many famous religious
leaders which drew pilgrims from all over north India and it was regarded the centre
of the circle of Islam (markaz-i da’ira-i Islam).
❑ Another important event of the period was that Delhi emerged as an important
centre of Shia Muslims.
❑ The qawwals, singers and dancers used to exhibit their art in the Qadam sharif of
the holy prophet and in the dargahs of saints as a token of worship. Mehfil-i sama’
were regularly arranged at the tombs and shrines and of saints on the occasion of urs
and on other dates of the month, especially nauchandi.
❑ Musical sessions (mehfil) arranged by nobles, affluent people and eminent
musicians attracted large audience. This resulted in the full fruition of the skill of
qawwals, who integrated qaul, tarana and other allied variants into a composite
performance tradition which came to be known qawwali.
 ARCHITECTURE:
❑ Amongst the Mughal rulers it was Humayun who founded his own city in Delhi and
named it Din Panah.
❑ Another building of note was his tomb, constructed by his queen. The architect of
Humayun’s tomb was from Bukhara that was the last bastion of Timuride artistic
tradition.
❑ The second phase of building activities in Delhi by the Mughal rulers started under
Shahjahan. He had most intense interest in architecture. He replaced many of the
structures of Akbar’s period in sandstone in the palace fortress of Agra with those of his
own design in marble.
❑ Shahjahan imposed his own vision on the new capital. Its cityscape centered on the
structures of the ruler and his nobles. In this way it resembled to Isfahan, the capital of
the Safavids which was designed by the Safavid ruler Shah Abbas at the close of the
sixteenth century. The area of Shahjahanabad was much larger than any of the earlier
cities of the Sultans of Delhi or any other rulers on the sub-continent.
❑ Shahjahnabad is a gallery of architectural grandeur. Mughal architecture attained its
highest degree of perfection and impressiveness during Shahjahan’s reign. The
ornamentation becomes judicious in his buildings.
TAJ MAHAL built by SHAHJAHAN
 PAINTINGS:
The reign of Muhammad Shah is also noted for the revival of Mughal painting
and the development of a style known as Dehli qalam. The paintings of this phase
show that Mughal painting got a second life in the post-Aurangzeb period. The
finest and most original examples of qalam are the official portraits and court
scenes in which the emperor appears to be the focus of attention. Churaman is the
leading painter of his reign. The artists of the eighteenth century concentrated
mainly in preparing the copies of the paintings of the earlier period in an excellent
manner. Preparation of albums and illustrated manuscripts was a profitable trade.
Towards the middle of the eighteenth century many Mughal painters shifted to
provincial kingdoms such as Murshidabad, Faizabad. The Mughal tradition
during its decay gave way to the emergence of a new style which represented the
influence of the west and it catered mainly to the demands of the Europeans.
 MUSIC:
Music played its own role in enlivening the cultural atmosphere. The musical arts
received patronage of an exceptional nature not only from the court and the elite circles
but also from a large section of the local populace. Dancing and singing became a
favourite pastime as well as an integral part of all the festivities. No occasion of mirth
or festivity was ever wanting in these two arts. Sufi Assemblies (mahfil-i sama) were
regularly arranged at the tombs and shrines of saints on the occasion of urs and certain
dates of the month, especially the nauchandi. Even for ceremonies of sorrow such as
Muharram there had developed a special kind of music recitation called marsiya
khwani. As a result the number of professional artistes burgeoned. A large number of
outstanding singers flourished during this period. The number of popular artistes was
beyond count. During this period dhrupad declined considerably in popularity, while
khayal singing gained in vogue. Other popular musical forms were kavitt, jangla, tarana
and many more. Qawwali was integral to Sufi assemblies (mehfil-i sama), urs and other
festivities. This period witnessed a full fruition of the skill of qawwals. Marsiya khwani
attained the status of a musical and literary form during the eighteenth century.
 THE LITERARY CULTURE:
The reign of Muhammad Shah also witnessed the emergence of Urdu as a literary
language which is an example of cultural synthesis. Amongst the early promoters of Urdu
poetry the name of Sirajuddin Ali Khan Arzu (popularly known as Khan-i Arzu) is worth
mentioning. He was a great Persian scholar of the early eighteenth century. Although he
himself did not compile any divan in Urdu, but he encouraged his numerous pupils like Abru,
mazmun, Yakrang, and Tek Chand Bahar etc. to shift from Persian to Urdu. The popularity
of Urdu as a literary language arose to such an extent that it undermined the status of Braj
Bhasha and Persian as a medium of poetry. Persian, however, continued to be used for
scholarly and other serious compositions in prose wherein sophistication and elitism was
maintained. Even the biographical accounts (tazkiras) of poets were written by the
accomplished poets in Persian. Urdu poetry bloomed in Delhi during the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries. The institution of mushaira (literary gathering) greatly facilitated the
growth of Urdu poetry. These were held in the residences of the poets, in the fairs, and in the
qahva-khanas. The Urdu poetry was nurtured by poets like Mir Taqi Mir, Mirza Rafi Sauda,
and Khwaja Mir Dard. Other popular literary during the eighteenth century were qasida, and
masnavi. During the nineteenth century, however, ghazal was taken to unprecedented heights
in terms of expression as well as the grandeur of language by Ghalib, Dagh, and Momin and
many more poets of the Delhi school.
 DELHI AS A EMERGING
COMMERCIAL CENTRE:
❑ Delhi was not merely the cultural hub of north India; it
was also a busy commercial centre. The elements of a
“highly charged economy”, which include capital
accumulation, long distance trade, and a large money
market with a highly developed mechanism of bill of
exchange, may be witnessed at its best in the Mughal
capital Shahjahanabad, popularly known as Purani
Dehli.
❑ The reasons for this prosperity were numerous. The
city became the administrative centre after Shahjahan
(1628-1658) transferred his capital here from Agra
which meant that the trading community, artistes, and
artisans also shifted from Agra to the new capital
which provided them sustenance. Next emperor
Aurangzeb too had is court and camp here till 1679.
This half a century of peace “coupled with imperial PURANI DELHI
care and attention” proved a boon to the capital city
for its growth as a flourishing commercial centre.
 THE BAZZARS OF DELHI:
❑ Delhi had numerous bazaars; some were general markets, while some dealt in
specific commodities, and some were wholesale markets. Nakhas was a daily market
where people from the neighbouring areas came to sell their produce. These Nakhas
were held in several places in the city. Then, there were the bazaars, which catered
to people of different areas of the city for some or the other specialized commodity.
❑ These markets which were intelligently laid out in the time of Emperor Shahjahan
gradually expanded out of their premises due to a rise in population as well as the
expansion of the city, especially towards the middle of the eighteenth century.
Dargah Quli Khan’s travelogue, Muraqqa-i-Dehli, provides the glimpses of this
development. Some of these bazaars existed on the pavements where vendors sold
goods more attractive than found in the shops.
❑ Katra was a kind of market centre, which functioned as a wholesale market. These
trading centres were located on the farther side of the Lal Qila mainly due to heavy
traffic associated with them.
❑FAIZ BAZZAR: One of the two main
markets in Shahjahanabad was the Faiz bazaar.
It was located on the road which connected the
Akbarbadi Gate of the Akbarabadi Gate (now
called Delhi Gate) of the city wall. It was
planned in the time of Shahjahan and described
by the contemporaries as a place of great charm
of beauty. Nahr-i Faiz flowed through the centre
of it and its both sides were strewn with shops.

❑ CHANDINI CHOWK: Chandni Chowk is the

most beautiful and profusely decorated passage in the
city. It is a centre of recreation for the pleasure seekers
and a gallery of rareties for the interested buyers. In the
vicinity of Chandni Chowk was the Kucha natawan. This
place was perhaps originally devised for the natawas,
the trainers of the dancing girls for the royal courts and
the nobles, and other performing artistes. During the
early nineteenth century, however, it has been described
as occupied by the Hindus and Muslim artisans such as
fashioners, painters, and sculptors and other
handicraftsmen.
 CRAFT PRODUCTION:
Shahjahanabad was highly renowned for its craft production especially for cotton textiles.
According to a foreign traveller Manrique, Shahjahanabad craftsmen were renowned for the
excellence of their chintzes, quilts, and tie-dyed stuffs. Its chintzes were reported to have been
inferior only to those of Masulipattam and it was a major object of export. The Arminian and
Persian traders were chiefly interested in this commodity. Carpet weaving was also one of the
flourishing industries of Delhi. The carpet weavers of Delhi were extremely prosperous as they
catered to a large market at home. These carpets were used for various purposes as bedding or as
a cover of seats, and it was also used for its normal purpose of covering the floor, and
occasionally as screen in some of the tents. The carpet weavers of Delhi produced rich silken,
woolen, and cotton carpets in accordance with the demand. Shamyanahs and qanats were also
manufactured here in large numbers. The indigo manufactures of Delhi occupied a full ward
which was also a hot item of trade. The Delhi craftsmen also produced fine copper utensils,
weapons, paper, leather goods, sugars and indigo. Book binding was also a flourishing craft of
Delhi. The immense building activities in Sahjahanabad provided employment to thousands of
masons and stonecutters; the number of unskilled workers employed in the building industry was
beyond count. The quarries of red, yellow stones were worked and extensively employed in the
magnificent edifices of Delhi. The workmanship of the masons, stonecutters, and carpenters was
of such a high order that Nadir Shah, who invaded Delhi in 1739, took along with him 300
masons, 100 stone cutters, and 200 carpenters to Iran. Bernier is full of praises of Indian artisans.
 KARKHANAS:
❑ The rulers required a large supply of luxury articles to meet the demand of the
royal establishment and to maintain the splendour of the court.
❑ The bulk of these articles especially the silk and other textiles were produced in
these royal workshops (karkhanas), which were best equipped and most
efficiently organized. As a modern scholar remarks: In Mughal India the state
was the largest manufacturer or rather the only manufacturer on a large scale in
respect of several commodities.”
❑ Some of the merchants and nobles ran their private karkhanas, where the
employees worked at some fixed remuneration, as in the imperial karkhanas.
Workshops occupied by skilled artisans might be rare during the seventeenth
century.
❑ Situation was, however, different during the eighteenth century as many of
these workshops sprang in the city catering to the requirement within and
outside the city.
❑ It is also possible that some of the weavers themselves reached a position where
they could maintain their own karkhanas.
 CHATTAS:
A large number of manufactories and production centres were spread in almost all parts of
the city of Shahjahanabad which have been termed as craft muhallas by some historians.
Smaller in size and, perhaps, restricted to one particular craft, and located under covered
space, were some production units which were known as chhatta (cover) such as Chatta
Lala Tansukh Rai and Chatta Jan Nisar Khan. These were perhaps private commodity
production units where hired labour was employed. The city had provision for quarters for
different craft communities, for instance chamar ka hata. Sometimes, members of a
particular profession or craft occupied an entire lane which were named after them such as
kucha naiwalan (barber’s lane), and kucha Charkhewalan and many more. A large number
of manufactories and production centres were spread in almost all parts of the city of
Shahjahanabad which have been termed as craft by some historians. Smaller in size and,
perhaps, restricted to one particular craft, and located under covered space, were some
production units which were known as chhatta (cover) such as Chatta Lala Tansukh Rai and
Chatta Jan Nisar Khan. These were perhaps private commodity production units where
hired labour was employed. The city had provision for quarters for different craft
communities, for instance chamar ka hata. Sometimes, members of a particular profession
or craft occupied an entire lane which were named after them such as kucha naiwalan
(barber’s lane), and kucha Charkhewalan and many more.
 DEVELOPMENT OF MUSICAL ARTS IN
SHAHJAHANABAD:
From about the middle of the seventeenth century, artistic and cultural activities shifted from
Agra to Shahjahanabad, the new capital city founded by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan
(1628-1658). The capital city remained without the head of the state for a considerable
period, from 1679 to 1707, due to Mughal involvement in the Deccan, and the political
situation diverted the resources and activities elsewhere. The rhythm of cultural activities
was, however, not hampered for want of patronage during this period. During the reign of
Muhammad Shah (1729-1748), the Qila-i Mubarak (the palacefortress, popularly known as
Lal Qila) had become the centre of cultural activities. Dancing and singing became a favourite
pastime as well as an integral part of all the festivities. No occasion of mirth or festivity was
ever wanting in these two arts. Sufi Assemblies (mahfil-i sama) were regularly arranged at the
tombs and shrines of saints on the occasion of urs and certain dates of the month, especially
the nauchandi. Even for ceremonies of sorrow such as Muharram there had developed a
special kind of music recitation called marsiya-khwani. A closer examination of the available
literature, however, makes it clear that the expression 'decline' implies a decrease in the
popularity of some of the elite styles such as dhrupad and the growing vogue for khayal,
tarana, tappa, and other dhun based musical forms. This departure was not due to lack of any
skill as outstanding singers from the family of Tansen, and nayaks (super musicians)
flourished in large numbers during this period.
 CHANGE IN PATRONAGE PATTERN:
The growth of fine arts and literature was associated with patronage during the medieval
period which motivated the artistes to produce what the patrons wanted. The taste and
munificence of the patrons influenced the standard of creativity. A significant feature of the
period was that music, by and large, had come under the domain of the dancing girls and
courtesans. Most of them were well-versed in this art and were trained by accomplished
musicians of the time. Dargah Quli Khan has mentioned a number of dancers and singers
of the royal court who were as authentic and acclaimed as many master musicians of the
time with whom they used to compete. For instance, in the singing of tarana the skill of
Chamni was recognized by her contemporaries as well as the court circle. Rahman Bai of
the Dhadhi community was versatile in her art and well known for it. Through constant
practice Kamal Bai mastered the art of singing and dancing to perfection. These courtesans
were highly respected and most of them commanded respect in high society. The class of
Ramjani appeared to be the foremost among the performing women. Music was
appreciated in all circles. Musical assemblies were attracted large audience. As Dargah Ali
Khan tells us, people started arriving at these gatherings since morning. The Festival of
Basant, celebrated at the onset of Spring, was a great occasion for the performing
artists of Delhi. The festivities and the hustle and bustle that commenced on this day
continued for a week. The qawwals and the groups of singers used to exhibit their art in the
Qadam Sharif of the Holy Prophet as a kind of worship on the first day.
➢ DECLINE IN THE POPULARITY OF DHRUPAD: The style of dhrupad
was difficult in technique and its high pitched and vigorous tonal expressions had
no appeal to the untrained. This form, as compared to other musical forms could
not be adapted well to dance. One also comes across observations that a tendency
of concealment was growing among the drupadiyas (dhrupad singers) for the
protection of their skill and knowledge. They were jealous as well as afraid of the
new artistes outside their families. All these factors restricted the audience of
dhrupad. It did not disappear, it only lost adequate patronage. The techniques of
dhrupad-gayaki were adopted in other musical forms.
➢ THE KHAYAL- GAYAKI: This period is especially important for the
development of the khayal-gayaki. In the initial stages, khayal existed as regional
musical genre and rose to classical status at the Sharqi court during the late
fifteenth century. Khayal was further developed during the reign of Shahjahan.
Niyamat Khan renovated the khayal and modulated it in different rag-raginis. Due
to his efforts, Khayal-gayaki became a distinctly recognized form of music. The
slow moving (vilambit) khayal, which has strong bearing of dhrupad, owes its
origin to him. It, however, gained currency towards the later years of the
eighteenth century.
KABITT (KAVITT) : Kabitt was next to khayal in popularity. Rahim Sen and Tansen,
descendents of legendry singer Miyan Tansen and attached to the Mughal court, were
unsurpassed in the art of rendering kabitt. Some of the courtesans, too, had command over it: for
instance, Uma Bai whose singing was recognized as flawless. It seems that two styles flourished
in the rendering of kabitt: the traditional or the classical style and the improvised one. We are told
that Uma Bai and Asapura Ramjani had mastery over the traditional kalawant style which was
probably similar to dhrupad. The other style probably incorporated some changes in accordance
with the tastes of the patterns and imbibed some features of the other musical forms current during
this period. Later on, this form was also used as one of the song accompaniments in the kathak
form of dance.
TARANA: Another popular musical style was tarana.
It was similar to git in its rhythmic structure. It gained
currency along with khayal and had the same raga pattern
and rhythmic variations as that of khayal, with the
exception that it was sung in brisk tempo and included
bols (rhythmic syllables) from other instruments. Its
stress was on rhythm. One Chamani courtesan excelled
in it and her tongue moved “sharper than scissors”. Her
skill was acknowledged by her contemporaries, and in
the court circle.
JANGLA: Jangla was another musical style current among the musicians of Delhi
during the eighteenth century. According to some scholars Jangla was an Indian version
of the Persian mode zangulah which was developed as a musical genre by Sultan Husain
Shah Sharqi (1458-1505). Others opine that jangla was a folk music genre of the doab
region and flourished as a courtesan dance-song from the sixteenth century onwards. It
was the precursor of thumri which emerged out of zangula’s blending with khayal. Nur
Bai Domni and Jani Hajjam excelled in this style.
QAWWALI: Qawwali was integral to Sufi assemblies (mehfil-i sama), urs and other
festivities. The music of sama originally belonged to the khanqahs where it was performed for
the attainment of spiritual ecstasy. Gradually it began to be influenced by Indian classical music
for which credit goes to Shaikh Bahauddin Zakaria Multani. He is said to have modulated it
to some classical ragas, especially Multani and Kafi. The process of Indianisation of sama’
music, initiated by Shaikh Zakaria, culminated in the musical innovations of Amir Khusrau in
the forms of qaul, tarana, tillana, sohla, and other allied variants. These song forms were
integrated into a composite performance tradition in Shahjahanabad during the eighteenth
century and came to be known as qawwali after the qawwals, with whom qaul-tarana and other
allied variants were associated. Qawwali incorporated the stylistic features of khayal in many
ways. The foremost qawwal of the period was Taj Khan. Dargah Ali Khan is all praise for him
that his voice moves the people to ecstasy, and he creates pleasing images like the paintings of
Behzad.
MARSIYA- KHWANI: The art of marsiya-khwani was developed during the
period under study. Marsiya was the funeral eulogium or oration sung during Mahurram in
commemoration of Imam Hasan Husain. The tuneful recitation of marsiya is called
marsiya-khwani. It developed as an established art during the eighteenth century. In Delhi,
like the Deccan where marsiya in India first took shape, only folk metres were employed.
However, it was distinct in one respect that these compositions were rendered here in
dhrupad style. In spite of the fact that marsiya performers had formal training in music,
marsiya did not yet attain the status of a literary or a musical genre. It was primarily because
of its association with mourning, due to that reason the rag-ragini in it remained in the
background only. The concentration of the singer remained more on creating an atmosphere
of pathos and affliction and not on a display of its skill. Obviously for this reason, he did not
conform fully to the principles of a raga and employed folk tunes quite extensively. All these
special features of marsiya-khwani were misunderstood by the people and taken as lack of
skill which led to a popular saying – bigra gavaiyya marsiya-khwan (an unaccomplished
musician turns a marsiya reciter). However, the validity of this proverb is suspect as
contemporary sources reveal that most of the marsiya-khwans were well versed in music.
Miyan Sikander and Miskeen were well known for their skill in classical and folk music.
 INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC:
A number of changes appeared in instrumental music, too.
There was a decrease in the number of binkars (vina
players), while the popularity of sitar increased day by day.
Sarangi became the standard accompanying instrument for
courtesan’s dance songs. Some new instrumental styles were
also evolved. One explanation for the popularity of the new
instruments was that like dhrupad singers, the binkars were
also becoming increasingly sensitive and protective of their
family music. Training was imparted to a selected few and
that too to the direct descendants. Besides, playing the bin
was a difficult art. As a result, it was known to a very limited
SARANGI
number of artists. Under these circumstances the sitar, which
was relatively a new instrument, gained popularity. Sitar,
most probably, developed out of sehtar (a Persian three-
stringed instrument) and tambur (a lute). In the beginning,
the technique employed in sitar was similar to those
employed in dhrupad and bin, and it had emphasis on
rhythmic complexities. It retained some of these techniques
even after the introduction of the new khayal style during the
nineteenth century, known as Masit-khani Baj.
 DANCE FORMS:
The information about the dance forms of this
time is scanty. However, some inferences could
KATHAK
be drawn on the basis of the accounts of the
individual dancers furnished by the sources.
There were some who showed exceptional skill
in the techniques of nritya and also in the
execution of rhythm as well as swift and
forceful footwork. Some specialized in quick
tempo and exercised perfect control over the
dance steps, body movement and postures
howsoever quick and brisk the tempo may be.
One Durgahi was the master of rattling, and
could produce the sound of one, two or all
rattles (ghunghru) as he wished. The term
kathak does not appear in the context of the
dances. The techniques of classical dance
forms such as tandava, lasya, chindu and
sudhang (shuddh-ang) also have not found
mention the sources.
 BHANDETI:
Besides being comedians and mimic artistes, the bhands (also known naqqals) used to be
good dancers and musicians. Their performance bhandeti was as integral to a gathering as
dance and music. Bhandeti was a composite item of dance, music and mimicry. Their
dance style was based on the depiction of various chorographical compositions
characterized by brisk movements. The participants were males. Usually the mujra
(show) consisted of eight persons but the number could be less. One young performer in a
female attire used to dance and the others contributed to the climax by means of clapping
and encouraging the dancer. This style of encouragement in the professional parlance is
called chugga dena. In between they used to show their witticism and mimicry. The
music was provided by sitar and small drums, and sarangi. Khawasi and Anuthad
bhands at the royal court were highly accomplished in singing and dancing. Above
description reflects it well that Shahjahanabad was a leading centre of musical arts in
north India. The trends set here were perfected further in other places especially at
Lucknow which emerged as the cultural hub of northern India during the late eighteenth
century.
 URDU:ITS ORIGIN & DEVELOPMENT
AS LITERARY LANGUAGE
The history of Urdu language in Indian subcontinent begins with the advent of the Muslims.
Urdu is a Turkish word which means “foreign”, “horde”, and “camp”. The association of all
these terms with Urdu is a pointer to the fact that this language originated in the military camps
and that it amalgamated words from indigenous and foreign languages which were spoken in
these military establishments. Urdu was, thus, formulated by the interaction of Indian and
foreign armies, merchants and immigrants to India. Gradually, however, the representative
culture of various ethnic and social groups of the Muslim armies, immigrants, Sufis, traders,
travellers, and settlers came into close contact with the local communities. Their interaction
began the process of the development of a common language with various shades and styles,
but at the same time with an identifiable essential character. Through the socio-cultural
synthesis over the centuries, the primary nebulous shape of this tongue (Urdu zaban) was
developed into a common medium of communication known at various stages and different
regions as Hindavi, Dakhani, Rekhta, and Urdu-i mu’alla. It developed as a regular language
and assumed independent form, and the status of a distinct literary language through various
phases of development.
➢ URDU: A LANGUAGE REPRESENTATIVE
OF LINGUISTIC SYNTHESIS
Urdu showed a unique capacity of owning and absorbing the words and expressions of other
languages and it was greatly enriched by the vocabulary and expressions of the cross-section of
local tongues and dialects. Besides vocabulary, Urdu language utilized the other indigenous
elements the expressions, historical events, myths and symbols as well as the poetic metres and
verse-forms of various Indian languages profusely. All these elements were woven into a
unified medium of expression giving the language its Hindavi or Indian foundation. The
process of this linguistic synthesis was a phenomenon not confined to one region only, it
happened in all parts of the subcontinent: from Sindh and Punjab, the Indo- Gangetic plains
in north India, Deccan in the south, and Gujrat in the west. As has been pointed out earlier,
being the dialect of the camp Urdu acquired the characteristic traits of almost all Indo-Aryan
languages which were used as country-wide level. This is one reason why the origin of this
language has variously been attributed to Sindh, Punjab, Delhi and U.P. on one hand, and
Deccan and Gujrat on the other. Linguistically, the scholars trace its origin to different
languages and dialects. The script of Urdu has its origin in Arabic and Persian scripts, adapted
itself to its needs. This trait may be seen in the fashioning of those letters which are used
for denoting the compound words and sounds borrowed from Indian languages, such as
tha, dha, chha, and so on.
➢ ASSOCIATION OF URDU WITH VARIOUS CULTURAL CENTRES:
Urdu was nurtured at various cultural centres. In north India it started taking the shape of a
separate dialect spoken in the Delhi region, and was known as Desi. During the fourteenth
century when Muhammad Tughlaq made Daultabad his capital (1328–29), it also
emerged as a centre of Islamic culture. Urdu language was also nurtured here which was
greatly influenced by the spoken dialects of the region. This form of Urdu is still spoken in
many settlements which were founded in the vicinity of Deogiri that was renamed as
Daultabad by Sultan Muhammad Tughlaq and known as Aurangabadi. During the early
eighteenth century the centre of this language shifted again to Delhi. It made its own
contribution to the growth and development of the Dakhani tradition of literature and further
enriched it.
➢ THE EMERGENCE OF DELHI SCHOOL OF URDU POETRY: the
development of Urdu poetry in north India with Delhi as its centre is associated with Vali
Dakkani. the difference between Urdu and Aurangabadi was nominal as this region was
consistently under the cultural and linguistic influence of north since the reign of Muhammad
Tughlaq. Aurangabad remained for several years the seat of military operation of Auranzeb
in the Deccan. It further enhanced the influence of north on the culture of this region.
Aurangabadi, called Hindi during the seventeenth century, was virtually identical with Urdu,
while Dakhani was regarded distinct from Aurangabadi.
➢ EARLY PROMOTERS OF URDU POETRY IN DELHI: Amongst
the early promoters of Urdu poetry in north India the name of Sirajuddin Ali Khan Arzu
(popularly known as Khan-i Arzu) is worth mentioning. He was a great Persian scholar of the
early eighteenth century.74 Although he himself did not compile any divan in Urdu, but he
encouraged his numerous pupils like Abru, mazmun, Yakrang, and Tek Chand Bahar etc.
to shift from Persian to Urdu.75 Even Sauda, the renowned Urdu poet, shifted from Persian to
Urdu at his advice. The early Urdu poets excessively indulged themselves in Ihamgoi, which
means exciting suspicion by manipulating the words.

➢ THE EARLY URDU POETS OF DELHI: The prominent Urdu poets

of the early phase were Shah Mubarak Arzu (1692-1747), Sharfuddin Mazmun (1689-
1745), Saiyyid Muhammad Shakir Nazi (d. 1754), and Shaikh Zahuruddin Hatim
(1699-1781). Hatim was the leading poet of the reign of Muhammad Shah (1718-1739).
They were all Khan-i Arzoo’s pupils. In spite of the fact that Urdu poetry from the very
beginning was modelled on Persian forms and sentiments, the language of the early Urdu
poets showed a preference for the adoption of words from dialects current in the vicinity
of Delhi. The early Urdu poets, thus, wrote in the idiom of the day and did not conform to
the prescribed usage, spelling or pronunciation of Persian and Arabic words.
➢ THE LATER PHASE OF DELHI SCHOOL OF URDU POETRY:
➢ Mirza Mazhar Jan-i Janan (1700-81), Mir Taqi Mir (1720-1810), Mirza Muhammad
Rafi Sauda (1713-1780) and Mir Dard (1719-1785) ware the poets of the later phase of
Delhi school of Urdu poetry during the eighteenth century. This phase is characteristic of
the censuring of the vogue for Ihamgoi and the initiation of the task of enriching and
purifying Urdu. Ghazal received impetus during this phase. Mirza Mazhar Jan-i Janan
is accorded a very high place by the contemporary tazkira (biographical accounts of
poets) writers.
➢ THE DOMINANCE OF PERSIAN INFLUENCE OF URDU
POETRY: The indigenous elements faded out in Urdu during this phase of the
development of Urdu poetry and Persian influence began to dominate. Urdu poetry,
especially ghazal, showed adherence for the adoption of Persian poetical standards to
the extent that it appeared a mere continuation of Persian literary ideals in a new garb.
They simply transplanted Persian themes, forms, metrical system, imagery and figures
of speech. Urdu poetry bloomed in Delhi during the 18th & 19th centuries. The
institution of mushaira (literary gathering) greatly facilitated the growth of Urdu
poetry.
 CONCLUSION:
Though, we have discussed the art & culture of
Delhi from its foundation to the Mughal period,
and after which the British Rule came into India
which has also played an important role in
diversifying the Indian Culture. Such Western
Tradition includes many things, from dressing
sense to eating habits, from dance to music, from
literature to architecture, the British rule had a
great impact on the culture of Delhi. This Culture
can be seen on a large scale followed by the
people. Hence, the Delhi’s Culture & Traditions are
unique across the country even worldwide.
This elaborated discussion on the culture and tradition are specifically for awareness about
Delhi’s culture, and hence gives an overlook of it. Indian society is a heterogenous society,
and, hence, the intermingling and interlinked connection between people of different culture
and tradition reflects the idea of UNITY IN DIVERSITY & FRATERNITY. This reason makes the
Indian society unique from the world.
 THANK YOU!

Sonalika
Shivani Shreya Yashi
Ruchy Ranjali

Anjali
Prachi Mansi Divya KEERTHANA
Jyoti