A GREATER MEASURE OF CONFIDENCE

Switching Handbook
Switching
Handbook
A Guide to Signal Switching in Automated Test Systems

Specifications are subject to change without notice.

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trademarks and trade names are the property of their respective companies.

Keithley Instruments, Inc.

© Copyright 2001 Keithley Instruments, Inc.

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No. 1716
4
th
Edition
4th

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Edition

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 Switching
Handbook
Fourth Edition

A GUIDE TO SIGNAL SWITCHING

IN AUTOMATED TEST SYSTEMS
© Copyright 1987, 1989, 1995, 2001 Keithley Instruments, Inc.
Printed July 2001, Cleveland, Ohio U.S.A.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION 1 The Switching Function
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-2
1.2 Effects of Switching on System Performance . . . . . . . . . . .1-2
1.3 Relay Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-3
1.4 Switching Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-4
1.4.1 Scanner Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-4
1.4.2 Multiplex Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-5
1.4.3 Matrix Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-5
1.4.4 Isolated Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-10
1.4.5 RF Switching: Cascade, Tree, and Matrix Switching . . .1-11
1.5 Switching Hardware Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-14

SECTION 2 Switch Card and Mainframe

Considerations
2.1 Physical Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-2
2.2 Switch Card Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-2
2.2.1 Isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-3
2.2.2 Maximum Signal Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-4
2.2.3 Contact and Channel Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-6
2.2.4 Contact Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-7
2.2.5 Offset Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-9
2.2.6 Crosstalk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-9
2.2.7 Insertion Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-10
2.2.8 VSWR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-11
2.2.9 3dB Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-12
2.2.10 Switch Card and Contact Configuration . . . . . . . . . . .2-12
2.3 Mainframe Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-12
2.3.1 Analog Backplane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-12
2.3.2 Triggers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-13
2.3.3 Digital I/O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-13

TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 SECTION 3 Issues in Switch System Design
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-2
3.2 Basic Steps for Switch System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-2
3.3 Calculating Uncertainties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-3
3.4 Switching Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-4
3.5 Cold vs. Hot Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-6

SECTION 4 Switch Considerations by Signal Type

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-2
4.2 Voltage Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-2
4.2.1 Low Voltage Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-4
4.2.2 High Voltage Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-7
4.2.3 High Impedance Voltage Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-8
4.3 Current Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-10
4.3.1 High Current Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-14
4.3.2 Low Current Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-16
4.3.3 Low Current Matrix Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-19
4.4 Resistance Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-23
4.4.1 Low Resistance Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-23
4.4.2 High Resistance Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-27
4.5 Signals Involving Reactive Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-31
4.6 RF and Microwave Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-32

SECTION 5 Hardware Implementation

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-2
5.2 Connections and Wiring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-2
5.3 Shielding and Grounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-3
5.4 Hardware Verification and Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . .5-4

SECTION 6 Applications
6.1 Battery Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-2
6.2 Capacitor Leakage Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-3
6.3 Continuity Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-6
6.4 Insulation Resistance Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-7
6.5 Combining Continuity and
Insulation Resistance Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-10

 SWITCHING HANDBOOK
6.6 Insulation Resistance Testing
of Printed Circuit Boards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-11
6.7 Contact Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-15
6.8 Temperature Scanning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-18
6.9 Diode Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-23
6.10 Capacitance Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-28
6.11 Accelerated Lifetime Testing
of Cellular Phone Handsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-32
6.12 Power Supply Burn-In Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-34

APPENDIX A Glossary
APPENDIX B Switch Card and Switch Module
Selector Guides
APPENDIX C Safety Considerations
Index

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

 SECTION 1

The Switching
Function
1.1 Introduction
Many electronic test systems use relay switching to connect multiple
devices to sources and measurement instruments. In some cases, mul-
tiple sources and measuring instruments are connected to a single
device. Switching allows automating the testing of multiple devices,
thereby reducing error and costs.
Designing the switching for an automated test system demands an
understanding of the signals to be switched and the tests to be per-
formed. Test requirements can change frequently, so automated test
systems should provide the flexibility needed to handle a variety of sig-
nals. Even simple test systems often have diverse and conflicting
switching requirements.
The test definition will determine the system configuration and
switching needs. Given the versatility that test systems must offer,
designing the switching function may be one of the most complex and
challenging parts of the overall system design. A basic understanding
of relay types and switching configurations is helpful when choosing
an appropriate switch system.
Section 1 describes the effects of switching on system perfor-
mance. Relay types, switching configurations, and switching hardware
options are also discussed.

1.2 Effects of Switching on System Performance

As a signal travels from its source to its destination, it may encounter
various forms of interference or sources of error. Each time the signal
passes through a connecting cable or switch point, the signal may be
degraded. Careful selection of the switching hardware will maintain
the signal integrity and the system accuracy.
Any switching element used in a test system should come as close
to the ideal switch as possible. The ideal switch is one that:
• Has zero resistance when closed.
• Has infinite resistance when open.
• Is completely isolated from all other switches in the system.
• Is isolated from the drive control circuit.
System designers must recognize, however, that real switches are
not ideal, and that the relays themselves are typically mounted on
printed circuit boards, which require the use of connectors and cables.
The boards are often placed in a mainframe that electronically controls
the opening and closing of the relays. Therefore, when calculating the
overall system accuracy, the engineer must include not only the effects
of the switch itself, but all the switching hardware in the system.

- SECTION 1
 For example, the offset current of the relays and the leakage resis-
tance of the boards, connectors, and cables may degrade the integrity
of high impedance applications. Contact potential and contact resis-
tance of the relays can reduce the accuracy of low voltage and low resis-
tance circuits. Switches may reduce the bandwidth of high frequency
signals. Crosstalk between channels on the card may limit the low-level
performance. The uncertainties that can occur will depend on the type
of signals being switched.
System speed can also be a critical issue in system accuracy. For
example, an erroneous reading will occur if a measurement is taken
through a switch before the relay has had sufficient time to settle.
Often, it’s necessary to strike a compromise between system speed and
accuracy. Factors that affect system speed include the triggering time
of the hardware, the relay actuation and settling times, and software
overhead.
Given the uncertainties associated with any new system design,
switch hardware specifications must be reviewed carefully to make cer-
tain they fit the application. Section 2 provides a detailed description of
switch card and mainframe specifications. The types of uncertainties
that may arise in the system often depend on the type of signal being
switched. Section 4 provides an overview of switching by signal type.

1.3 Relay Types

An understanding of how relays are configured is critical to designing a
switching system. Three terms are commonly used to describe the con-
figuration of a relay: pole, throw, and form.
Pole refers to the number of common terminals within a given
switch. Throw refers to the number of positions in which the switch
may be placed to create a signal path or connection. These terms are
best described by illustration.
Figure 1-1a shows single-pole, single throw normally-open switch
(SPST NO), while Figure 1-1b shows a single-pole, double-throw
(SPDT) switch. One terminal is normally open (NO) and the other is
normally-closed (NC). Depending on the state of the switch, one or the
other position is connected to the common terminal (COM). One sig-
nal path is broken before the other is connected, which is why this is
referred to as a break-before-make configuration.
When more than one common terminal is used, the number of
poles increases. Figure 1-1c shows a double-pole, single-throw (DPST)
switch. Both poles are actuated simultaneously when the relay is ener-
gized. In this case, both poles are either always closed or always open.
Figure 1-1d shows a double-pole, double-throw (DPDT) switch.
Contact form, or simply form, is another term that relay manufac-
turers often use to describe a relay’s contact configuration. “Form A”

THE SWITCHING FUNCTION -

 a) SPST NO COM NO 1 Form A

NC
b) SPDT COM 1 Form C
NO

c) DPST COM NO
2 Form A
COM NO

NC
d) DPDT COM
NO
2 Form C
NC
COM
NO

Figure 1-1. Relay type schematics

refers to a single-pole, normally-open switch. “Form B” indicates a sin-

gle-throw, normally-closed switch, and “Form C” indicates a single-
pole, double-throw switch. Virtually any contact configuration can be
described using this format. Figure 1-1a, for instance, is a single “Form
A” switch, while Figure 1-1d is a dual "Form C” switch.

1.4 Switching Configurations

This section describes the various types of switching configurations
available: scanner, multiplex, matrix, isolated, and RF switching. The
examples provided might provide some guidance when determining
which configuration is best for a particular application.

1.4.1 Scanner Switching

The scan configuration or scanner is the simplest arrangement of
relays in a switch system. As shown in Figure 1-2, it can be thought of
as a multiple position selector switch.
The scanner is used to connect multiple inputs to a single output
in sequential order. Only one relay is closed at any time. In its most
basic form, relay closure proceeds from the first channel to the last.
Some scanner systems have the capability to skip channels.
Figure 1-3 illustrates an example of a scan configuration. In this
diagram, the battery is connected to only one lamp at a time, such as in
an elevator’s floor indicator system. Another example is a scanner for
monitoring temperatures at several locations using one thermometer
and multiple sensors. Typical uses of scanner switching include burn-

- SECTION 1
 1
2
3
4
Figure 1-2. Scanner—a
one out of n
selector switch

Figure 1-3. Scanner to indicate elevator location

in testing of components, monitoring time and temperature drift in

circuits, and acquiring data on system variables such as temperature,
pressure, and flow.

1.4.2 Multiplex Switching

Like the scan configuration, multiplex switching can be used to con-
nect one instrument to multiple devices (1:N) or multiple instruments
to a single device (N:1). However, the multiplex configuration is much
more flexible than the scanner. Unlike the scan configuration, multi-
plex switching permits:
• Multiple simultaneous connections.
• Sequential or non-sequential switch closures.
One example of a multiple closure would be to route a single device
output to two instruments, such as a voltmeter and a frequency
counter. Figure 1-4 illustrates another example of multiplex switching.
This diagram shows measuring the insulation resistance between any
one pin and all other pins on a multipin connector. To measure the
insulation resistance between pin 1 and all other pins (2 and 3), close
Chs. 2, 3, and 4. This will connect the ammeter to pin 1 and the voltage
source to pins 2 and 3. The insulation resistance is the combination of
R1-2 and R1-3 in parallel as shown. Note that in this application, more
than one channel is closed simultaneously in non-sequential order.
Typical applications of multiplex switching include capacitor leak-
age, insulation resistance, and contact resistance test systems for mul-
tiple devices.

1.4.3 Matrix Switching

The matrix switch configuration is the most versatile because it can
connect multiple inputs to multiple outputs. A matrix is useful when
connections must be made between several signal sources and a multi-
pin device, such as an integrated circuit or resistor network.

THE SWITCHING FUNCTION -

 Connector

Ch. 1 Ch. 4
Pin 1

R1-2 R1-3
Ch. 2 Ch. 5
Pin 2

Ch. 3 Ch. 6
Pin 3

HI

Voltage Ammeter
Source

LO

Figure 1-4. Multiplex switching used to test the insulation resistance of

multipin connector

Using a matrix switch card allows connecting any input to any out-
put by closing the switch at the intersection (crosspoint) of a given row
and column. The most common terminology to describe the matrix
size is M rows by N columns (M×N). For example, a 4×10 matrix switch
card, such as the Keithley Model 7012, has 4 rows and 10 columns.
Matrix switch cards generally have two or three poles per crosspoint.
As shown in Figure 1-5, a 5VDC source can be connected to any
two terminals of the device under test (DUT). A function generator
supplies pulses between another two terminals. Operation of the DUT
can be verified by connecting an oscilloscope between yet another two
terminals. The DUT pin connections can easily be programmed, so this
system will serve to test a variety of parts.
When choosing a matrix card for use with mixed signals, some
compromises may be required. For example, if both high frequency
and low current signals must be switched, take extra care when review-
ing the specifications of the card. The card chosen must have wide

- SECTION 1
 Columns
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
+ 1
5VDC
Source – 2

3
Function Rows
Generator 4

5
Oscilloscope
6

DUT

Figure 1-5. 6 × 8 one-pole matrix example

Card 1 Card 2
7012 7012
1 Columns 10 7001 11 Columns 20
Analog
Backplane
1

2
Rows
3

Note: Backplane jumpers on both Crosspoint (1 of 40)

cards must be installed.

HI
LO

Figure 1-6. 4 × 20 two-pole matrix

bandwidth as well as good isolation and low offset current. A single

matrix card may not satisfy both requirements completely, so the user
must decide which switched signal is more critical.

THE SWITCHING FUNCTION -

 Card 1
7012
Jumpers
1 Columns 10 removed

2
Rows
3

External
column
jumpers
Card 2

6
Rows
7

8
7012

Figure 1-7. 8 × 10 matrix

In a system with multiple cards, card types should not be mixed if

their outputs are connected together. For example, a general-purpose
matrix card with its output connected in parallel with a low current
matrix card will degrade the performance of the low current card.
Examples of matrix cards include:
Mainframe Matrix Cards
2700, 2750 7709
7001, 7002 7012, 7019-C, 7022, 7052, 7152, 7153
707A, 708A 7071, 7071-4, 7072, 7072-HV, 7073, 7074-D, 7075, 7076,
7077, 7172, 7073, 7173-50, 7174A

- SECTION 1
Card 1 Card 2
7012 7012
1 Columns 10 7002 11 Columns 20
Analog
Backplane
1

2
Rows
3

Columns
wired
together
Card 3 externally Card 4

7002
Analog
Backplane
5

6
Rows
7

8
7012 7012

Figure 1-8. 8 × 20 matrix

Matrix Expansion
A large system may require more rows and/or columns than a single
card can provide. A matrix can be expanded by joining the rows and/or
columns of several cards together. For example, Figure 1-6 shows how
the number of columns can be expanded by using two Model 7012
cards to make a 4×20 matrix. Three cards will make a 4×30 matrix, and
so on. Depending upon the switch card and mainframe, the rows of the
cards may be connected together through the backplane of the main-
frame or the rows may be connected externally. The rows of the 7012
cards can be connected through the analog backplane of the Model
7001 or 7002 Switch Mainframe. When using multiple matrix cards,
check the specifications to determine if the rows can be connected
through the backplane or if they must be wired externally.

THE SWITCHING FUNCTION -

 Figure 1-9. Single, isolated switch

To increase the number of rows, the columns of the cards must be

connected together externally. For example, Figure 1-7 shows two
Model 7012 4×10 cards connected to form an 8×10 two-pole matrix.
In some cases, both the rows and columns must be expanded. For
example, an 8×20 matrix can be configured using four of the 4×10 cards,
as in Figure 1-8. If using 7012 cards, only the rows are connected
through the backplane. The columns must be wired together externally.

1.4.4 Isolated Switching

The isolated, or independent, switch configuration consists of individ-
ual relays, often with multiple poles, with no connections between
relays. Figure 1-9 represents a single isolated relay or actuator. In this
diagram, a single-pole normally open relay is controlling the connec-
tion of the voltage source to the lamp. This relay connects one input to
one output. An isolated relay can have more than one pole and can
have normally closed contacts as well as normally open contacts.
Given that the relays are isolated from each other, the terminals of
each channel on the switch card are independent from the terminals of
the other channels. As shown in Figure 1-10, each isolated Form A relay
has two terminals. Two-pole isolated relays would have four terminals
(two inputs and two outputs). A Form C isolated relay would have three
terminals.
Isolated relays are not connected to any other circuit, so the addi-
tion of some external wiring makes them suitable for building very flex-
ible and unique combinations of input/output configurations. Isolated
relays are commonly used in power and control applications to open
and close different parts of a circuit that are at substantially different
voltage levels. Applications for isolated relays include controlling
power supplies, turning on motors and annunciator lamps, and actu-
ating pneumatic or hydraulic valves.
Keithley 7001/7002 family switch cards with isolated relays include
the Models 7066, 7166, 7169A, and 7036. The Model 7705 card for the
Model 2700 and 2750 Multimeter/Switch Systems provides 40 isolated
relays.

- SECTION 1
 Ch. 1

Ch. 2

Ch. 3

Ch. 4

Figure 1-10. Isolated relays on a switch card

1.4.5 RF Switching: Cascade, Tree, and Matrix Switching

RF (or microwave) signals have switching considerations that differ
from those for DC or low frequency AC signals. Some of these consid-
erations include insertion loss, cross talk, propagation delay, and
unterminated stubs. As a result, switching configurations for RF signals
are designed to minimize signal losses and maintain a characteristic
impedance through the system. Cascade, tree, or matrix switching con-
figurations can be implemented for microwave signal routing.
Cascade
The cascade switching configuration is used to connect one instru-
ment to one of many devices or test points with minimal impedance
discontinuity. This is important primarily at frequencies of 10MHz and
higher to prevent unwanted signal reflections. Such reflections will cre-
ate errors in amplitude measurements. Actuation of any one relay dis-
connects all other devices from the source, as shown in Figure 1-11. In
this example, if Channel 1 (Ch. 1) is actuated, a constant impedance
path is established from the source to Device 2. All the other devices are
isolated from this path. With two cascade switch banks, both source
and measure connections can be made to each DUT.
The advantages of the cascade configuration include the fact that
there are no unterminated stubs and the configuration is easily

THE SWITCHING FUNCTION -

 Source

Ch. 1
Device 1

Ch. 2
Device 2

Ch. 3
Device 3

To additional switches or devices

Figure 1-11. Cascade switching configuration

expandable. A disadvantage of the cascade configuration is that the

signal may pass through more than one switch contact to the device
under test, causing higher losses in the signal. The propagation delay
will grow with increasing path length.
The Models 7062 and 7063 RF Switch Cards both use the cascade
configuration.

Tree
The tree switch configuration shown in Figure 1-12 is an alternative to
the cascade configuration. When compared to the cascade configura-
tion, the tree technique requires more relays for the same size system,
but the isolation between a given path and any unused paths may be
somewhat better. This will reduce crosstalk and DC leakage. The tree
switch configuration is also used at frequencies greater than 10MHz.
The advantages of the tree configuration include the absence of
unterminated stubs and the fact that the channels have similar charac-
teristics. However, multiple relays in a given path mean there will be
greater losses.

- SECTION 1
 1
2
3
4

5
6 A 1
7
B 2
8
1 C 3
9
10 D 4
11
12
13
14
15
16

Figure 1-12. Multiplexer (two-tier tree Figure 1-13. Single-channel blocking matrix
switching)

A B C D A B C D

1 1
4- way
power
2 divider 2

3 3

4 4

Figure 1-14. Non-blocking matrix Figure 1-15. Full-access matrix

The Model 7016A 50Ω 2GHz Multiplexer Card, the Model 7017 800
MHz Multiplexer Card, and the Model 7038 75Ω 2.0GHz Multiplexer
Card all employ the tree configuration. The System 41 RF/Microwave
Signal Routing Mainframe can also be configured as a multiplexer.

THE SWITCHING FUNCTION -

 Matrix
For a matrix, the number of RF relays and cables required to construct
a given switching system (and therefore, its cost) is geometrically relat-
ed to the number of system inputs and outputs. There are three basic
types of matrix switch configurations. The single channel blocking
matrix shown in Figure 1-13 allows the connection of a single input to
any single output. The non-blocking matrix shown in Figure 1-14
allows simultaneous connection of multiple input/output signal paths,
up to the full number of matrix inputs, if desired.
The full or partial access matrix, also referred to as the full or par-
tial fan-out matrix (Figure 1-15), allows simultaneous connection of an
input to multiple outputs. This type of matrix requires a power divider
at each input and a multiposition switch at the outputs.
The advantages of these configurations include the absence of
unterminated stubs, access to all channels, and similar path character-
istics. Disadvantages include the need for extensive cabling and the use
of many coaxial relays. The System 40, System 41, and S46 Microwave
Switch Systems and the RF/Microwave Signal Routing Mainframe can
be built using any of the matrix switch configurations.

1.5 Switching Hardware Options

Some of the factors to consider when selecting from the variety of com-
mercial switching hardware available include:
• Types of signals to be routed.
• Switching configuration required (for example, multiplex,
matrix).
• Minimum/maximum number of switch points.
• Variety of switching elements available.
• Physical size.
• Cost.
• Expandability.
• Control bus compatibility (for example, GPIB, RS-232).
Some of the switching hardware options include stand-alone scan-
ner mainframes, measurement instruments with integrated scanners,
and plug-in data acquisition boards.

Stand-Alone Scanner Mainframes with Switching Cards

Stand-alone scanner mainframes are designed to allow system devel-
opers to plug switching cards with relays into slots in the mainframe,
which supplies the relay drive current and various controls for the
relays. Keithley Models 7001, 7002, 707A, and 708A are examples of
stand-alone mainframes.

- SECTION 1
 This switching hardware option is the most flexible, because of the
variety of compatible cards designed for switching various signal types
(for example, high voltage, low current). These cards also make it easi-
er to design a system that combines various switching configurations,
such as matrix, cascade, tree, etc.
These systems can be expanded easily by adding more cards
and/or mainframes and are GPIB programmable.
Instruments with Integrated Switching Capability
A measurement instrument with integrated switching (sometimes
referred to as a data acquisition system) provides the convenience of
using a single instrument rather than multiple units. With only one
instrument involved, the hardware takes up less rack space, is usually
more cost-effective, and programming and triggering are less compli-
cated. However, instruments like this may not offer as many switching
card options for various signal types nor as many switch configurations
as stand-alone mainframes do. These instruments usually have a wider
measurement range with higher resolution and better accuracy than
plug-in data acquisition boards. Keithley’s Model 2700 and 2750
Multimeter/Switch Systems, the Model 2000-20 Scanning Multimeter,
and the Model 6517A Electrometer with the Model 6521 Low Current
Scanner Card are all examples of this type of instrument.
Plug-In Data Acquisition Boards
Plug-in data acquisition boards are connected to and controlled by a
computer, rather than a separate mainframe. PC plug-in cards are a
good choice if the application’s accuracy and resolution requirements
are lower (<16-bit), if the required sampling rate is high (1kHz and
above), or if a card-based form factor is preferable for the overall sys-
tem design. This type of data acquisition system is software dependent,
and the number of channels is limited by the space available in the
computer. Some systems have external expansion slots to accommo-
date more data acquisition boards.
With this approach, the engineer will be designing the entire meas-
urement system. This can be a complex process that includes choosing
appropriate signal conditioners, isolation circuitry, filtering, scaling,
formatting, etc.

THE SWITCHING FUNCTION -

 SECTION 2

Switch Card
and Mainframe
Considerations
2.1 Physical Implementation
A physical implementation of the switching configurations described
in Section 1.4 includes a circuit board (or card) with relays, connections
for inputs and outputs, and supporting circuitry. The cards are usually
available in the scan, multiplex, matrix, cascade, tree, and isolated (or
independent) switching configurations. Switch cards or modules are
designed to plug into a mainframe that supplies drive current for the
relays and various control signals.
In terms of the time required to complete a system, purchasing the
switching instrument is generally more economical than building one
out of components. Although one may be limited to certain configura-
tions with an off-the-shelf instrument, system wiring (as opposed to
switch design) can begin at once. Combining configurations makes it
possible for the final system to meet even complex switching require-
ments.
Switch card specifications are usually stated with a specific appli-
cation in mind, such as low current or high voltage switching. The
switch card specifications are based on the performance of the com-
plete card, not just that of the switching element (relay).
This section offers an overview of specifications for both the switch
cards and mainframes. Definitions for many of the terms and specifi-
cations discussed are listed in the glossary.

2.2 Switch Card Specifications

This section defines and illustrates many common terms used in spec-
ifying switch cards. Specifications for a typical switch card include
parameters such as isolation, channel resistance, contact potential,
and offset current.
To help clarify the specifications during system design, Figure 2-1
illustrates some of the specifications for a single-pole relay mounted
on a card. The differential isolation resistance specification usually
includes the combination of the input and output resistance (Rin and
Rout), as well as the input and output capacitance (Cin and Cout). The

Rc Voff
Channel Ideal Contact
Resistance Switch Potential
HI

Offset
Channel Channel
Rin Cin Current Rout Cout
In Out
Ioff
LO

Figure 2-1. Equivalent circuit of an ideal switch mounted on a switch card

- SECTION 2
 ideal switch is shown in series with the channel resistance (Rc), which
includes both the contact resistance of the switch and the conductors
of the circuit board. The contact potential (Voff) is an offset voltage
caused by temperature gradients across the signal path. This voltage
adds to the switched voltage. The offset current (Ioff) is a spurious cur-
rent generated by the relay, the connector, and the connecting circuit
board traces. This current will combine with the unknown current to be
switched.
This section not only describes the specification, but in some
cases, provides information on how to measure a given specification.
Information on how the specification may affect system performance
may also be provided, as well as compensation techniques, if applica-
ble. Ultimately, this section is a tool to help the user determine which
card is best suited for a particular application.

2.2.1 Isolation
Isolation is a measure of the leakage resistance between paths on the
switch card. The path can be between any terminal and earth ground
(common mode) or between any two terminals. For example, this can
be the resistance between any two channels (channel to channel) or
between the HI and LO inputs of a given channel (differential).
Isolation is specified in terms of resistance and capacitance. The isola-
tion should be as high as possible to avoid errors when switching high
impedance circuits.
It’s generally unnecessary to verify the isolation capacitance on a
switch card because the capacitance is a mechanical function and
should not change over time. In contrast, the isolation resistance does
change over time as it is affected by changes in humidity and by cont-
amination due to the environment or handling of the card.
Isolation resistance measurements are usually made by sourcing a
voltage, then measuring the resulting current using an electrometer or
picoammeter. The isolation resistance is calculated by R = V/I. Refer to
the instruction manual for the switch card for isolation measurement
procedures specific to that card; however, the following paragraphs
provide a general description of how to perform isolation measure-
ments.
Channel-to-Channel. This is a measure of the isolation between any
two channels on a multiplexer switch card. The measurement is made
with one channel open and one channel closed.
Example Measurement of a Two-pole Form A Card (Ch. 1 to Ch. 2)
1. Remove all connections to the card.
2. Connect the HI and LO terminals of Ch. 1 together.
3. Connect the HI and LO terminals of Ch. 2 together.

SWITCH CARD AND MAINFRAME CONSIDERATIONS -

 4. Close Ch. 2.
5. Measure the resistance between Ch. 1 input and Ch. 2 input.
Input Isolation, Differential. This is the isolation between HI and LO
on a given channel. This resistance includes the leakage between the
poles of a relay, as well as the leakage due to the printed circuit board.
Example Measurement of Two-pole Form A Switch Card (Ch. 1):
1. Remove all connections to the card.
2. Close Ch. 1.
3. Measure resistance between the HI and LO output terminals.
Input Isolation, Common Mode. This is the isolation between the
input (HI and LO) of a given channel and the guard or shield. This
specification only applies to two-pole cards with a guard or shield and
three-pole guarded cards.
Example Measurement (Ch. 1):
1. Remove all connections to the card.
2. Connect the HI and LO terminals of Ch. 1 together.
3. Close Ch. 1.
4. Measure the resistance between either output terminal and the
guard or shield terminal.
Path. The path isolation for a matrix card is the impedance from the HI
and LO terminals of one path to the HI and LO terminals of any other
path. In general, the isolation is measured by applying a voltage (i.e.,
100V) between two adjacent paths, then measuring the leakage cur-
rent. The isolation resistance is then calculated using Ohm’s Law
(R = V/I).
Example Measurement of a Two-pole Matrix Card (Row 1, Column 1 to
Row 2, Column 2)
1. Remove all connections to the card.
2. Connect the HI and LO terminals of Column 1 together.
3. Connect the HI and LO terminals of Column 2 together.
4. Close the crosspoints at Row 1, Column 1 and Row 2, Column 2.
5. Measure the resistance between Column 1 and Column 2.

2.2.2 Maximum Signal Levels

“Maximum signal levels” refers to the highest levels of voltage, current,
and power that can be switched without damaging the switch card.
Maximum Voltage
The highest voltage a switch card can withstand reliably is the maxi-
mum voltage specification, which is determined primarily by the relay
specification. The highest voltage that a relay can switch reliably under

- SECTION 2
given conditions is usually determined by the spacing (gap) between
contacts.

If the gap is too small, an arc may develop when the contacts open
and current continues to flow. Arcing is common when switching high
voltage, but if the gap is adequate, the arc will quench itself. An arc due
to an AC signal usually quenches itself as soon as the voltage level pass-
es through zero.

Arcing can damage the relay or reduce its life. In addition, the RFI
(radio frequency interference) generated may disrupt high-speed logic
circuits in the system.

Maximum Current

Factors that affect the maximum current through the switch card
include the traces on the board, the connectors, and the relays. The
specification usually includes both the maximum carry current and the
maximum switched current.

Carry current is the maximum current the relay can tolerate once
the contacts have been closed. The carry current is limited by the cross-
sectional area of the path through the switch contacts. The carry cur-
rent specification applies only when “cold switching.” Cold switching is
defined as opening and closing the switch when no current is flowing.
Contact life is much longer when cold switching is used.

Switched current is the maximum current that can be handled reli-

ably while opening and closing contacts. Contact material and plating
are the primary factors that determine this specification. This specifi-
cation is used to determine the life of the switch. If the switched cur-
rent is too high, the resulting temperature increase and contact arcing
will degrade the relay and shorten the contact life. In extreme
instances, the contacts may weld together. Opening and closing the
switch when current is flowing is defined as “hot switching.”

When evaluating either maximum voltage or maximum current

levels, the power rating of the relay must also be considered if the
specified life is to be attained.

Maximum Power

The maximum power level, which is expressed in either watts or VA

(volt-amperes), can’t be exceeded without damaging the printed circuit
board and relays. The maximum power that a relay can switch is spec-
ified to limit temperature rise and provide reasonable contact life. To
prevent damage to the switch card, verify that the product of the max-
imum current and maximum voltage does not exceed the power rating
of the switch card.

SWITCH CARD AND MAINFRAME CONSIDERATIONS -

2.2.3 Contact and Channel Resistance
The contact resistance is the resistance across a closed pair of contacts
on a switch card. The channel resistance includes the resistance of the
closed contact, the printed circuit traces, and the output connectors.
Usually, repeated operation of a relay will cause the contact
resistance to increase gradually over time. Mercury-filled and mercury-
wetted relays are exceptions to this general rule. End-of-life is general-
ly considered to be the time when the total channel resistance exceeds
the specifications for the switch card.
The channel resistance may cause a significant voltage drop if the
current being switched is high enough. To minimize measurement
error due to channel resistance, use a four-wire switching circuit. Refer
to Section 4.4.1 for further information on four-wire switching.
Measuring the channel resistance verifies that the relay contacts
are closing properly and that the resistance is within specification. The
channel resistance is measured with a four-wire ohmmeter. The steps
required to measure the channel resistance are usually described in the
operating manual for the switch card. However, the following example
illustrates the technique for measuring the channel resistance of a two-
pole Form A card.
Example Channel Resistance Measurement of a Two-pole Form A Card
(See Figure 2-2):
1. Remove all connections to the card.
2. Connect all input terminals of the card (or bank) together to form
one terminal, as shown in Figure 2-2.
3. Connect the HI output terminal of the switch card to the LO Source
and LO Sense terminals of a four-wire ohmmeter.
4. Connect Ch. 1 HI to the HI Sense terminal, and connect Ch. 10 LO
to the HI Sense terminal, as shown in Figure 2-2. This will allow the
HI channel resistance of each channel to be measured.
5. Install the switch card into the scanner mainframe.
6. Close Ch. 1 and measure the resistance. Verify that the HI channel
resistance is within the published specification.
7. Open Ch. 1 and then close Ch. 2. Verify that Ch. 2 is within specifi-
cation.
8. Repeat this procedure for all channels.
9. Disconnect the LO Source and LO Sense leads from the HI Output
terminal and connect them to the LO Output terminal of the switch
card. This will allow the LO channel resistance to be measured.
10. Close Ch. 1 and measure the resistance. Verify that the LO channel
resistance is within the published specification.

- SECTION 2
 HI
Four-Wire Sense Source
Ohmmeter
LO

HI HI
Ch. 1 Output
LO LO
HI
Ch. 2
LO .
.
.
HI
Ch. 10
LO

Figure 2-2. Measuring channel resistance of two-pole Form A 10-channel

card

11. Open Ch. 1 and then close Ch. 2. Verify that Ch. 2 is within specifi-
cation.
12. Repeat this procedure to measure the LO channel resistance for
each channel.

2.2.4 Contact Potential

Contact potential is an offset voltage that is added to the signal on a
given channel. It is primarily due to the thermoelectric EMFs generat-
ed by the relay contacts, but will also include any spurious voltages
introduced by connectors and junctions in the signal path.
This offset voltage adds directly to the signal being switched, which
means that the contact potential can cause significant errors when
switching very low voltages. Depending on the relay, this error may

SWITCH CARD AND MAINFRAME CONSIDERATIONS -

 range from less than one microvolt to tens of microvolts. If the error is
significant with respect to the source or measure value, the contact
potential must be known and compensated for to preserve system
accuracy.
In some switch cards with two-pole reed relays, the offset voltage
will be less when the poles are used as a pair because the offset voltages
tend to cancel each other. For example, the Model 7011-S Quad 1×10
Multiplexer Card has a contact potential specification of less than
500µV per channel pair vs. 1.5µV per single contact. Other cards, such
as the Model 7700 20-Channel Differential Multiplexer Module, use
latching relays and the offset voltage is the same whether the poles are
used as a single pole or as a pair.
To compensate for the contact potential when switching low
voltages, place a clean copper short on an unused channel. Close the
channel and measure the voltage with a sensitive voltmeter. Open the
short-circuited channel and subtract this measured value from read-
ings taken through other channels.
Once the relay is closed, the contact potential may change with
time due to heat generated in the relay coil. Also, changes in the ambi-
ent temperature will affect the contact potential. Therefore, the com-
pensation must be repeated periodically. A latching relay will minimize
this effect because the coil will dissipate power for only an instant.
Making low resistance measurements usually requires sourcing a
test current and measuring a low voltage. When making these meas-
urements through a switch, errors due to contact potential can be
minimized by using offset compensation, which involves taking two
voltage measurements with two different known currents. The resis-
tance is calculated by dividing the difference between the voltage
measurements by the difference between the two source currents. The
offset error will be eliminated from the measurement. Refer to Section
4.4.1 for more information on offset compensation.
The contact potential can be measured with a sensitive voltmeter.
Refer to the switch card’s operating manual for the specific procedures
for that card.
Example Contact Potential Measurement of a Two-pole Form A Card:
1. Using clean copper wire, place a short between the HI and LO ter-
minal of each channel.
2. Connect a warmed-up sensitive voltmeter or nanovoltmeter to a
low voltage calibrator and output zero volts. Zero the meter. Then
connect the voltmeter to the HI and LO output terminals of the
switch card.
3. Install the switch card into the mainframe and allow the instru-
ments to warm up.

- SECTION 2
 4. Select the lowest range of the voltmeter.
5. Close Ch. 1.
6. Allow the reading to settle and verify that the contact potential of
the channel is within the specification.
7. Open Ch. 1 and repeat the procedure for all other channels.

2.2.5 Offset Current

Offset current is the current generated by the circuit as measured at the
output when no signal is applied. To achieve accurate results, the offset
current specification must be smaller than the signal current that is
being switched. Given that the offset current may be hundreds of
picoamps or less, an electrometer or picoammeter is required to mea-
sure it.
Example measurement (Ch. 1):
1. Disconnect all leads from the inputs of the switch card.
2. Close Ch. 1.
3. Connect an electrometer to the switch card output and measure
the current. The current should be measured after a sufficient set-
tling time to allow the switching transients to decay and the current
to stabilize.

2.2.6 Crosstalk
Crosstalk is a measure of the high frequency signal leakage from one
channel to another. It is the result of stray capacitance, mutual induc-
tance, and leakage resistance between channels and is generally given
in decibels at a specific frequency.
Figure 2-3 shows an example of crosstalk. In this example, a 10VAC
signal source (V1) is connected to a load resistor (R) through Ch. 1 of
the switch card. An AC voltmeter (V2) is connected through Ch. 2 to a
second signal source.
The crosstalk caused by impedance (Z) between Ch. 1 and Ch. 2 is
specified in decibels as:
V2
crosstalk (dB) = 20 log ____
V1
This equation can also be expressed in terms of RF power:
P2
RF power (dB) = 10 log ____
P1
To find the maximum signal on Ch. 2 due to the signal on Ch. 1, the
equation is solved for V2:
V2 = V1 [10(crosstalk (dB)/20)]

SWITCH CARD AND MAINFRAME CONSIDERATIONS -

 Ch. 1

V1
R
10V

Z
Ch. 2

Signal AC
Source V2
Voltmeter

Figure 2-3. Crosstalk example

For example, if the channel isolation or crosstalk specification is

–60dB, the 10V signal on Ch. 1 will cause the following voltage to
appear at V2 with the signal source set to zero volts:
V2 = V1 [10(–60/20)]
= 10V (10–3)
= 10mV
If the signal to be measured at Ch. 2 is only a few millivolts, this
additional voltage will cause a significant error.
If a switch is to be used for DC or very low frequency AC signals, it
might be easier to consider the isolation in terms of a leakage resis-
tance with parallel shunt capacitance. Refer to Section 2.2.1 for more
information on isolation.

2.2.7 Insertion Loss

Insertion loss is a measure of the decrease in signal magnitude due to
the switch in the signal path. Insertion loss is given in dB, often with a
50Ω source and a 50Ω load, and at a specific frequency.
Figure 2-4 is a schematic of an RF switch card that connects a volt-
age source (VS) with output impedance (ZS) of 50Ω to a voltmeter with a
50Ω input impedance (ZL). To determine how the insertion loss can
affect the signal, the measured value (VL) at the voltmeter can be calcu-
lated from the insertion loss as follows:

- SECTION 2
 ZS ZL VL AC
VS
50Ω 50Ω Voltmeter

Figure 2-4. Insertion loss example

VS
Insertion Loss (dB) = 20 log ____
VL
VS
VL = ____________
10[Loss (dB)/20]
If VS is 10V and the insertion loss is <1.0dB, then:
10V
VL > ________ , or 8.9V
10(1.0/20)

2.2.8 VSWR
The Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) of a switch card specifies how
well the connectors and switching signal path are matched to the char-
acteristic impedance of the transmission line. More specifically, VSWR
is the ratio between the voltage at the maximum point of the standing
wave and the voltage at an adjacent minimum of the standing wave.
With a VSWR equal to one, the transmission line has no reflected wave
present. With a VSWR greater than one, part of the switched signal is
reflected back to the source and less than the maximum power will be
transferred to the load. Low VSWR is crucial for switching systems that
are designed for signals involving multiple components in series.
The VSWR is also related to the reflection coefficient by:
ρ+1
|
VSWR = ______
ρ–1 |
where: ρ = reflection coefficient
The reflection coefficient is the ratio of the reflected wave voltage
to the incident wave voltage, and is calculated by:
ZL – ZS
ρ = ________
ZL + ZS
where: ZL = the impedance of the load
ZS = the impedance of the switch card

SWITCH CARD AND MAINFRAME CONSIDERATIONS -

 To prevent problems, all components in the system should have
low VSWR.

2.2.9 3dB Bandwidth

The 3dB bandwidth is the maximum recommended frequency of a
sinewave signal through the switch card. This is the frequency at which
the signal will be reduced to 0.707 times the mid-band signal level.
This specification is based on a single switch card. If two or more
cards are connected together, the 3dB bandwidth will be reduced.
If the switch is to be used for digital signals, the minimum band-
width can be determined from:
0.35
Bandwidth (Hz) = ____________
risetime (s)

2.2.10 Switch Card and Contact Configuration

The phrase “switch card configuration” refers to the manner in which
the individual relays on the switch card are connected together, such as
multiplex, matrix, or isolated. Depending on the switch card, the con-
figuration may also specify the number of the poles, the size of the
matrix, the number of channels, or the number of banks. Section 1.4
provides a discussion of switching configurations.
“Contact (or crosspoint) configuration” specifies the form and
number of poles of the relays used on the switch card, as well as any
guard or shield connections. Section 1.3 offers further information on
relay types.

2.3 Mainframe Specifications

Mainframe specifications usually include parameters such as card
capacity, memory, card compatibility, etc., most of which are self-
explanatory. The following paragraphs discuss the analog backplane,
triggers, and digital I/O in greater detail.

2.3.1 Analog Backplane

Many scanner mainframes have an analog backplane that allows the
outputs of a switch card in one slot to be connected to the outputs of
other cards of the same model installed in other slots. The backplane
eliminates the necessity of wiring the card outputs together externally.
For certain signal types, such as low level or high frequency, the analog
backplane should not be used to avoid possible signal degradation.
Refer to the specifications or operating manual of the switch card
to determine if it can be connected to the backplane, because not all
switch cards allow this. If a particular switch card with no backplane
connection is installed in a slot of the mainframe, it will be electrically
isolated from other cards installed in the mainframe.

- SECTION 2
 For some applications, it is necessary to disconnect a card from the
analog backplane. Most switch cards have jumpers that can be
removed to disconnect the card output from the backplane.
Some mainframes also have jumpers that can be removed to iso-
late certain groups of slots. For example, the Model 7002 Mainframe
has a jumper that can be removed to isolate slots 1–5 from slots 6–12.
Similarly, the Model 707A Mainframe has removable jumpers between
slots 3 and 4.

2.3.2 Triggers
Most scanner mainframes can be triggered externally via the trigger
input and can send an output trigger pulse when the relay contacts
have settled. Precise triggering is important in test system develop-
ment to ensure synchronization between the scanner and other instru-
ments in the system, such as sources and measuring devices.
An input trigger can be used to close an individual channel or to
initiate a scan of several channels. Trigger sources include manual
(front panel button), IEEE-488 bus, Trigger Link, internal timer, and
external trigger.
The output trigger may be connected to a measuring device, such
as a voltmeter. This will ensure the measurement is not made until the
switch contacts have fully settled.
Specific details on triggering can be found in the operating manu-
als of the various mainframes.

2.3.3 Digital I/O

Scanner mainframes usually have a built-in digital I/O port for use with
external digital circuitry, such as relay drivers, interlock switches, etc.
The port provides both output and input channels, which are general-
ly TTL compatible.
Digital outputs can be controlled from the front panel or from the
bus controller. These outputs can be used to control a few external
relays in case the scanner cards in the mainframe are already commit-
ted. The digital output can also be used to control an indicator light to
let the operator know when the scan is in progress or when a test is
complete.
The digital inputs allow the state of external digital signals to be
determined by the controller. The digital input can be used in conjunc-
tion with an external safety interlock switch. For example, when a safe-
ty door is open, a signal will be sent to the scanner mainframe to pre-
vent scanning until the door is closed.
If more digital I/O lines are required, then a digital I/O card, such
as the Model 7020 or Model 7707, can be installed in the mainframe.

SWITCH CARD AND MAINFRAME CONSIDERATIONS -

 SECTION 3

Issues in
Switch System
Design
3.1 Introduction
Section 1 covers switching configurations and hardware options,
Section 2 addresses switch card and mainframe considerations, and
Section 3 outlines the fundamentals of switch system design. In addi-
tion, Section 3 discusses issues such as calculating uncertainties, tech-
niques for minimizing switching time, and the use of cold vs. hot
switching.
When designing and selecting switching instrumentation, there
are several important factors to keep in mind:
• Switching configurations available
• Number of device pins and number of instruments
• Electrical specifications
• Speed
• Control bus compatibility
• Physical size
• Flexibility (to adapt to changing system requirements)
• Base cost
• Expansion cost

3.2 Basic Steps for Switch System Design

In test and measurement system design, the process of selecting suit-
able switch hardware is extremely important, but is often under-
emphasized. The objective of any switch system is to transfer the accu-
racies and specified performance of the system instruments to the
device under test. This section is intended to help engineers choose the
appropriate switch hardware and develop a productive switch system
design.
Before attempting to select the switch hardware, answer the fol-
lowing questions:
1. What is the purpose of the switching system? (For example, is it
intended to make measurements, to route signals, or to connect a
source to multiple samples?)
2. What is the magnitude of the signals being switched and what is
the required level of accuracy? (For example, are the signals high
current, low voltage, high frequency, low current, high resistance,
high impedance, etc.?)
3. How many instruments need to be routed to how many signals?
(For example, are you connecting one voltmeter to ten batteries?)
4. What type of switching configuration will provide the best perfor-
mance? (Matrix, multiplexing, scanning or isolated switching?
Refer to Section 1.4 for further details.)

- SECTION 3
 5. What’s the required operating speed? (For example, does it require
scanning and measuring ten batteries within one second?)
6. Are the switch mainframe and cards compatible with other equip-
ment in the system with respect to triggering, controls and con-
nections?
Once these questions are answered, create a schematic of the test
system, including as much detail as possible. After reviewing the con-
figuration, it may be possible to streamline the system. For example,
testing 4-wire resistors may require four switch poles per resistor.
However, if a common connection can be made to one side of all the
resistors, then only two switch poles would be needed per resistor.
Once this information has been gathered, determining the type
and number of switch mainframes and cards required is straightfor-
ward. Consider several alternatives to find the best fit. In some cases,
mixed signal types will limit the choice of switch cards. For example, it
may be necessary for a system to route high voltage signals at some
times and high current signals at others. In this case, there are a limit-
ed number of switch cards that can handle both the high voltage and
the high current signals. Two separate groups of cards may be needed
in these circumstances.
Once the hardware has been selected, evaluate the design again to
ensure its adaptability to new applications for future system
expansion.

3.3 Calculating Uncertainties

Once the switching hardware has been selected, it is important to cal-
culate the uncertainties and speed of the system to verify it meets all
accuracy requirements.
When an unknown signal is connected to a measuring device, such
as a voltmeter or ammeter, the measurement accuracy is almost entire-
ly determined by the measuring device. However, adding a switching
system to facilitate the connection between the signal source and the
measuring instrument also adds measurement uncertainties. The
switch card specifications can be helpful in determining the degree of
uncertainty due to the switch card, but use only the specifications rel-
evant to the particular application in error analysis.
For example, in a system for measuring small DC voltages, the con-
tact potential of the switch will be added to the signal. A typical switch
for this application may add from 200nV to 5µV per contact pair. When
added to the signal, it’s easy to calculate the impact of this contact
potential on the measurement accuracy. However, switch contact
potential will have very little effect on a system for measuring low cur-
rents. In this case, the offset current of the switch will be the dominant
error source. Switches designed for low current applications may have

ISSUES IN SWITCH SYSTEM DESIGN -

 offset currents from 100fA to 100pA. As with the contact potential, the
uncertainty added to a small current signal by the offset current can be
calculated.
A low current measurement system may also require significant
settling time before the expected accuracy can be obtained. This time
may be much longer than the specified relay settling time; it’s usually
determined by the resistance-capacitance (RC) time constant of the
circuit or by experimentation. Settling time is discussed further in
Section 3.4.
In addition to the sources, meters, and switch cards, uncertainties
may arise due to the additional cabling and test fixturing associated
with the switching circuit. For example, in low current and high resis-
tance applications, unguarded cabling can introduce leakage current
that will degrade measurement accuracy. Unshielded cable may result
in noisy readings for low current and high resistance applications.

3.4 Switching Speed

Several factors can affect test system speed, including measurement
time, the source response time, and the switching time. Switching time
is the time required to disconnect from one signal and to connect to a
second signal. It is the sum of three time factors:
• Trigger Execution Time (trigger latency)—This is the length of
time, typically several hundred microseconds, from the acti-
vation of the trigger source to the start of switch opening or
closing.
• Relay Actuation Time—This is the time from the application of
relay coil voltage to the closure of the contacts, including con-
tact bounce time. Actuation time, which ranges from two to 20
milliseconds, is typically called out in the card’s specifications.
• Settling Time—This is the time required for the circuit to stabi-
lize once the relay has been closed.
Figure 3-1 illustrates the relationship between these three factors.
Settling time can best be illustrated with an example. In Figure 3-2,
the R represents the series resistance and the C represents the shunt
capacitance. When the switch is closed, the time required for the
capacitor to charge up to 63% of the final value is equal to the RC time
constant, which can be calculated as:
τ = RC = 10kΩ × 185pF = 1.85µs
To achieve the desired accuracy, it may be necessary to wait sever-
al time constants. For example, to settle within 1% of the final value, it
will require 4.6 time constants or 8.5µs.
The system throughput includes these timing factors, as well as the
timing factors associated with other instruments in the system. For

- SECTION 3
 Trigger Execution Time

Actuation Time

Settle Time

Total Switch Time

Figure 3-1. Total switching time

R
10kΩ

C
185pF V

Figure 3-2. RC circuit

example, the voltmeter trigger time and measurement time would also
be included in the total system time.
To increase overall system speed, synchronize all the instruments
in the system using hardware triggers. Hardware triggers are usually
much faster than software triggers because software triggers must first
be parsed/processed before being sent to the instrument.

ISSUES IN SWITCH SYSTEM DESIGN -

 To avoid delays due to computer overhead, use the internal mem-
ory of the scanner or the "scan lists." These lists or set-ups are stored in
the memory of the scanner and can then be recalled much faster than
sending individual commands to open or close channels.
If possible, set built-in trigger delay times to the minimum allow-
able time, preferably zero seconds.

3.5 Cold vs. Hot Switching

The term “cold switching” indicates that a switch is actuated with no
applied voltage; therefore, no current will flow when the switch is
closed, and no current will be interrupted when the switch is opened.
When “hot switching,” voltage is present and current will flow the
instant the contacts close. When the switch is opened, this current will
be interrupted and may cause arcing.
Cold switching allows power to be applied to the device under test
in a controlled manner. Its primary advantage is that the life expectan-
cy of the switches is much greater than with hot switching. Cold
switching also eliminates arcing at the relay contacts and any RFI that
might be caused by arcing.
Hot switching may be required when the interval from when power
is applied to the point when the measurement is made must be close-
ly controlled. For example, hot switching is typically used where digital
logic is involved because devices may change state if the power is inter-
rupted even for a brief instant.
With relatively large relays, it is even possible that hot switching
must be used to ensure good contact closure. The connection may not
be reliable without the “wetting” action of the current through the
contacts.

- SECTION 3
 SECTION 4

Switch Considerations
by Signal Type
4.1 Introduction
The quality of a switch system depends in large part on its ability to
preserve the characteristics of the test signals routed through it. For
example, when the test signal is a low voltage, the switching system
must minimize errors such as offset voltage and IR drops. Leakage cur-
rent may be a problem for high resistance and low current switching
applications. Depending on the type of test signal involved, specific
switching techniques must be used to maintain signal integrity
through the switch system. This section describes switching tech-
niques for a variety of test signals.

4.2 Voltage Switching

Many different applications involve switching a voltmeter or voltage
source to multiple devices, including testing batteries, electrochemical
cells, circuit assemblies, thermocouples, etc.
The types of switch cards and the techniques used in these appli-
cations will depend on the magnitude and impedance of the voltages
switched. The approximate level for low voltage switching is in the
millivolt range or less, mid-range levels are from 1V to 200V, and volt-
ages greater than 200V demand the use of high voltage switching
methods. This section describes the mid-range voltage switching tech-
niques. See Section 4.2.1 for a description of low voltage switching
techniques, Section 4.2.2 for high voltage, and Section 4.2.3 for high
impedance voltage switching.
Switching multiple sources and switching multiple loads each have
their own sets of associated problems.

Switching a Voltmeter to Multiple Sources in Series

Figure 4-1 illustrates switching a voltmeter to a series string of 30 bat-
teries or voltage sources (VS). To avoid short-circuiting one or more of
these sources, it is necessary to open a given channel before closing a
second one. To guard against short-circuiting, add fuses in series with
each voltage source to prevent damage to the switch card. Be sure not
to exceed the common-mode rating of the switch card. In this example,
each battery is 12V and the total voltage across the string is 360V. A
channel-to-channel voltage rating and a common-mode voltage rating
of at least 500V is desirable.

Switching a Voltage Source to Multiple Loads

Figure 4-2 shows a single voltage source connected to multiple loads,
such as lamps. If two or more loads are connected to the source, the
voltage at each load may be less than expected due to current flow
through the common impedances (R), such as the test leads and trace
resistance. As additional loads are connected, the total current will

- SECTION 4
 V Ch. 1 VS1

Ch. 2 VS2

Ch. 30 VS30

Figure 4-1. Switching a voltmeter to multiple sources in series

R Ch. 1

Ch. 2

Ch. 3

Ch. n

Note: R represents the sum of lead

resistance and common switch card
resistance.

Figure 4-2. Switching a voltage source to multiple loads

increase, thereby increasing the voltage drop across the common

impedances (R).

Switch Resistance
When switching a voltage source to multiple devices, it may become
necessary to compensate for voltage drops due to switch resistance. In
particular, if the devices have low resistance, the current flowing
through the switches may cause a significant voltage drop. To prevent
this problem, many voltage sources have remote sensing to correct for

SWITCH CONSIDERATIONS BY SIGNAL T YPE -

 voltage drops in switches and wiring. With remote sensing, external
sense connections are made across the load. Therefore, the subsequent
programmed output voltage will be the actual voltage across the load.
For example, Figure 4-3a shows a 5V source being switched to an
integrated circuit (IC). The contact resistance for each switch is 1Ω. If
the current drawn from the source is 500mA, the voltage drop across
each switch will be 500mV and the voltage at the integrated circuit will
be reduced by a total of 1V. Operation of the IC will likely be unsatis-
factory. Figure 4-3b shows a 5V source with remote sense. In this case,
sense leads are also connected to the load. This will ensure that the
actual voltage across the load will be 5V, and the IC will operate as
intended. Note that the voltage at the source output terminals is 6V.

4.2.1 Low Voltage Switching

When switching low voltage signals (millivolts or less), special tech-
niques must be used to avoid unwanted voltage errors. However, the
required accuracy will determine if these techniques are necessary.

500mA
HI

Contact resistance
5V Source is 1Ω for each switch IC <4V
LO

Figure 4-3a. Voltage drops across the contact resistance cause

improper results

500mA 1Ω
HI

HI Sense 1Ω
5V Source
with
Remote 6V IC 5V
LO Sense 1Ω
Sense

LO 1Ω

Figure 4-3b. Using Remote Sense through a switch ensures the proper voltage
delivered to the IC

- SECTION 4
These unwanted voltage errors may be due to thermoelectric offset
voltage in the switch card and connecting cabling, switch film contam-
ination, magnetic interference, and ground loops. These sources of
interference and ways to eliminate or reduce them are discussed in this
section. For more information on low voltage measurements, refer to
Keithley’s handbook, Low Level Measurements.
Thermoelectric Offset Voltage
The contact potential or thermoelectric offset voltage is the key speci-
fication of a switch card designed for low voltage switching. Thermo-
electric voltage is the voltage generated by thermal differences at the
junction of dissimilar metals, such as between the nickel-iron reed
relays and the copper conductor to which they are connected. The
temperature gradient is typically caused by the power dissipated by the
energized coil. The offset voltage adds directly to the signal voltage and
can be modeled as an unwanted voltage source in series with the
intended signal. The offset voltage will cause an error in the applied
stimulus to a device under test or the value measured by the voltmeter.
As shown in Figure 4-4a, the offset voltage (E) of a single pole relay
is added into the circuit. As a result, the measured voltage (VM) will be
the sum of the source voltage (Vs) and the offset voltage (E). To mini-
mize this offset voltage, a low voltage switch card uses a two-pole relay,

+ +
VS VM VS ≠ VM
– –

Figure 4-4a. Potential in loop is added to measurement

ET1
+ –

+ +
If ET1 = ET2
VS VM
then VS = VM
– ET2 –
+ –

Figure 4-4b. Canceling of potentials in loop

SWITCH CONSIDERATIONS BY SIGNAL T YPE -

 as shown in Figure 4-4b. Here, the offset voltage (ET1) in the circuit HI
is largely canceled by the offset voltage (ET2) in circuit LO. The contact
potential of some low voltage cards is specified with the card used as a
two-pole switch to take advantage of this cancellation. It may be spec-
ified as “per contact pair.” However, total cancellation cannot be
achieved because temperature differences will cause ET1 and ET2 to be
slightly different.
The drift due to the thermoelectric voltage of a switch card
depends on several factors, including the type of relays used (reed,
solid-state, or electromechanical). The drift also depends on the coil
drive technique (latching or non-latching). Finally, the material used
for the contact plating (for example, nickel alloy or gold) also affects the
thermoelectric voltage.
The power dissipated in the coil of the reed relay may cause the
temperature to increase for several minutes after it is energized, so it’s
important to make low voltage measurements within a few seconds
after contact closure. If many measurements are taken over several
minutes after closure, a steadily increasing thermoelectric voltage will
be added to the reading. Thermal time constants may range from sec-
onds to hours. Even though solid-state relays have no coil dissipation,
heat generated by internal IR drops can still produce thermoelectric
drift. Latching relays use a pulse of current to actuate them, so they
have very low thermoelectric drift.
The connections to the scanner card itself represent another
source of thermally generated voltages. Wherever possible, make con-
nections to the card with untinned copper wire and keep all leads at the
same temperature.
The thermoelectric offset voltage due to the switch card and the
interconnecting cable may be compensated for by using a short-
circuited channel to establish a zero reference. Use a clean copper wire
connected between the HI and LO of a single channel. Close the chan-
nel and measure the offset voltage. This value can be subtracted from
subsequent readings made on other channels. This approach is not
ideal because the offset will change over time due to self-heating and
changes in the ambient temperature.
When switching low voltages while making low resistance meas-
urements, the thermoelectric offset voltages may be canceled by using
offset compensation. This technique requires making two voltage
measurements with two different values of current. To determine the
resistance, the difference between the two resulting voltages is divided
by the difference of the two test currents:
V1 – V2
R = _______
I1 – I2
Section 4.4.1 offers more information on this method.

- SECTION 4
 Switch Film Contamination
Over time, a contaminating film can form on the surface of a relay con-
tact. This film can increase the relay contact resistance, which can
make the switched voltages erratic when measuring or sourcing low
voltage. Voltages greater than 100mV are usually sufficient to clear this
contamination.
Using scanner cards with solid state switches is one way to avoid
this problem.
Magnetic Interference
Magnetic interference can be a problem in low voltage circuits. A high
rate of change in magnetic flux, such as that produced by a switching
power supply or by switching a high current signal on and off, can
induce a pulse of many microvolts in an adjacent circuit. This can
easily cause significant error in a low voltage circuit. This type of
interference can be minimized by separating the noise source and the
sensitive circuit as much as possible, by magnetic shielding, and by
reducing the enclosed area of the noise source and signal conductors.
Twist the HI and LO wires of each channel together to minimize the
enclosed area.
Ground Loops
Ground loops can easily occur in a complex test system. If a small
potential difference exists between two ground points, some ground
currents may flow through a sensitive part of the system. This may
occur only when certain switches are closed, so it can be very difficult
to diagnose. When possible, try to maintain a single system ground
point. When this is not possible, isolation techniques using optical
coupling or balanced transformers may help by increasing the effective
resistance between the two points, thereby reducing the common
ground current to a negligible level.

4.2.2 High Voltage Switching

Some applications, such as testing insulation resistance of cables and
printed circuit boards and high-pot testing, may require switching high
voltages. To avoid switch card damage, be particularly careful when
switching voltages of ~200V or higher.
Choose a card rated for the desired voltage and power levels. Cold
switching, if feasible, will extend the relay life and make it possible to
increase the allowable current. Be sure to use appropriately rated
cables when switching high voltages.
Reactive loads can cause excessive current and voltage transients,
so current surge limiting for capacitive loads and voltage clamping for
inductive loads are required to prevent damage to the relays and exter-
nal circuitry.

SWITCH CONSIDERATIONS BY SIGNAL T YPE -

 High Voltage R
Switch

Capacitive
IN OUT Load

Figure 4-5. Limiting capacitive reaction current

The surge current from a capacitive load is i = C dV/dt and must be

limited to less than the rated current to protect the relays. Figure 4-5
shows a series resistance (R) used to limit the charging current. The
resistor must be able to withstand the applied voltage; otherwise, the
high voltage may arc across the resistor, damaging the device under
test and the switch card. All components must be rated for peak volt-
age and current.
When determining the current limit for a reactive load, consider
the maximum load in VA. For example, if the maximum load is 10VA
and 500V is switched, then the current must be limited to 20mA. The
series resistance is then calculated as:

500V
R = ______ = 25kΩ
20mA
Inductive reaction voltage (L(di/dt)) must be less than the scanner
card’s maximum voltage rating. Figure 4-6 shows two typical clamping
circuits, one using a diode for clamping DC voltages and the other
using back-to-back zener diodes for clamping AC voltages.

4.2.3 High Impedance Voltage Switching

High impedance voltage switching may be necessary in applications
such as monitoring electrochemical cells and measuring semiconduc-
tor resistivity. Switching and measuring voltage sources with high
internal impedance are subject to a number of errors, including offset
currents, stray leakage paths, and electrostatic interference. Shunt
capacitance may increase the settling time. This section discusses
these error sources and provides an example application.
When choosing a card to switch high impedance voltage, make
sure the card has a low offset current. Any offset current flowing
through a high impedance device will cause an unwanted voltage to
appear across the device. This offset voltage will be added to the volt-
age measurement.

- SECTION 4
 High Voltage
Switch
+
Inductive
IN OUT
Load

Diode Clamped
(DC voltages)

High Voltage
Switch
+
Inductive
IN OUT
Load

Zener Clamped
(AC voltages)

Figure 4-6. Limiting inductance reaction voltage

High impedance circuitry is susceptible to electrostatic interfer-

ence, so use shielding to avoid noise pickup. The device under test, as
well as the connecting cables, should be well shielded.
Leakage paths can cause error by reducing the measured voltage.
Such leakage paths may be present in the test instrument, switching
cards, cables and fixtures, and even the device being tested. To mini-
mize errors due to such leakage paths, choose a switch card with high
isolation resistance and use guarding wherever possible, including in
the test fixturing and cabling. Also, select insulating materials with the
highest possible insulation resistance.
Further information on offset current, electrostatic interference
and leakage currents can be found in Section 4.3.2 and in Keithley’s
Low Level Measurements.
Response time is another concern when switching high impedance
voltage signals. Excessive response time may be caused by shunt
capacitance, both in the switch itself and in the associated cables. In
some cases, the shunt capacitance can be largely neutralized by the use
of a driven guard, which will keep the shield of the cable at nearly the
same potential as the center conductor (or high impedance lead) of the
cable. Figure 4-7a shows a high impedance voltage connected through
a switch to an electrometer voltmeter. Notice the slow response to a

SWITCH CONSIDERATIONS BY SIGNAL T YPE -

 High Impedance
Voltage Source

HI
Electrometer Volts
Voltmeter
LO
Time

Figure 4-7a. Switching a high impedance voltage source to an electrometer

High Impedance
Voltage Source

HI
Guard Electrometer Volts
Voltmeter
LO
Time

Figure 4-7b. Using a driven guard to neutralize shunt capacitance

step function. To guard the signal, make a connection between the

guard output (unity gain or preamp output) of the electrometer and
the shield of the switch card, as shown in Figure 4-7b. Some electrom-
eters, such as Keithley’s Model 6517A and Model 6514, can make this
connection internally by enabling the internal guard connection.
Enabling the guard effectively reduces the cable and switch capaci-
tance, thereby improving the electrometer’s response time.
Switch cards appropriate for high impedance voltage switching
include the Models 7158, 7058, and 6522. A card with triax connections
is necessary if the guard voltage could exceed 30VDC. This precaution
is necessary to ensure safety.

4.3 Current Switching

Applications for current switching include testing of power supplies,
insulation resistance, capacitor leakage, resistivity of materials, batter-
ies, and semiconductors. This section discusses current switching in
general. Special techniques are required when switching high current
or low current. These techniques are discussed in Section 4.3.1 (High
Current) and Section 4.3.2 (Low Current). Section 4.3.3 is a discussion
of switching low current through a matrix.

- SECTION 4
 NC
Model 7058
COM or 7158
HI
From Scan Card
NO
Current
Source #1
LO

NC
COM
HI
From NO
Current
Source #2
LO

A
LO HI

Figure 4-8. Using Form C relays to switch multiple current sources

Current switching applications may require connecting multiple

current signals to a single meter, or may require connecting a single
source to multiple loads. Each case has different switch configurations
and concerns.

Connecting Multiple Current Signals to a Single Ammeter

Most current measuring applications require that all current paths be
continuous, even when a particular current signal is not connected to
the ammeter. To accomplish this, switch cards designed for current
switching often use SPDT or Form C relays. As shown in Figure 4-8,
when a channel is in an open state (i.e., not connected to the output),
signal HI is connected to signal LO through the normally closed (NC)
contact. In this case, only signal HI is switched. Signal LO is hardwired
to the ammeter and to all other signal LOs. This is normally the case
when testing components with relatively low currents (<1µA). When a
channel is selected, the current source is connected to the ammeter
through the normally open (NO) contact. Note that the current will be
interrupted briefly when the Form C relay is actuated. This could cause
problems when used with high speed logic or other circuits sensitive to
a momentary break in the current flow. This problem can be overcome
by using a switch card with a pair of Form A isolated switches to pro-
vide a make-before-break connection.
Figure 4-9 illustrates using a switch card with isolated Form A
relays to maintain the current path. In this example, one relay (Ch. 1) is

SWITCH CONSIDERATIONS BY SIGNAL T YPE -

 Ch. 1 Model 7013
COM Relay Card
HI
From
Current
Source #1 Ch. 2
LO

Ch. 3
COM
HI
From
Current
Source #2 Ch. 4
LO

A
LO HI

Figure 4-9. Using the Model 7013 Relay Card to switch current

Model 7053
High Current Card
Jumper
HI
From
Current Ch. 1
Source #1
LO

Jumper
HI
From
Current Ch. 2
Source #2
LO

A
LO HI

Figure 4-10. Using the Model 7053 High Current Card to switch current

- SECTION 4
 HI
From
Current RS Ch. 1
Source #1
LO

HI
From
Current RS Ch. 2
Source #2
LO

V
LO HI

Figure 4-11. Using shunt resistors to measure current

used to connect Current Source #1 to the ammeter. A second relay (Ch.

2) is kept in the closed position to provide a path when the current is
not being measured. If using a card such as the Model 7013 Relay
Switch Card, Ch. 2 is normally energized. This relay is opened when the
measurement is made, but not until after Ch. 1 is closed. This circuit is
used when switching moderate-level current (milliamps to amps
range) when the current cannot be interrupted even for a moment.
Note that with this circuit, the LO terminals of the current sources are
isolated from each other, unlike the circuit in Figure 4-8.
The Model 7053 High Current Card is another card that’s often used
to switch current. As shown in Figure 4-10, this card uses a dual Form
C relay. The jumper ensures a continuous path, but it can be removed
when using the card to switch voltage. Because this is a Form C relay,
the current will be momentarily interrupted when the relay is ener-
gized or de-energized.
An alternative to switching the current loop is to place a shunt
resistor in the loop. The voltage drop across the resistor (RS) is then
measured as shown in Figure 4-11. The voltage readings are then con-
verted to current using Ohm’s Law. This technique can be used when
the range of current is relatively narrow, such as approximately two
decades. The resistor (Rs) should be no greater than the ratio of the
maximum allowable voltage drop to the maximum current. Choose a
value with a convenient scale factor, such as 1, 10, or 1000 ohms, so that
it will be easy to calculate the current. Once the value of the resistor is

SWITCH CONSIDERATIONS BY SIGNAL T YPE -

 HI
From
Current Ch. 1 Load #1
Source
LO

Ch. 2 Load #2

Figure 4-12. Connecting a current source to multiple loads

chosen, verify that the minimum voltage drop will not be so small that
it will be difficult to measure with the voltmeter.

Connecting a Current Source to Multiple Loads

Unlike switching current signals to an ammeter, switching a current
source to multiple loads usually does not require maintaining the cur-
rent path at all times. For this case, a card with Form A switches is suit-
able, as shown in Figure 4-12. To connect the current source to Load
#1, close relay Ch. 1. Ensure that Ch. 1 is opened before Ch. 2 is closed
if the loads are capable of storing energy, such as a battery or a large
capacitor. Two high energy loads connected in parallel may damage the
relays.
Often, cards designed for voltage switching can be used for current
switching for currents from 1A to 1µA. For current less than 1µA,
choose a card that has high isolation resistance (across open contacts,
from high to low, and between channels) and low offset current.
Cold switching is always preferable to ensure maximum relay life.
Cold switching involves turning the source current off (placing it on
standby) before opening or closing a relay.

4.3.1 High Current Switching

When designing a switching circuit for high current (>1A), pay particu-
lar attention to the maximum current, maximum voltage, and VA spec-
ifications of the switch card. Also, it’s important to choose a switch card
with low contact resistance to avoid excessive heating that can cause
contact failure by welding the contacts together. Contact heating is
caused by I2R power dissipation.
High current switching can be used for either switching a power
supply to multiple loads or for switching an ammeter to multiple

- SECTION 4
 4A Ch. 1 1A Load #1

Common
Path Ch. 2 1A Load #2

Power Ch. 3 1A Load #3

Supply
Ch. 4 1A Load #4

Figure 4-13. Switching a power supply to multiple loads

sources. Figure 4-13 is an example of switching a power supply to mul-

tiple loads using a multiplexer scanner card. In this example, the power
supply will output 1A to each of four loads. This doesn’t present a prob-
lem when only one channel is closed at a time. However, when all four
channels are closed, the power supply will output 4A through the com-
mon path. Unfortunately, even though the maximum current of a par-
ticular channel is specified at 1A, the common path on the switch card
may not be able to tolerate 4A. This is not usually specified for a switch
card, but the limitation is usually a function of the trace width and con-
nector ratings. One way to avoid this problem is to use a switch card
with independent (isolated) relays, and connect with wires rated to
carry the total current.
When currents that exceed the commercially available card ratings
must be switched, then a general-purpose switch card can be used to
control external high current relays or contactors. The user must sup-
ply the coil current for the external relays.
Under no circumstances should unlimited power (direct from the
power line) ever be connected directly to a switch card. When switch-
ing high VA loads (power line to motors, pumps, etc.), solid-state relays
(SSR) are often used. Industry standard SSR modules are available from
many sources. These SSR modules are plugged into a board, such as the
Keithley Model PB-24SM, which can be controlled from TTL-level digi-
tal outputs. These digital outputs can be from a board that plugs into a
PC or from a scanner mainframe. Some SSR modules can switch up to
1kVA to high power loads.
Concerns about switching transients with reactive loads also apply
to high current switching. Refer to Section 4.5 for more information on
switching reactive loads.

SWITCH CONSIDERATIONS BY SIGNAL T YPE -

 Cold switching, where contacts don’t make or break current or volt-
age, is recommended for currents in excess of 100mA to avoid radiated
interference and to extend relay life. Refer to Section 3.5 for more infor-
mation on cold switching.

4.3.2 Low Current Switching

When switching currents of 1µA or less, special techniques must be
used to minimize interferences, such as offset currents, leakage cur-
rents, electrostatic interference, triboelectric currents, and electro-
chemical currents. These types of interferences may be due to the
scanner card itself, the connecting cables, or the test fixturing. Allowing
sufficient settling time before making a measurement is also crucial
when switching low current. Information on low current switching
through a matrix is discussed in Section 4.3.3.
Offset Currents
The offset current specification of the switch card should be as low as
possible for switching low current. Offset current is a spurious current
generated by a switching card even though no signals are applied. It is
usually caused by galvanic sources on the card. Offset current is espe-
cially significant when measuring low currents if the magnitude of the
offset is comparable to the low current being measured. Scanner cards
designed to minimize offset current are commercially available. For
example, the Model 7158 Low Current Scanner Card has <1pA offset
current (typically <30fA).
To measure the offset of a switch card, connect the output of the
card to a picoammeter or electrometer. Make sure all input connec-
tions on the scanner card are shielded. If the card has triax or BNC con-
nections, cap each input channel. Close each channel individually and
measure the offset current after allowing the switching transients to
decay and the current to stabilize. If the offset currents for the different
channels are reasonably stable, a correction factor can be stored in the
control computer to allow more accurate low current measurements.
This is done by subtracting the offset current for a given channel from
subsequent measurements made via that channel.
Leakage Currents
Leakage current is an error current that flows through insulators when
a voltage is applied. It can be found on the switch card, in the connect-
ing cables, and in the test fixture. Even high resistance paths between
low current conductors and nearby voltage sources can generate sig-
nificant leakage currents. Use a card with high isolation, guard the
associated test fixtures and cables, select proper insulating materials,
and clean the circuit boards to reduce these effects.
To minimize extraneous current paths (or leakage current), use a
switch card that has high channel isolation resistance (the isolation

- SECTION 4
between channels). When switching a current to be measured, high
input isolation (the isolation between input HI and LO), is not as criti-
cal as channel isolation because there is normally very little voltage
present, only the voltage burden of the ammeter. However, when
switching a current source, very high voltage can be present across the
input depending on the load resistance; therefore, high input isolation
becomes critical.
To determine the leakage current at a particular voltage, apply a
step voltage of this magnitude to the circuit. This generates a transient
current that will gradually decay to a steady value, which is the leakage
current of the system for that particular path. Once the leakage current
is determined, it can be subtracted from subsequent readings on a par-
ticular channel. However, the leakage current is dependent on the
applied voltage, so this technique cannot be used for voltage sweeps.
To prevent leakage current on the switch card, take special care
when handling to prevent degradation of performance. Handle the
switch card by the edges to avoid contaminating it with dirt, body oil,
etc. If cleaning the board becomes necessary, follow the instructions in
the manual provided with the switch card. Humidity can also increase
leakage current. Placing the switch system in a low humidity room will
minimize this effect. Switch cards are typically specified to operate in
relative humidity of 50% or less.
One way to reduce leakage currents in the test fixturing is to use
good quality insulators such as Teflon® and polyethylene. Avoid materi-
als such as nylon and phenolics.
Another way to reduce leakage current due to cabling and test fix-
turing is to use guarding. By definition, a guard is a low impedance
point in the circuit that is nearly at the same potential as the high
impedance input terminal. Figure 4-14 shows an example of guarding
as applied to switching an ion chamber to an ammeter (pA) to measure
the ion chamber current (IX). An unguarded ion chamber is shown in
Figure 4-14a. The circuit shows that the full bias voltage appears across
the insulator leakage resistance (RL), so a leakage current (IL) will be
added to the measured ion current (IM = IX + IL). The leakage resistance
(RL) is due to the insulator of the ionization chamber and the coax
cable insulation.
In Figure 4-14b, a guard ring is added to the ionization chamber.
This guard circuit splits the leakage resistance into two parts. The coax
connections of Figure 4-14a have been replaced with triax connec-
tions. The voltage across RL1 is the picoammeter voltage burden, nor-
mally less than 1mV, so the resulting leakage current will be quite small.
The full bias voltage appears across RL2 (the leakage resistance
between the inside and outer shields of a triax cable). However, the
resulting leakage current does not flow through the meter, so it is not
added to the measurement.

SWITCH CONSIDERATIONS BY SIGNAL T YPE -

a. Coax
Ion Chamber IX Connection
IM

HI
Note: RL
Cross-sectional represents pA
view the leakage
RL resistance of the IL LO
ion chamber
insulator as
well as the
cable leakage.

IM = IX + IL

b. Triax
Ion Chamber IX Connection
IM

HI
Cross-sectional Guard RL1 pA
view Ring
LO
Guard

RL2 IL

IM = IX

Figure 4-14. Guarding to reduce leakage currents when switching an ion

chamber to a picoammeter

Guarding may also be necessary to prevent leakage current in low

current test fixturing. Further information on guarding high imped-
ance switching circuits is discussed in Section 4.4.2.

Electrostatic Interference

Shielding is required because high impedance circuitry is susceptible

to pickup of spurious radiated noise. Relay contacts should be shield-
ed from the coil to minimize induced noise from the relay power
supply. The DUTs and interconnect cabling should also be shielded to
prevent noise pickup. Any good conductor can be used as a shield. All
shields should be connected to circuit LO.

- SECTION 4
 Triboelectric Currents
Triboelectric currents are generated by charges created by friction
between a conductor and an insulator, such as between the conduc-
tor and the insulation of a coax cable. This noise source can be
reduced by using special low noise cable that has a conductive coat-
ing (such as graphite) and securing the interconnect cabling to mini-
mize movement.

Electrochemical Currents
Electrochemical currents are generated by galvanic battery action
caused by contamination and humidity. Thorough cleansing of joints
and surfaces to remove electrolytic residue, including PC etchants,
body salts, and processing chemicals, will minimize the effect of these
parasitic batteries.

Settling Time
When a relay opens or closes, there is a charge transfer (on the order of
picocoulombs), which causes a current pulse in the circuit. This charge
transfer is due to the mechanical release or closure of the contacts, the
contact-to-coil capacitance, and the stray capacitance between signal
and relay drive lines. After a relay is closed, it’s important to allow suf-
ficient settling time before taking a measurement. This time can be as
long as several seconds.
If a step voltage is applied to the circuit, a transient current is gen-
erated. This current will gradually decay to a steady value. The time
needed to reach the steady value, or the settling time, can be used to
determine the proper delay time for the measurement.
See Keithley’s Low Level Measurements for more detailed discus-
sions of generated currents and guarding.

4.3.3 Low Current Matrix Switching

Some low current applications require switching through a matrix. This
is often the case when switching several Source-Measure Units (SMUs)
to multi-pin devices or wafer level semiconductor measurements. All
the special techniques used to minimize interferences for low current
multiplexing also apply to low current matrix switching. These inter-
ferences and techniques were discussed in Section 4.3.2. However, off-
set current and leakage current are the types of interference most fre-
quently encountered and are explained further at the end of this sec-
tion. In general, low current matrix switching can become complex and
is best explained by illustration.
Figure 4-15 shows three SMUs from the Model 4200-SCS Semicon-
ductor Characterization System connected through a two-pole matrix
(Model 7174A Low Current Matrix Card) to a multi-pin device. Notice
that the FORCE terminal of each SMU is connected to the HI terminal

SWITCH CONSIDERATIONS BY SIGNAL T YPE -

 Model 4200-SCS
Semiconductor Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4
Characterization
System
HI
Force
SMU1 Guard Row 1
Guard

HI
Force
SMU2 Guard Row 2
Guard

HI
Force
SMU3 Guard Row 3
Guard

HI
Force
GNDU Guard Row 4

Multi-Pin Device Under Test

Figure 4-15. Using the Model 4200-SCS to test a multipin device

Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4

HI
Output HI
Guard Row 1
Guard
SMU1
HI
Output LO
Guard Row 2

HI
Output HI
Guard Row 3
Guard
SMU2
HI
Output LO
Guard Row 4

Drain
Gate

Source

Figure 4-16. Using two SMUs to test a FET

- SECTION 4
of the switch and the Guard of the SMU is connected to the Guard ter-
minal of the switch. In this example, guarding becomes important to
avoid leakage currents because the FORCE terminal of the SMU is at
the test potential. With the guard terminal at the same potential, the
leakage current through the switch is minimized. Guarding will also
speed up the response time. The ground terminal (GNDU) of the Model
4200 is connected to a single row of the matrix.
Figure 4-16 shows two independent SMUs with the Output LO ter-
minals connected to separate rows. Note that each pin of the device
under test, the FET, is connected to a single column. The guard termi-
nals of the matrix card are not connected to the device. To connect the
SMUs to the transistor, close crosspoint Row 1/Column 2 to connect
SMU1 to the drain, Row 3/Column 1 to connect SMU2 to the gate, and
Row 2/Column 3 and Row 4/Column 3 to connect both SMU Output
LO terminals to the source terminal of the FET.
Remote sensing may be necessary if the current through a given
path is high enough to cause a significant voltage drop. Remote sensing
compensates for test lead and switch voltage drops and ensures that the
programmed output voltage of the SMU is delivered to the load. Remote
sensing allows making accurate load voltage measurements. Figure
4-17 shows SMU1 connected to four rows to enable remote sensing,
thereby allowing accurate measurement of the collector-emitter voltage
of the BJT. SMU2 is used to supply the relatively small base current and
requires only two rows. To connect SMU1 between the emitter and the
collector, close crosspoints Row 1/Column 4, Row 2/Column 5, Row
3/Column 2, and Row 4/Column 1. Note that remote sensing requires
the use of four rows and four columns. To connect SMU2 between the
base and the emitter, close crosspoints Row 5/Column 3 and Row
6/Column 1. Remote sense is not needed to source the base current,
because the lead resistance does not affect the current.
When connecting two SMUs in a matrix, the Output LO terminals
of both SMUs can be tied together and connected to the device using
one row. However, the SMU in remote sense may be outputting high
current (>1mA) and the resulting voltage drop may interfere with the
second SMU if it is used to measure small voltages (<1mV).
Once a given combination of matrix cards, sourcing, and measuring
devices is put together, it may be desirable to measure the offset current
for various pathways to characterize the system. To measure the offset
current, close a specific crosspoint and use an electrometer or SMU to
measure the current with everything in place except the device under
test. Periodically perform this system check on only the crosspoints for
low current switching. If the offset current is relatively constant, this
value can then be subtracted from subsequent measurements.
Leakage current is another source of measurement interference
that must be characterized. It is dependent on the applied voltage, con-

SWITCH CONSIDERATIONS BY SIGNAL T YPE -

 Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4 Column 5

HI
Output HI
Guard Row 1
Guard
SMU1
HI
Sense HI
Guard Row 2
Guard

HI
Sense LO
Guard Row 3

HI
Output LO
Guard Row 4

HI
Output HI
Guard Row 5
Guard
SMU2
HI
Output LO
Guard Row 6

Collector
Base

Emitter

Figure 4-17. Using two SMUs to test a bipolar junction transistor (BJT)

tamination, and humidity. Leakage current can be determined from

path to ground or from path to path. The leakage current can be deter-
mined by applying a known voltage and measuring the current
between either path to ground or path to path. Once the leakage
current in a given pathway is known and remains consistent, it can be
subtracted from subsequent measurements. However, humidity and
contamination may change the leakage current value over time, so it
must be characterized periodically.

Matrix cards suitable for these applications include Models 7152,

7072, and 7174A. All connections should be made with triax cables. Low
current matrix cards usually use triax connections to eliminate a possi-
ble shock hazard from the guard voltage. Note the outer shield is always
at earth ground potential and has been omitted from these figures for
clarity.

- SECTION 4
4.4 Resistance Switching
Switching an ohmmeter to a device under test is common to a variety
of applications, including measuring the insulation resistance of mate-
rials, continuity testing of cables and connectors, contact resistance
measurements, and measuring the resistance of components such as
resistors, thermistors, and potentiometers.
Resistance measurements may range from less than 1Ω to greater
than 1012Ω, so the switching techniques required may vary significantly
based on the magnitude of the resistance. Low resistance measure-
ments are generally those less than 100Ω, mid-range are those from
100Ω to 107Ω, and high resistance measurements are those greater than
107Ω. As with any measurement, the exact point at which low resistance
techniques should be used depends upon the desired measurement
accuracy. For example, a 1ppm measurement of a 1kΩ resistor implies
an uncertainty of less than 1mΩ, which can only be achieved by using a
four-wire technique. Separate sections describe low resistance (Section
4.4.1) and high resistance (Section 4.4.2) switching techniques. This sec-
tion describes mid-range resistance techniques.
For scanning resistances in the mid-range (100Ω to 10MΩ), either
single-ended (one-pole) or differential (two-pole) methods can be
used. The single-ended method is shown in Figure 4-18a. Note that all
the resistors under test have a common terminal that is connected to
meter low.
Figure 4-18b illustrates the differential method. A two-pole relay is
used to connect both terminals of the unknown resistor to the meter.
The application usually dictates whether the single-ended or dif-
ferential method should be used for switching. The advantage of the
single-ended method is that it requires only half as many switches as
the differential method. The only advantage of the differential method
is that the offset voltages of the two switches tend to cancel each other.
However, given that these are microvolt-level voltages, the differential
method is not usually an issue for mid-range resistance switching.

4.4.1 Low Resistance Switching

Applications such as contact resistance measurements and cable con-
tinuity testing typically involve switching low resistances. Low resis-
tance (<100Ω) switching requires using techniques that are normally
unnecessary for mid-range or high resistances. Offset compensation
and remote sensing are techniques often used to eliminate errors due
to the switch contact resistance.
Offset Compensation
Spurious microvolt level signals are often present in low resistance
circuits, most often as a result of thermoelectric effects. If dissimilar met-
als are present, a temperature differential across the circuit can easily add

SWITCH CONSIDERATIONS BY SIGNAL T YPE -

 HI
Ohmmeter
LO

Figure 4-18a. Single-ended resistance switching

HI
Ohmmeter
LO

Figure 4-18b. Differential method for switching resistances

several microvolts to the measurement circuit. Switches in the circuit may

also add up to several microvolts of error voltage to the measurement.
This error voltage is known as contact potential or offset voltage.

Offset compensation will eliminate the switch contact potential, as

well as any thermoelectric voltage offsets in the entire measurement
circuit. Offset compensation requires making two voltage measure-
ments with two different but known currents. Most often, the second
current is of the same magnitude but opposite polarity as the first. The
resistance is calculated by dividing the difference between these two
voltage measurements by the difference between the two source cur-
rents. This procedure will cancel the offsets. In applications where

- SECTION 4
timing is critical, offset compensation may not be practical, because it
takes twice as long to make a measurement.
Some DMMs provide a built-in offset compensation capability.
Two measurements are made, one at a positive current and another at
nearly zero current. The DMM then calculates the resistance
automatically.
Four-Wire Switching
Accurate measurements of low resistance in a system require a four-
wire connection to eliminate both lead wire and switch contact resis-
tance. Figure 4-19 is an example of four-wire switching. In this dia-
gram, two of the leads (HI and LO Source) supply current to the resis-
tors, while the other two leads (HI and LO Sense) measure the voltage
developed across the resistors. The source leads are connected to one
bank of switches and the sense leads are connected to the other bank
of switches.
To measure the resistance of the first resistor (R1), channels 1 (Ch.
1) and 4 (Ch. 4) are both closed. The actual resistance measurement is
made with either a DMM or a micro-ohmmeter with four-wire ohms
capability or with a separate current source and voltmeter.
As shown in Figure 4-19, two sets of two-pole relays are used for
low resistance switching. The poles in an individual relay will have

R1

Ch. 1 Ch. 4

R2

Ch. 2 Ch. 5

R3

Ch. 3 Ch. 6

HI Sense HI Source
Ohmmeter
LO Sense LO Source

Figure 4-19. Four-wire ohms scanning for measuring low resistances

SWITCH CONSIDERATIONS BY SIGNAL T YPE -

 R
Ch. 1 Ch. 2

HI Sense HI Source
Ohmmeter
LO Sense LO Source

Figure 4-20a. Offset voltage of Ch. 1 and Ch. 2 will be added to sense voltage

Ch. 1 Ch. 2

HI Sense HI Source
Ohmmeter
LO Sense LO Source

Figure 4-20b. Offset voltages of Ch. 1 will tend to cancel

similar offset voltages. By using these two poles to connect the low volt-
age signal to the sense terminals of the meter, the offset voltages or the
contact potential (as it is specified), will tend to cancel each other.
When the sense leads are connected through two different relays to the
unknown resistor (R), as shown in Figure 4-20a, the offsets are not like-
ly to cancel and may actually combine to cause an even greater error.
Even a properly connected two-pole switch, like that shown in Figure
4-20b will have some differential offset voltage that will not cancel out.
The error caused by such offset voltage can be virtually eliminated by
using offset compensation.
In some applications, the resistances to be tested may have a com-
mon terminal. In this case, only one two-pole switch per resistor is nec-
essary, as shown in Figure 4-21. This approach has the advantage that
only half as many switches are required, so it is more economical. The
disadvantage is that the offset voltage of the single pole in the sense

- SECTION 4
 R1
Ch. 1

R2
Ch. 2

R3
Ch. 3

HI Source LO Source
Ohmmeter
HI Sense LO Sense

Figure 4-21. Four-wire resistance switching with common terminal

circuit is added to the measurement. Switching only a single sense lead

will not cancel the offset voltage as happens when both sense leads are
switched through the same two-pole relay. However, offset compensa-
tion will generally correct for this error source at the cost of increased
measurement time. Some ohmmeters provide this feature.
Other Issues
Some low resistance applications may require sourcing a relatively
high test current and measuring very low voltages. This may require
using a high current switch card for sourcing and a low voltage switch
card for measuring.
When switching low impedances, shielding needs are minimal.
Shielding is generally needed only in electrically noisy environments.
More information on low resistance measurements can be found
in Keithley’s Low Level Measurements.

4.4.2 High Resistance Switching

Applications such as measuring capacitor leakage, multi-conductor
cable insulation resistance, and pin-to-pin leakage of connectors
require measuring high resistances through switches. Special tech-
niques are required for switching resistances greater than 10MΩ.
Different high resistance switching techniques will be needed, depend-
ing on whether the source voltage/measure current or the source cur-
rent/measure voltage method of determining resistance is used.

SWITCH CONSIDERATIONS BY SIGNAL T YPE -

 Ch. 1 R1 R Ch. 4

Ch. 2 R2 R Ch. 5 Current

Switches

Ch. 3 R3 R Ch. 6

HI
Voltage R = Current Limiting Resistor
Source pA
LO

Figure 4-22. Switching high resistances

However, techniques such as shielding and guarding apply to both

methods.
Source Voltage/Measure Current Method
This technique for measuring high resistance involves sourcing a
known voltage, measuring the resulting current, and calculating the
resistance. As shown in the schematic in Figure 4-22, one side of each
resistor is connected through a set of switches to the picoammeter
(pA), while the other end is connected through a second set of switches
to a DC voltage source. To measure the resistance of R1, close switches
Ch. 1 and Ch. 4.
If the measured current is less than 100nA, the switches used to
connect the resistors to the picoammeter must have low offset current
and high isolation resistance. In many cases, a Form C switch is pre-
ferred. The Form C switch keeps one end of the device under test at
guard potential (approximately 0V) when the switch is de-energized.
This prevents leakage current across the relay that would degrade the
measurements. The Form C switch also allows the device under test to
be charged for a controlled time interval before measuring.
General-purpose switches are usually sufficient for switching the
voltage source unless high voltages (>100V) are involved, in which
case, high voltage switch cards are necessary. If high voltage is used,
current limiting resistors are needed to avoid damage to the current
switches in case the device under test breaks down. The current limit-
ing resistor (R) is placed in series with the device under test. The value
of this resistor is chosen such that, in the event of device failure, the

- SECTION 4
 R1 R Ch. 1

R2 R Ch. 2 Current
Switches

R3 R Ch. 3

R = Current Limiting Resistor HI

Voltage
Source pA
LO

Figure 4-23. Switching high resistances with a common terminal

short circuit current will not exceed the maximum current specifica-
tion of the relays on either set of switch cards. The voltage rating of
these resistors must be at least equal to the test voltage.

In some cases, the device under test may have a common terminal,
as shown in Figure 4-23. In this case, the voltage source will be applied
to all the devices simultaneously. As a result, the excitation voltage time
is different for each resistance to be measured. This will cause errors for
some time-dependent applications, such as measuring insulation
resistance or capacitor leakage. In these cases, the measured resistance
is a function of the excitation time.

When the measured current is large compared to the relay current

offset specification, then Form A switches can provide a more eco-
nomical solution, as shown in Figure 4-24. In this example, the leakage
current of all open relays will contribute to the measured current.
Unfortunately, this leakage current cannot be guarded. Also, if there is
a leakage path between devices (as when measuring the insulation
resistance between traces on a circuit board or multi-conductor cable),
this will also degrade measurement accuracy. In this diagram, each of
the resistors has one end connected together to the voltage source. In
this case, voltage source switching is unnecessary because the device
under test cannot be pre-charged.

Special techniques must be used to minimize interferences such as

offset currents, leakage currents, electrostatic interference, triboelec-
tric currents, and electrochemical currents. These sources of errors
may be due to the switch card or the connecting test fixturing. These

SWITCH CONSIDERATIONS BY SIGNAL T YPE -

 R1 Ch. 1

R2 Ch. 2

R3 Ch. 3

HI
Voltage
Source pA
LO

Figure 4-24. Switching high resistances with common terminal and Form A
switches

Col. 1 Col. 2 Col. 3 Col. 4

Row 1
1

Test 2
4 Row 2
Sample

3
Row 3

Row 4
+ –
Differential
Voltmeter

Figure 4-25. Van der Pauw resistivity measurements through a switch matrix

- SECTION 4
 interferences and ways to avoid or minimize them are discussed in
detail in Section 4.3.1.

Source Current/Measure Voltage Method

In some cases, high resistance is measured by sourcing a current and
measuring the resulting voltage. Although this is not the preferred
method for measuring high resistance, it is necessary for some appli-
cations, such as van der Pauw resistivity measurements of semicon-
ductors. High impedances are being switched, so some of the same
switching techniques used when switching low current (Section 4.3.1)
and high impedance voltages (Section 4.2.3) are equally applicable
here. To avoid errors, choose a card with low offset current and high
isolation resistance. Shielding is necessary to prevent noise due to elec-
trostatic interference.
Figure 4-25 shows a simplified van der Pauw resistivity measure-
ment with a current source and a differential voltmeter. By closing
crosspoints Row 1/Column 1 and Row 2/Column 2, the current source
is connected to sample terminals 1 and 2. Closing crosspoints Row
3/Column 3 and Row 4/Column 4 will connect the voltmeter between
terminals 3 and 4. For more detailed information on van der Pauw
resistivity measurements, consult Keithley’s Low Level Measurements.

4.5 Signals Involving Reactive Loads

Switching circuits that include reactive elements need special care to
avoid problems due to transient effects. The methods used to limit
transient effects depend on whether the load is capacitive or inductive.
When a capacitive load is connected through a switch to a voltage
source, the in-rush current may exceed the current rating of the switch
and weld the contacts shut. As Figure 4-26a indicates, when the switch
(S) is closed, the peak current (i) is limited mainly by the sum of the
wiring resistance and the relay contact resistance. The peak current may
exceed the current rating of the relay and cause welding of the contacts.
Cold switching is the most effective way to prevent this current surge. If
cold switching is impractical, it may be possible to add series resistors
to limit the current to a safe value, as shown in Figure 4-26b. The value
of the series resistor (R) should be greater than the ratio of the applied
voltage to the maximum current rating of the switch card. However, if
the resistor is too large, it may affect measurement accuracy. The cur-
rent surges of these two circuits are illustrated in Figure 4-26c.
Capacitor leakage measurements and insulation resistance meas-
urements of multi-conductor cables are two applications where
switching capacitive loads may be a particular problem. Even with
resistive loads, the capacitance of a shielded connecting cable may
cause relay welding. In this case, the series resistor should be placed as

SWITCH CONSIDERATIONS BY SIGNAL T YPE -

 S

V
a. i C

S R

V
b. i C

Without series R

c. i With series R

Time

Figure 4-26. In-rush current of capacitive load

close to the relay as possible to limit the current when charging the
cable capacitance.
When an inductive load is connected to a voltage source, the cur-
rent will increase relatively slowly. However, when the switch is
opened, a large inductive reaction voltage will appear across the switch
contacts and may damage the contacts. The contact bounce that
occurs on closure can also produce an inductive reaction voltage
because the current is interrupted repeatedly. A voltage-clamping
device across the inductive load is usually required. Figure 4-27 illus-
trates four possible circuits for voltage clamping. For best results, the
voltage-clamping device should be located near the load.
Applications that involve switching inductive loads include testing
motors, solenoids, and transformers.

4.6 RF and Microwave Switching

Given the explosive growth of the communications industry, a tremen-
dous amount of testing is being performed on the various components
that make up different communications systems. These components
range from active components such as Radio Frequency Integrated

- SECTION 4
 a. Varistor Clamped (AC or DC Voltages)

H H

In Switching Out Load

Card Varistor

L L

b. Diode Clamped (DC Voltages)

H H

In Switching Out Load

Card Diode

L L

c. Zener Clamped (AC Voltages)

H H

In Switching Out Zener Load

Card Diodes
L L

d. Resistor-Capacitor Clamped (AC Voltages)

H H C
In Switching Out Load
Card
R
L L

Figure 4-27. Limiting inductive reaction voltage

Circuits (RFICs) and Microwave Monolithic Integrated Circuits

(MMICs) to complete communication systems. While the testing
requirements and procedures for these components differ widely, all
are tested at very high frequencies, typically in the gigahertz range. The
main components in a test system may include DC bias, DC measure-
ment, RF power meter, network analyzer, RF sources, and other instru-
ments. Automating the test process and improving test efficiency
demands integrating RF/microwave and low frequency switching
systems into the test system.
This section describes microwave switch types, RF switch card
specifications, RF switch design considerations, and the associated
cables and connectors.

SWITCH CONSIDERATIONS BY SIGNAL T YPE -

 Microwave Switch Types
Available microwave switch configurations include a simple single-
pole double throw (SPDT) switch, multi-position switch, matrix, and
cascade.
An SPDT switch has one input port, which can be connected to one
of two output ports. Keithley’s Model 7999-4 Microwave SPDT RS-232
Switch is an example of this type of switch.
A multi-position switch connects one input port to one of several
output ports. The Model 7116-MWS 16-Channel Microwave Switch
System uses several multi-position switches. As a system, the Model
7116-MWS can be used as a 1×16 multiplexer.
A matrix switch can connect any input to any output. Two types of
matrices are used in microwave switching: blocking and non-blocking.
A blocking matrix connects any one input to any one output. Other
inputs and outputs cannot be connected at the same time. A non-block-
ing matrix allows multiple paths to be connected simultaneously
through the matrix. Models 40, 41, and S46 RF/Microwave Signal
Routing Systems use non-blocking matrix switching.
The cascade switch configuration is an alternate form of multi-
position switch. The cascade switch connects one input to one of many
outputs using multiple relays. The path length (and therefore, the
phase delay) varies, depending on the number of relays that the signal
must go through. Keithley Model 7062 and 7063 RF Switch Cards both
use the cascade configuration.
More detailed information on the cascade, tree, and matrix switch-
ing configurations, including diagrams, can be found in Section 1.4.5.

RF Switch Card Specifications

The use of a switch will inevitably degrade the performance of the mea-
surement system, so it is important to consider several critical para-
meters that may affect system performance significantly. During the
design phase, the costs and benefits are often weighed against each
other to achieve an optimal solution.
When choosing an RF switch system, some of the critical electrical
specifications to review include crosstalk (path isolation), insertion
loss, voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR), and bandwidth. These spec-
ifications are defined and discussed in Sections 2.2.6, 2.2.7, 2.2.8, and
2.2.9 respectively.

RF Switch Design Considerations

When designing an RF switch system, additional factors that may affect
switch system performance include impedance matching, termina-
tion, power transmission, signal filters, phase distortion, and cabling.

- SECTION 4
Impedance Matching: Given that the switch is positioned between the
measurement instruments and the DUT, matching the impedance lev-
els of all elements in the system is critical. For optimal signal transfer,
the output impedance of the source should be equal to the character-
istic impedance of the switch, the cables, and the DUT. In RF testing,
the most commonly used impedance levels are 50Ω and 75Ω.
Whichever impedance level is required, proper matching will ensure
the overall system integrity.
Termination: At high frequencies, all signals must be properly termi-
nated or the electromagnetic wave will be reflected from the terminat-
ing point. This, in turn, will cause an increase in VSWR. It may even
damage the source if the reflected power is large enough. All paths
through a system must be terminated with their characteristic
impedance.
Power Transmission: Another important consideration is the system’s
ability to transfer the RF power from instrument to DUT. Due to inser-
tion loss, the signal may require amplification. In other applications, it
may be necessary to reduce the signal power to the DUT. An amplifier
or attenuator may be needed to ensure that the required level of power
is transmitted through the switch.
Signal Filter: Signal filters can be useful in a number of circumstances,
such as removing spurious noise or limiting the bandwidth of the sig-
nal passing through the system.
Phase Distortion: As the size of a test system expands, signals from the
same source may travel to the DUT via paths of different lengths,
resulting in phase distortion. This specification is often referred to as
propagation delay. For a given conducting medium, the delay is pro-
portional to the length of the signal path. Different signal path lengths
will cause the signal phase to shift. This phase shift may cause erro-
neous measurement results. To minimize phase distortion, keep the
path lengths the same.
Cables and Connectors
Many different types of cables and connectors can be used in RF/
microwave switch systems. The signal frequency, the system impe-
dance, power rating, and test fixture/handler compatibility, etc. should
all be taken into consideration when choosing connectors and cables.
With the use of electromechanical switches, it becomes necessary
to use RF coaxial cable in order to route the signal path throughout the
test system with minimal losses. Coaxial cable should provide low
insertion loss, low VSWR and proper RF shielding with the appropriate
connectors on the ends of the cable assembly. Insertion loss is perhaps
the parameter of greatest concern when using coaxial cable, and given
that this specification increases proportionally with length, it is desir-
able to use the shortest length cables available for the application.

SWITCH CONSIDERATIONS BY SIGNAL T YPE -

 Some applications require phase-matched cables. This specifica-
tion typically calls for a certain degree of phase tolerance between two
or more cables at a stated frequency (e.g., 5° phase matching at 10GHz
means the phase difference between signals through any cables in that
particular set should be no greater than 5° at 10GHz). Note that phase
delay is also related to time delay; therefore, the specification may be
given as time delay instead of phase delay. Phase matching is of partic-
ular concern with some high speed digital circuits, because unmatched
cables may cause excessive clock skew, resulting in erroneous
operation.
Connector selection is determined by several factors, including fre-
quency of operation, system impedance, power handling, and compat-
ible connectors on the DUT and peripheral test equipment. For exam-
ple, for frequencies higher than 26.5GHz, SMA connectors are no
longer optimal; 2.92mm connectors are the standard choice. Coinci-
dentally, these two are mechanically compatible. BNC connectors are
commonly used on both 50Ω and 75Ω systems. At frequencies lower
than microwave frequencies, users often have a variety of connectors
on their peripheral equipment and/or DUT. In these cases, coaxial
connector adapters may be applicable, providing they offer proper per-
formance and impedance matching.

- SECTION 4
 SECTION 5

Hardware
Implementation
5.1 Introduction
Section 5 describes ways to implement and test the switching hard-
ware. This section addresses connections and wiring, shielding and
grounding, hardware verification, and troubleshooting. Refer to the
user’s manual for the switching hardware for further information on
these subjects.

5.2 Connections and Wiring

Before attempting to wire the system together, create an accurate
wiring diagram for the entire system. Information about making con-
nections to a particular switch card can be found in the card’s manual.
The types of connectors and cables used in the system depend on
the types of switch cards used and the signals being switched. In
general, there are four types of connections on switch cards: screw
terminals, mass-terminated connectors, coax connectors, and triax
connectors.
For screw terminal connections, use individually insulated wires.
Make sure the wires are long enough so the switch cards can be
removed easily from the mainframe for service. Ribbon cable is conve-
nient because it keeps the wires neatly organized and mass-terminated
connectors for it are readily available. However, the conductors in the
ribbon cable aren’t individually shielded, so there may be excessive
stray coupling between conductors, which may interfere with meas-
urements. If that is the case, individually shielded conductors are
necessary.
If mass-terminated cables are used, mating receptacles can be
mounted at the test fixture. This requires a cable with mass-terminated
connectors on both ends. However, it may be more economical to cut
mass-terminated cables in half and hardwire the individual wires to
the test fixture.
The same is true with systems that employ coax or triax cables. The
simplest approach is to use cables with connectors at both ends. A
receptacle for each signal is mounted at the test fixture and the cables
are used to connect them to the switch cards. Again, it may be more
economical to cut the cables in half, then permanently connect the cut
ends to the test fixture.
To connect the outputs of the cards together, certain cards have
their outputs connected to the backplane of the scanner mainframe.
This allows the outputs from one card to be connected to the other
cards in the mainframe. For some switch cards compatible with
Keithley’s Models 7001 and 7002 mainframes, jumpers on the switch
cards enable connection or disconnection from the backplane. If one
card must be isolated from the others, the backplane jumpers on that
card must be removed. The switch modules for the Models

- SECTION 5
 2700 and 2750 include isolation relays that allow the outputs to be con-
nected or disconnected from the backplane. Some matrix cards of the
Models 707A and 708A make connection to the backplane through
jumpers on the cards, while other cards that are optimized for low cur-
rent switching use external low noise jumpers.
In some applications, it is undesirable to connect a card output to
the backplane, so always check the schematics of the individual cards
before applying power to ensure backplane connections are not made
by default. When the output of a card must be isolated from the back-
plane, make connections to the output directly to the card.

5.3 Shielding and Grounding

Electrostatic shielding may be necessary to prevent interference with a
desired signal. In particular, shielding is necessary with high imped-
ance circuits, high frequency circuits, and with mixed signal applica-
tions where high voltage signals may be inadvertently coupled to low
level signals. Shielding is not usually necessary when switching low
impedance signals, such as 100Ω or less.
Switching applications of high impedance circuits include low cur-
rent, high resistance, and high impedance voltage applications. High
impedance is best defined as the level at which interferences cause sig-
nificant errors. Without proper shielding of the switches, interconnect-
ing cables, and test fixturing, spurious signals (offsets) may be generat-
ed that will compromise the signal being measured.
Electrostatic shielding is provided by surrounding the signal path
with a conductor connected to a low impedance point in the circuit,
preferably the LO input terminal of the measuring device. If there is no
measuring device in the circuit, then the shield should be connected to
the LO output terminal of the source.
To ensure proper shielding, choose a switch card with shielded
connectors, such as coax or triax connectors. Switch cards with coax or
triax connectors are inherently shielded and will generally provide
good isolation from channel to channel. Cards with screw terminals or
mass-terminated connectors are not as well shielded, so they are gen-
erally not useful for switching high impedance circuits.
Also, shielded cabling, such as coax or triax, should be used to
make connections from the high impedance devices or signal sources
to the switch card. The high impedance devices and signal sources
must also be shielded. The degree of shielding required will depend
upon the amount of interference in the environment. Motors, sole-
noids, and other devices may generate high-voltage transients, and
better shielding will be required.
Further information on shielding low current, high resistance, and
high impedance voltage circuits can be found in Section 4.

HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION -

 Shielded cable for high frequency (>1MHz) test signals is also nec-
essary to maintain the characteristic impedance and to prevent signal
loss and unwanted coupling (or crosstalk) with adjacent circuits, which
may affect the measurement accuracy. Use the appropriate impedance
coax cables and completely shield the test fixture to prevent leakage of
high level signals. All shields should be connected to an appropriate
ground plane. See Section 4.6 for further information on RF and
microwave switching.
Shielding may be essential in a switching system if a mixture of low
current, high voltage, and high frequency signals are present. With
most switch cards, there will be some small capacitance between adja-
cent channels. Voltage present on one channel can easily be coupled to
an adjacent channel and may cause significant errors. This can be min-
imized by locating the high voltage channels away from the sensitive
low-current channels and by using well-shielded switches.
Shielding may also be applied to a conductor carrying a high-level
test voltage to prevent interference with nearby low-level circuits.
Coaxial cable is most often used for this purpose.
Grounding, in the true sense of the word, means making a connec-
tion to earth (ground). The primary purpose of this connection is to
ensure personal safety for the equipment operator. The signal return
path is often considered ground, and is often referred to as “common”
or “LO.” It may or may not be connected to earth ground.
Shields are often “grounded,” that is, they are connected to an earth
ground point. If the return side of the signal source or the measuring
device is connected to this same point, there will be a minimum of
interference. If there is an AC potential difference between the shield
and the measuring instrument, there may be capacitive currents flow-
ing through the measuring circuit that will add interference.
In general, only one point in the measurement system should be
connected to earth ground to avoid ground loops.

5.4 Hardware Verification and Troubleshooting

Once the switches, instruments, and test fixtures are wired together,
the performance of the system must be verified. This is usually done in
two steps: first manually through the front panel controls, then as a
system under computer control. The specific verification procedure
used will depend upon the type of signals being switched and the type
of measurements to be made. Examples are provided for resistance,
voltage and current measurements.

Resistance Measurements
The first step to verify the system requires that resistors of known value
be placed in the test fixture. An example might be a system for testing

- SECTION 5
resistor networks. The individual resistor values should be similar but
not identical to make certain that the proper connections are made to
each element. For instance, if the nominal resistances are all 10kΩ,
then a suitable test device could have 10.1kΩ on Channel 1, 10.2kΩ for
Channel 2, etc. In this way, if one or more channels are incorrectly
wired, it will be obvious immediately.
If the range of resistance values to be tested is very wide, then tests
must be made with known resistors near both the maximum and min-
imum limits. If the system makes two-terminal connections to the
devices, a measurement near the minimum value may have excessive
error, indicating the need for four-terminal connections. This will
require twice as many switches but it will eliminate the switch and lead
wire resistances from the measurement.
At the maximum limit, a lower than expected measurement would
indicate excessive leakage resistance in the test fixture, the wiring, or
the switch cards, and appropriate steps must be taken to reduce this
error to an acceptable level. These steps include cleaning the test fix-
ture and adding electrical guarding. See Section 4.3.2 for details on
guarding.
Particularly for high resistance measurements, the system settling
time should be verified as sufficient to provide the desired accuracy.

Voltage Measurements
For voltage measurements, first verify that each voltage source is con-
nected to the correct channel. The straightforward way to check to
make sure the channels are connected properly is to connect known
voltages on each channel. For example, apply 1V to Channel 1, 2V to
Channel 2, etc.
To make certain that voltage offsets are not contributing excessive
error to low voltage (< 1mV) measurements, first take a series of read-
ings with a known stable source connected directly to the voltmeter.
Then, take another series of measurements of the same source through
a given channel of the switch system. Compare the standard deviations
from the two tests. Excessive voltage offsets can be compensated for on
each channel by replacing the voltage signal with a short circuit using
a clean copper wire. For each short-circuited channel, take at least ten
voltage readings and average them. Save the average value and use this
to correct future measurements made on that channel. For this to be
effective, the ambient temperature of the switch system must remain
relatively constant (plus or minus a few degrees Centigrade).
If this procedure is too cumbersome, then use the following
method: Connect a short-circuit to only one channel, then use the off-
set of that channel to correct measurements made on all other chan-
nels of the card.

HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION -

 If the source resistance is very high (1MΩ or higher), serious errors
can occur if there is significant leakage in the system. To determine if
this is the case, first measure a low impedance voltage source through
the channel. Then add series impedance that is comparable to that of
the unknown sources to the low impedance source and repeat the
measurement. Compare the results. If there is a large difference, check
for possible causes such as cable leakage or switch isolation resistance.
Guarding may help reduce errors in the measurement. It may be
necessary to increase settling time delays when high source resistances
are involved.
Current Measurements
For current measurement verification, first ensure that the path for
each unknown is complete from the test fixturing to the ammeter. If
using a switch card with Form C switches (SPDT), this can be done by
connecting an ohmmeter in place of the unknown source on each
channel. Verify that this path resistance is low when the channel is not
selected, typically less than 1Ω.
The next step is to connect a known source of current to each chan-
nel one at a time and verify that the output is within overall system
accuracy limits.
For low current measurements, the switch card, cables, and test fix-
turing may introduce significant offset current. To check the offset cur-
rent for each channel, disconnect the unknown source, cap the input,
then activate each channel one at a time and measure the offset cur-
rent with the ammeter connected to the output. If the offset current is
too high, it may be necessary to clean the switches and connectors in
the pathway. (Refer to the switch card’s manual.) If the offset current is
reasonably stable, it can be compensated for by subtracting it from
future measurements.
Also, for low current switching, provide sufficient settling time after
each relay actuation to ensure accurate results.
Final System Verification
Once the system has been completely checked out manually, verify the
performance again under computer control. This will reveal any possi-
ble errors in the software, such as incorrect switch closures or device
address errors, as well as timing problems, excessive crosstalk, etc.
As a final test, run a significant quantity of product through the sys-
tem, then manually retest all the rejected components as well as a frac-
tion of the good components to verify system performance.
At this point, the system can be considered ready for service.
Periodically, the system should be tested using known good devices to
ensure the system has not drifted out of specification.

- SECTION 5
 SECTION 6

Applications
6.1 Battery Testing
Overview
Batteries are used in a rapidly expanding variety of consumer and
industrial applications. Their testing requirements typically depend on
their chemistry, size, specific use, and whether the cells are primary or
secondary.
Secondary (rechargeable) batteries are commonly tested using dis-
charge and charge cycling. The discharge characteristics of a secondary
battery provide important information about the battery’s capacity
and life. Charging/discharging a battery often takes several hours, so
it’s usually desirable to connect several batteries in series in order to
charge and discharge them simultaneously. The voltage of each battery
can be monitored during charging and discharging using a two-pole
scanner.
In some applications, it may be desirable to measure each cell volt-
age, both with and without a load. Monitoring the voltage decay over
time will give an indication of cell quality. While this is particularly true
for primary cells, this technique can also be used for secondary cells.
Using a scanner makes it possible to monitor the voltage decay of sev-
eral cells at one time.
The following paragraphs describe the switch configurations for
both the charge/discharge cycling test and the voltage monitoring test.

Switching Configurations
Figure 6-1 illustrates the switch configuration for charging/discharg-
ing a string of cells connected in series. In this configuration, a series
string of 40 cells is connected to a current source (Model 2400
SourceMeter® instrument), which charges/discharges the cells. A sepa-
rate voltage measurement instrument monitors the individual battery
voltages through a switch. (Note: In this application, the Model 2400
cannot be used for both current sourcing and voltage measurement,
because it is limited to a 5V difference between the input/output HI
and sense HI terminals.)
In this particular example, the current source is supplying ±10mA
to all 40 cells simultaneously, so all the cells can be either charged or
discharged at the same time. The Model 2700 Multimeter/Data
Acquisition System, equipped with a Model 7702 40-Channel Differen-
tial Multiplexer Module, is used to switch and measure the voltage of
each cell. Each cell has a voltage of 1.2V, so the total voltage across the
string of cells is 48V. It is important to ensure that the total cell voltage
across the string does not exceed the common mode voltage rating and
the maximum voltage level of the switch module.
To avoid damage to relays, synchronizing the switch/measure
sequence properly is critical. It’s particularly important to make certain

- SECTION 6
 Model 2700/7702
Multimeter/Data Acquisition System

Charging
Ch. 1 1.2V
10mA

Discharging
Ch. 2 1.2V
HI
2400
Current
Source
Ch. 40 1.2V
LO

HI LO
Voltmeter

Figure 6-1. Charging/discharging multiple batteries in series

all other channels are open before closing a particular channel. Inad-
vertently closing multiple channels will short two or more cells and
may damage the relays. Adding a current limiting resistor or fuse in
series with each switch will help prevent this type of damage.
To monitor the voltage decay of a series string of cells, load resis-
tors must be switched across individual cells. Figure 6-2 illustrates a
switching system for testing 80 primary cells. In this example, there are
two sets of switches: one set of two-pole switches (two Model 7702
modules) is used to connect the cells to the voltmeter, and one set of
isolated switches (two Model 7705 40-Channel Control Modules) is
used to connect the load resistors (RL).
If the load resistor was connected directly across the voltmeter
input terminals, the current through the relay contacts would cause a
voltage drop and the measured cell voltage would be in error. This error
is eliminated if isolated relays are used to switch the load resistors to
each cell. The Model 7705 module has 40 isolated relays. In addition,
these extra isolated relays will allow the load resistors to be connected
or disconnected from each cell at any time during the test cycle.

6.2 Capacitor Leakage Measurements

Overview
Capacitors are essential components used in practically every type of
electronic equipment. Leakage resistance is one of the many electrical

APPLICATIONS -
 Model 2750 Multimeter/Switch System
with two Model 7702 and two Model 7705 Modules

Ch. 81
Ch. 1 B1
RL

Ch. 82
Ch. 2 B2
RL

Ch. 160
Ch. 80 B80
RL

HI LO
Voltmeter

Figure 6-2. Using isolated relays to switch load resistors to batteries

characteristics tested on capacitors. The leakage resistance, often

referred to as “IR” (insulation resistance), is expressed in megohm-
microfarads. In other cases, the leakage may be expressed as a leakage
current at a given voltage, usually the operating voltage.

Capacitor leakage is measured by applying a fixed voltage to the

capacitor and measuring the resulting current. The leakage current will
decay exponentially over time, so it is necessary to apply the voltage for
a known period of time (the soak time) before measuring the current.

For statistical purposes, a quantity of capacitors must be tested to

produce useful data. An automated switching system is required to
make performing these tests practical.

- SECTION 6
Switch Configuration
Figure 6-3 illustrates a capacitor leakage test system that uses the
Model 6517A Electrometer/Source, Model 7158 Low Current Scanner
Cards, and Form C Switch Cards, such as the Model 7111-S or 7169A.
The cards are installed in a Model 7002 Switch Mainframe.
In this test system, one set of switches (on the Model 7111-S or
7169A) is used to apply the test voltage to each capacitor. In the nor-
mally closed position, one end of the capacitor is connected to circuit
LO. When the switch is actuated, the capacitor is connected to the volt-
age source. Switch actuation is usually staggered (for example, two sec-
onds apart) so that each capacitor may be charged for the same period
of time before its leakage is measured. If the maximum test voltage is
110V or less, the Model 7111-S card may be used; otherwise, the Model
7169A card can be used for test voltages up to 500V. If voltages greater
than 500V must be applied, use an appropriately rated switch.
A second set of switches (on the Model 7158) connects each capac-
itor to the picoammeter after a suitable soak period. Note that before
the capacitor is switched to the picoammeter, the capacitor is connect-
ed to circuit LO. This allows the leakage current to flow continuously
while it is being charged up.
For this application, a single instrument provides both the voltage
sourcing and the low current measurement functions. The Model

7111-S or 7169A
Form C Switch Card 7158 Low Current Card
R C

R C

R C

Output Output
Diode

HI

6517A Electrometer/Source pA
LO

Figure 6-3. Capacitor leakage test system

APPLICATIONS -
 6517A is particularly useful for this application because it can display
either resistance or leakage current and will source up to 1000VDC.
After the capacitors have been tested, the voltage source should be
set to zero; some time must be allowed for the capacitors to discharge
before they are removed from the test fixture. Note that in Figure 6-3
the capacitors (C) have a discharge path through the normally closed
contact of the relays.
The resistor (R), which is in series with each capacitor, is an impor-
tant component in this test system. It limits the charging current of
each capacitor and also protects the relays in case a capacitor becomes
short-circuited. Also, the resistor limits the AC gain of the feedback
ammeter. In general, as the source capacitance increases, the noise
gain also increases. The resistor limits this gain to a finite value. A rea-
sonable value is one that results in an RC time constant from 0.5 to two
seconds. The forward-biased diode in series with the HI electrometer
(pA) terminal also serves to limit the AC gain.
A triax-to-BNC adapter (Model 7078-TRX-BNC) is used to connect
the Model 6517A to the Model 7158 card. The capacitors are connected
to the Model 7158 cards using low noise coax cables. Insulated wires
can be used to connect the Model 7111-S card to the capacitors. The
Model 7169A’s connections are made through mass terminated
connectors.

6.3 Continuity Testing

Overview
Continuity checks are typically performed on a variety of devices,
including cable assemblies, printed circuit boards, and connectors, to
ensure these components have a continuous path where desired.
When setting up a continuity test, the engineer must specify the maxi-
mum resistance at which the device is considered to be valid. For
example, any measured resistance of 1Ω or less would indicate a good
device. Continuity checks require measuring low resistance, so a four-
wire ohmmeter is normally used to eliminate lead and switch resist-
ance from the measurement.
An isolation resistance or insulation resistance test is often per-
formed in addition to the continuity test. In particular, a multi-
conductor cable requires each conductor to provide a continuous path
from one end to the other; it also requires each conductor to be iso-
lated from all other conductors. Section 6.5 discusses combining
continuity and insulation resistance testing.
Given that continuity testing often involves multi-conductor
devices, a switch system is useful to connect the ohmmeter to each
conductor automatically.

- SECTION 6
 Switching Configuration
Figure 6-4 illustrates a typical continuity test circuit. Two banks of two-
pole switches are used to make four-wire resistance measurements on
20 conductors. To measure the resistance of Conductor 1 using the
Model 2700 Multimeter/Data Acquisition System in the four-wire
ohms mode, close Ch. 1. In the four-wire ohms mode, this will auto-
matically close Ch. 21 as well. This is repeated for each conductor.
To measure 20 conductors, a Model 2700 with one Model 7702 40-
Channel Differential Multiplexer Module is required. Use a Model 2750
Multimeter/Switch System with multiple Model 7702 modules if more
than 40 conductors must be tested at one time.

Conductor 1

Ch. 1 Ch. 21

Conductor 2

Ch. 2 Ch. 22

Conductor 20

Ch. 20 Ch. 40

HI Sense HI Source
Ohmmeter
LO Sense LO Source

Model 2700/7702 Multimeter/Data Acquisition System

Figure 6-4. Continuity test system

6.4 Insulation Resistance Testing

Overview
The DC insulation resistance (IR) is the ratio of the DC voltage applied
between two conductors separated by an insulator to the total current
flowing between the two conductors. The test voltage is applied for a
specified period of time before the resulting current is measured. The
measured current is usually quite small, so a picoammeter or elec-
trometer is often required to make the measurement.

APPLICATIONS -
 7111-S 40-Channel Form C Switch Card
1
Ch. 1

Terminals 2
of Ch. 2
Multi-pin
Connector

40
Ch. 40

HI Output LO

HI
6517A
pA Voltage
Electrometer/Source or Source
487 LO
Picoammeter/Source

Figure 6-5. Testing IR from any one terminal of a multi-pin connector

to all others

Sometimes the insulation resistance of a sample is measured only

to determine that it is greater than a specified minimum value. For
example, any resistance value greater than 10MΩ may be considered
acceptable. The accuracy of the measurement is not critical; it’s only
important that the measured resistance be greater than a specified
value.
Examples of insulation resistance measurements include measur-
ing the path between traces on a printed circuit board or the resistance
between conductors in a multi-conductor cable. IR measurements
often involve multiple conductors, so a switching system is often
required to switch the picoammeter and the source to all the conduc-
tors in the test circuit.
The design and type of switching cards used in an IR test system
depend on several factors, including the test voltage, magnitude of
resistance, accuracy, common connection, etc. The following section
describes two IR test systems.

Switching Configurations
Figure 6-5 illustrates a test system for measuring the IR of any one ter-
minal of a multi-pin connector to all other terminals using the Model

- SECTION 6
 7054 High Voltage Card #1 7054 High Voltage Card #2

Ch. 1 R R Ch. 11
1

Ch. 2 R R Ch. 12
2
.
.
.
Ch. 10 R R Ch. 20
10

Output R typical value is 100kΩ Output

HI
1000V 6517A Electrometer/Source pA
LO

Figure 6-6. Testing IR between any two terminals

7111-S 40-Channel Form C Switch Card in a Model 7001 Switch Main-

frame. In the de-energized position, the voltage source is connected to
all pins under test. When any given channel is selected, the leakage cur-
rent of that pin to all other pins is measured. The Model 7111-S card
has <100pA specified offset current. With a test voltage of 100V, this
represents a leakage resistance of 1TΩ. This system in a practical circuit
can easily detect leakage resistances of greater than 10GΩ.
Figure 6-6 shows a system that allows applying the test voltage to
one or more terminals while the current is measured from one or more
terminals. Note that there are two independent groups of switches con-
nected to each terminal. One group connects the test voltage to the ter-
minals while the other group measures the leakage current. Therefore,
the IR can be tested from any terminal to any other or all terminals.
Note that all switches will be exposed to the test voltage at some point
in the test cycle. Therefore, both groups of switches must be able to
withstand the desired test voltage and should have good channel-to-
channel isolation to prevent degradation of the measured signal. In
Figure 6-6, IR can be measured at relatively high voltage (up to 1000V)
using the Model 7054 10-Channel High Voltage Switch Cards. To meas-
ure the insulation resistance between pins 1 and 2, close Chs. 1 and 12.

APPLICATIONS -
 The resistors (R) limit the charging current through the relays.
These resistors should be located near the relay to minimize cable
capacitance charge and discharge current. A typical R value is 100kΩ.

6.5 Combining Continuity and Insulation Resistance Testing

Overview
Some multiple pin devices require measuring the path resistance or
continuity through each conductor (a low resistance) and measuring
the insulation resistance between the conductors (a very high resist-
ance). This test system requires switching and measuring both low
resistance (<1Ω) and very high resistance (>109Ω).
This test system may be used on a variety of devices, such as con-
nectors, switches, multiple conductor cables, and printed circuit
boards.

Switching Configurations
Figure 6-7 illustrates a combined continuity and IR system for testing
multiple conductors using a four-wire DMM or SourceMeter instru-
ment. The resistances R1 through R20 represent the conductor resist-

R1
Ch. 1 1 1´ Ch. 21

Ra
R2
Ch. 2 2 2´ Ch. 22

Rb
R20
Ch. 20 20 20´ Ch. 40

Output Output
HI LO LO HI
LO Source HI Source
Four-Wire
LO Sense DMM or HI Sense
SourceMeter

Figure 6-7. Continuity and IR test system

- SECTION 6
 ances. To measure conductor resistance R1, close Chs. 1 and 21. The
resistances Ra and Rb represent leakage resistance between conduc-
tors. The leakage resistance can be measured between any two or more
conductors. To measure leakage resistance Ra, close Channels 1 and
22. This is essentially the leakage resistance between conductors 1 and
2, given that Ra is much greater than R1.
A single Model 2700 Multimeter/Data Acquisition System with a
Model 7702 40-Channel Differential Multiplexer can be used to test up
to 20 conductors. When measuring the leakage resistance with a DMM,
the maximum applied voltage is usually less than 15V. Also, the maxi-
mum measured resistance is usually not greater than 100MΩ. To test
the IR at a specified test voltage, use a test configuration such as the
Model 2400 SourceMeter instrument with Model 7011 Quad 1×10
Multiplexer Cards in a Model 7001 or 7002 Switch Mainframe.
If a higher test voltage is required or if a higher leakage resistance
must be measured, the circuit in Figure 6-8 may be used. In this dia-
gram, two Model 7154 High Voltage Scanner Cards are used to switch a
Model 2410 SourceMeter instrument and Model 2010 Digital Multi-
meter to eight conductors. This system can measure conductor resist-
ances as low as 0.1mΩ and leakage resistances as high as 300GΩ with a
test voltage as high as 1000V. Note that the Model 2410 and Model 2010
are not connected to the card outputs, but are connected to specific
channels of the scanner cards. The outputs of the cards are only used
to expand the system to measure a larger number of conductors. To
measure the resistance of R1, close Chs. 1, 10, 11 and 20. This will con-
nect the Model 2010 across R1. To measure Ra, the leakage resistance
between R1 and R2, close Chs. 1, 9, 12 and 19. This will connect the
Model 2410 across the leakage resistance (Ra).

6.6 Insulation Resistance Testing of Printed Circuit Boards

Overview
Printed circuit boards (PCBs) are used in most electronic products. If a
PCB has low insulation resistance (IR), it can degrade the performance
of the circuits on the board considerably. Factors that affect the surface
resistance of the board include the board material, the presence of
coatings such as solder masking or conformal coatings, and board
cleanliness. Temperature and relative humidity can also affect the sur-
face resistance.
To test the insulation resistance, special test patterns called
coupons are created on printed circuit boards. The resistance typically
ranges from 107Ω to 1016Ω and is measured with a picoammeter and
voltage source. The test coupons usually have several terminals, so test
systems include scanners to switch the picoammeter and the voltage
source to the terminals.

APPLICATIONS -
 7154 High Voltage Card #1 7154 High Voltage Card #2

R1
Ch. 1 1 1´ Ch. 11

Ra
R2
Ch. 2 2 2´ Ch. 12

Rb
R3
Ch. 3 3 2´ Ch. 13

Rc
R9
Ch. 8 8 8´ Ch. 18

LO HI

Ch. 9 2410 Ch. 19

SourceMeter

HI HI

Ch. 10 2010 Ch. 20

Source DMM Sense

LO LO
Output Output
(not used except (not used except
for expansion) for expansion)

Figure 6-8. Expanded range continuity/IR system

Switching Configurations
Figure 6-9 outlines a system to test a single five-terminal (“W”) test
pattern. In this circuit, the Model 7011 Quad 1×10 Multiplexer Card is
used to connect the voltage source to terminals 1 and 5 together or to
terminal 3. The Model 7158 Low Current Switch Card is used to connect
the electrometer to terminal 2 or 4.

- SECTION 6
7011 Quad 1×10 7158 Low Current
Multiplexer Card Scanner Card
100kΩ 1
Ch. 1

Ch. 41
1MΩ 2

100kΩ 3
Ch. 2

Ch. 42
Output 1MΩ 4

5
Output
Equivalent circuit of
“W” pattern test coupon

HI
Voltage
Source 6517A Electrometer/Source pA
LO

Figure 6-9. System to test the Insulation resistance of one test coupon

At the start of the measurement, close Ch. 1. After a specified “soak”

time, energize Ch. 41 and measure the current. The ratio of the applied
voltage to the measured current is the resistance between terminals 1
and 2. Next, de-energize Ch. 41 and energize Ch. 42 to measure the
insulation resistance between terminals 5 and 4. Note that the path
from 5 to 4 already has been biased. No additional soak time is needed,
so it can be measured immediately. De-energize Ch. 42, then open Ch.
1 and close Ch. 2 to apply the test voltage to terminal 3. The 1MΩ resis-
tor located at Ch. 1 will discharge the voltage at terminals 1 and 5, so it
won’t interfere with subsequent measurements. After the specified
soak time, energize Ch. 41 again to measure the resistance between ter-
minals 3 and 2. De-energize Ch. 41 and energize Ch. 42 to measure the
resistance between terminals 3 and 4, which already has been biased.
Note that when none of the channels on the Model 7158 card are
energized, terminals 2 and 4 are connected to the LO of the picoam-
meter (pA), which electrically is the guard terminal. This guard con-
nection will prevent leakage current form de-energized channels from
interfering with the measurement.

APPLICATIONS -
 7169A 20-Channel Test 7158
Form C Switch Card Coupon Low Current Card
R R1
Ch. 1 Ch. 21

R R2
Ch. 2 Ch. 22

.
.
.
R R10
Ch. 10 Ch. 30

Output Output

HI
Voltage
Source 6517A Electrometer/Source pA
LO

Figure 6-10. Circuit to test a single ten-resistor coupon

Five “W” patterns can be tested as described using one Model 7011
card and one Model 7158 card. Model 7111 Form C Switch Cards can be
used in place of the Model 7011 card. If this card is used, de-energizing
a channel will connect the terminal to circuit LO rather than the volt-
age source. This will eliminate the need for the 1MΩ resistors. When
using either the Model 7011 or 7111 Cards, the test voltage cannot
exceed 110V.
The 100kΩ resistors are used to limit the available current in the
event of a short-circuited test coupon. Choose current limiting resis-
tors that are no more than 10% of the lowest measured resistance.
Figure 6-10 shows a circuit to test a coupon with ten two-terminal
leakage paths. Each coupon can be thought of as a bank of isolated
resistors (R1, R2, R3, R4, etc.). Each resistor requires one voltage chan-
nel and one current channel. The Model 7158 card connects the elec-
trometer or picoammeter to one end of each resistor, while the Model
7169A 20-Channel Form C Switch Card connects the voltage source to
the other end of each resistor.
To test resistor R1, first energize Ch. 1 to bias the test coupon. After
a specified “soak” period, energize Ch. 21 to measure the resulting cur-
rent. Continue this process for all of the remaining resistances.
Note that when the channels are de-energized, the corresponding
resistor terminals are connected to circuit LO, allowing any charge

- SECTION 6
 across the resistances to be dissipated when the resistance is not being
measured.
The current limiting resistors (R) protect the scanner cards from
damage if the test coupon develops a short circuit.
Low noise coax cables should be used between the test coupons
and the Model 7158 cards to avoid noise currents.
For detailed information on measuring the insulation resistance of
PCBs, refer to Keithley Application Note 302, “Insulation Resistance
Testing of Printed Circuit Boards.”

6.7 Contact Resistance

Overview
Contact resistance is the resistance to current flow through a closed
pair of contacts. These types of measurements are made on compo-
nents such as connectors, relays and switches. This resistance is nor-
mally very small, ranging from micro-ohms to a few milliohms, so a
four-wire measurement method is used. Programmable scanners
greatly reduce measurement time by switching one set of test instru-
ments to multiple contacts, such as when testing multi-terminal con-
nectors or when testing many contacts automatically in an environ-
mental chamber.

Switch Configurations
As Figure 6-11 shows, all four terminals of the ohmmeter are switched
in order to prevent the test lead, path, and switch contact resistances
from being added into the measurement. Note the HI and LO Source
terminals are connected to one set of two-pole switches, while the HI
and LO Sense terminals are connected to another set of two-pole
switches. To measure the resistance of Contact 1, close both Chs. 1 and
21, then measure the resistance with the ohmmeter. To measure
Contact 2, open Chs. 1 and 21, close Chs. 2 and 22, then measure the
resistance again.
A Model 2750 Multimeter/Switch System can be used to measure
the contact resistance because it can measure resistances less than 1mΩ
and offers offset compensation and dry circuit testing capabilities.
Contacts used in low level applications are often tested under dry
circuit conditions, in which current and voltages are limited to levels
that can’t cause changes in the physical and electrical condition of the
contact junction. In general, a dry circuit is one in which the open cir-
cuit voltage is low, usually 20mV or less, and the short circuit current is
limited to 100mA or less.
In some cases, the number of switches required may be reduced by
half by connecting the samples in a unique series manner, as shown in

APPLICATIONS -
 Contact #1

Ch. 1 Ch. 21

Contact #2

Ch. 2 Ch. 22

.
.
.
Contact #20

Ch. 20 Ch. 40

HI HI
Source Ohmmeter Sense
LO LO

2750/7702 Multimeter/Switch System

Figure 6-11. Measuring resistance of 20 contacts

Figure 6-12. In this example, all the contact pins are connected in
series and each of the mating sleeves is connected to a two-pole switch.
In this case, a Model 2750 Multimeter/Switch System is configured with
a Model 7701 Low-Voltage 32-Channel Differential Multiplexer Module
and can test 32 contacts. Up to 160 contacts can be tested using five
Model 7701 modules in one Model 2750 mainframe.

Figure 6-13 illustrates a high-performance contact resistance sys-

tem for measuring very low resistances (µΩ) at relatively low currents
(<100µA). In this system, a Model 2400 SourceMeter instrument out-
puts the test current and a Model 2182 Nanovoltmeter measures the
voltage drop across each contact. Both the Model 2182 and the Model
2400 are switched to each contact using a Model 7011 40-Channel
Multiplexer Card. The Model 2400 has a programmable voltage com-
pliance limit, so this system can ensure dry circuit testing conditions.

- SECTION 6
 Ch. 1

Ch. 2

Contact Pin
and
Mating Sleeve

Ch. 32

HI LO
Source Source
Ohmmeter
HI LO
Sense Sense
2750/7701 Multimeter/Switch System

Figure 6-12. Measuring 32 contacts with a common terminal

7011 7011
Bank A&B Bank C&D

Ch. 1 Ch. 21

Ch. 2 Ch. 22

.
.
.

Ch. 20 Ch. 40

Output Output
2400
SourceMeter 2182
Instrument Nanovoltmeter

Figure 6-13. High performance contact resistance system

APPLICATIONS -
 Twenty contacts can be switched using one Model 7011 card and
one Model 7001 Switch Mainframe. The Model 7011 card is configured
into two 20-channel banks. Two relays can be simultaneously opened
or closed automatically by using the mainframe’s four-pole switch
mode.

6.8 Temperature Scanning

Overview
Temperature is one of the most commonly measured physical parame-
ters. Temperature is often monitored at several locations, so a scanner
is required to switch the measuring instrument to multiple sensors.
The type of measuring instrument and scanner card used depends on
the type of temperature sensor employed. Three common sensor types
are thermocouples, platinum RTDs, and thermistors. When deciding
which temperature sensor to use, keep in mind that the thermocouple
is the most versatile, the four-wire RTD is the most accurate, and the
thermistor is the most sensitive. The use of these sensors is discussed
in the following switching configurations.

Switching Configurations
Thermocouples
Thermocouples are the most widely used temperature sensors. They
can cover a wide temperature range and provide a robust, reliable sen-
sor. The measured thermocouple voltage is related to the difference
between the unknown temperature and a reference temperature. This
reference temperature is determined from the cold junction reference
(CJR). When thermocouples are to be switched, the reference tempera-
ture may be obtained from an internal reference junction located on
the switch card, a simulated reference temperature, or an external ref-
erence junction. The choice of reference junction is limited by the
choice of switch card and by the method of cold junction compensa-
tion implemented by the measuring instrument.
Built-In (Internal) Reference Junction. This is the most convenient
method to use if the switch card includes the temperature reference.
This reference junction is built into the switch module and uses a
thermistor, a solid-state sensor, or other type of temperature sensor.
Switch modules with built-in CJRs include the Model 7700, 7706, and
7708 modules for the Model 2700 Multimeter/Data Acquisition System
and Model 2750 Multimeter/Switch System. The Model 2001-TCSCAN
9-Channel Thermocouple Scanner Card for the Model 2000, 2001,
2002, and 2010 DMMs also has a built-in CJR.
Figure 6-14 shows multiple thermocouples connected to the
Model 2700 with a Model 7700 20-Channel Differential Multiplexer
Module installed. The Model 7700 has several strategically placed cold

- SECTION 6
 2700/7700 Multimeter/Data Acquisition System

T1 Ch. 1 Voltmeter

T2 Ch. 2

. .
. .
. .

T20 Ch. 20

Cold
Junction Ref. Ch.
Reference
X6

Figure 6-14. Using the internal reference junction of the Model 2700/7700

junction references to monitor the junction temperatures at the screw

terminals. When the temperature of thermocouple T1 is to be meas-
ured, the meter first measures the nearby CJR. When Ch. 1 is closed, the
voltage of thermocouple T1 is measured and the temperature reading
at the thermocouple is calculated.
As an alternative to using multiple CJRs, some switch cards employ
an on-board isothermal block to keep all the connection terminals at
the same temperature. The Model 7014 Thermocouple Card and Model
2001-TCSCAN Thermocouple Scanner Card have isothermal blocks.
Simulated Reference Temperature. In this case, the user inputs a tem-
perature value that approximates the temperature at the input termi-
nals of the DMM. The DMM uses this simulated reference temperature
in calculating the temperature at the thermocouple. The simulated ref-
erence temperature technique can be used with the Model 2000, 2001,
2002, 2010, 2700 and 2750. The accuracy of the measurements will
depend on the accuracy of the simulated temperature. If the ambient
temperature changes, then the accuracy of the thermocouple meas-
urements will be degraded.
One method of using a simulated reference temperature is to input
the approximate temperature at the location where the thermocouples
are connected to the switch card. The reference temperature used

APPLICATIONS -
 2700/7702 Multimeter/Data Acquisition System

T1 Ch. 1 DMM

T2 Ch. 2

. .
. .
. .

T40 Ch. 40

Figure 6-15. Using simulated reference temperature with the Model 2700/7702

should reflect the effects of instrument self-heating, not simply the

room’s ambient temperature. Figure 6-15 illustrates the use of this
method. In this case, the temperature reference is at the Model 7702
40-Channel Differential Multiplexer Module’s input terminals; there-
fore, the user must input a best guess of the temperature at these input
terminals of the switch module. This is the least accurate way to make
temperature measurements, because it requires the user to approxi-
mate the reference temperature and doesn’t account for changes in the
ambient temperature or thermal gradients across the card. However,
this method is the least expensive because a general-purpose switch
card or module can be used.
Figure 6-16 illustrates the use of an ice point as the reference tem-
perature. In this example, a second thermocouple in an ice bath is con-
nected in series back-to-back with each measurement thermocouple.
Using this ice point reference is usually the most accurate way to make
temperature measurements. To measure the voltage of thermocouple
T1, close Ch. 1. The measured voltage is proportional to the tempera-
ture T1 with a reference of 0°C. If a meter such as the Model 2700/7702
is being used, simply enter this 0°C reference in the meter as the simu-
lated reference temperature. The Model 2700 will then automatically
calculate the temperature T1 based on the measured voltage.
External Reference Junction. For switching modules that do not have
built-in reference junctions, a thermistor or four-wire RTD can be used
to acquire the reference temperature, such as with the Model 2700 or

- SECTION 6
 2700/7700 Multimeter/Data Acquisition System
A A

T1 Ch. 1 DMM
B A

A A

T2 Ch. 2
B A
. .
. .
. .
A A

T40 Ch. 40
B A

B A B A B A

A and B are dissimilar metals

of the thermocouple

0°C

Figure 6-16. Using “back-to-back” thermocouples and a 0°C reference

temperature

2750. In this case, a thermistor is connected to Ch. 1 or a four-wire RTD

is connected to Ch. 1 and its paired channel. Figure 6-17 shows an
example of a thermistor used as the external temperature sensor. To
measure the cold junction temperature, close Ch. 1. The Model 2700 or
2750 automatically measures the thermistor resistance and calculates
the temperature at the sensor. This temperature reading is used by the
instrument as the reference temperature for subsequent thermocouple
measurements.

The thermistor or RTD should be positioned near the terminals of

the channels being used for thermocouple temperature measure-
ments. The leads of this temperature sensor should be insulated to pre-
vent contact with other conductors on the module.

The accuracy of this method depends on how closely coupled the

temperature sensor is to the thermocouple terminals.

Platinum RTDs

Platinum RTDs may be either wire-wound resistors or thin-film resis-

tors that exhibit a positive temperature coefficient of about 0.4%/°C.

APPLICATIONS -
 2700/7702 Multimeter/Data Acquisition System

Ch. 1 DMM

T1 Ch. 2

. RT
.
.
.
.
.

T39 Ch. 40

Figure 6-17. Using a thermistor as an external reference junction

Platinum RTDs offer excellent long-term stability, high accuracy,

and good repeatability. Unlike thermocouples, RTDs do not require
cold junction compensation. However, RTDs operate over a narrower
temperature span, respond more slowly, and are generally more expen-
sive and more fragile than thermocouples.
Figure 6-18 illustrates a system to measure temperature using
RTDs. Twenty RTDs are connected through 4-pole switches to a Model
2700 configured as a four-wire ohmmeter. With the Model 2700 and a
Model 7702 module, 20 RTDs can be connected and the meter will con-
vert the resistance measurements to temperature automatically.
Thermistors
Thermistors are devices that exhibit a non-linear change in resistance
with a change in temperature. Most thermistors have a negative tem-
perature coefficient—in other words, as the temperature increases, the
resistance decreases.
Thermistors are the most sensitive of all the temperature sensors
and can detect very small changes in temperature quickly. They are a
good choice when measuring very small changes in temperature. The

- SECTION 6
 2700/7702 Multimeter/Data Acquisition System

Source HI

Sense HI
T1 RTD #1 Ch. 1 DMM
Sense LO

Source LO

T2 RTD #2 Ch. 2

.
.
.

T20 RTD #20 Ch. 20

Figure 6-18. Measuring temperature using RTDs

downside of this increased sensitivity is a loss of linearity. They are

especially non-linear at high temperatures, so it is best to use them for
measurements of less than 100°C.
Figure 6-19 outlines a system for measuring temperature using
thermistors. Note that a two-wire resistance measurement is adequate,
given that thermistors are usually in the kilo-ohm ranges; therefore,
switch and lead resistances have little effect on the overall measure-
ment. To convert the resistance measurement to temperature, it is best
to use an instrument that can correct for a thermistor’s non-linearity
automatically, such as the Model 2700 or 2750. One Model 7702 mod-
ule installed in a Model 2700 can accommodate up to 40 thermistors.

6.9 Diode Testing

Overview
Diodes are widely used non-linear components. When testing diodes,
the electrical parameters measured include the forward voltage, the

APPLICATIONS -
 2700/7702 Multimeter/Data Acquisition System

T1 Ch. 1 DMM

T2 Ch. 2

.
.
.

T40 Ch. 40

Figure 6-19. Measuring temperature using thermistors

reverse breakdown voltage, and the leakage current. These specific

tests can be measured with a single source-measure instrument. When
testing multi-diode devices, such as pin grid arrays or DIP packages,
switching is required to connect a single source-measure instrument to
each individual diode.

Switching Configurations
Figure 6-20 shows an example of testing multiple diodes in a switching
system. This configuration can be used for measuring the forward volt-
age, the reverse breakdown voltage, and the leakage current. This type
of system is often used for production tests in which performing single
point pass/fail DC tests on packaged diodes ensures compliance with
specifications and sorts out defective parts.
In this system, each diode is switched to the Model 2400
SourceMeter instrument through two two-pole switches. The Model
2400 can source and measure both current and voltage.
To connect the SourceMeter instrument to diode 1, close Chs. 1
and 21. To measure the forward voltage, apply the specified current,
then measure the resulting voltage drop. Measure the reverse break-
down voltage by sourcing a specified reverse current bias, then meas-
uring the voltage drop across the diode. To perform the leakage current
test, source a specified reverse voltage, then measure the resulting
leakage current. Repeat this procedure for all the diodes.

- SECTION 6
 4-Element
7011 Banks A&B Diode Array 7011 Banks C&D
#1
Ch. 1 Ch. 21

#2
Ch. 2 Ch. 22

#3
Ch. 3 Ch. 23

#4
Ch. 4 Ch. 24

Output Output

HI Source LO Source
Series 2400
SourceMeter
HI Sense LO Sense

Figure 6-20. Switching multiple diodes to a Series 2400 SourceMeter

instrument

Note that two 2-pole relays are used to connect each diode to the
Model 2400. This is done to eliminate error from the voltage drop in the
switch and lead resistance. This is particularly important when meas-
uring the forward voltage, because the measured voltages are relative-
ly small (hundreds of millivolts) and the source current may be rela-
tively high (100mA).
For the example in Figure 6-20, two-pole general-purpose cards,
such as the Model 7011 Quad 1×10 Multiplexer Card can be used. One
Model 7011 card will support testing up to 20 diodes.
For measuring smaller leakage currents (<10nA), use the configu-
ration shown in Figure 6-21. In this example, the Model 7158 Low
Current Scanner Card is used to switch ten diodes with a common
cathode to the Model 6517A Electrometer/Source.
When measuring the leakage current with this setup, the voltage
bias is applied to all the diodes simultaneously through the normally
closed contact of each relay. When a particular channel is energized,

APPLICATIONS -
 7158 Low Current Card
R
Ch. 1

R
Ch. 2

.
.
.
R
Ch. 10

R typical value 100kΩ LO HI

Output

HI
Voltage 6517A
Source pA
Electrometer/Source
LO

Figure 6-21. Measuring the leakage current of ten diodes

the leakage current for that diode will be measured. The current limit-
ing resistor (R) is included to prevent test failure in the event a diode is
short-circuited.

Figure 6-22 shows a configuration for testing leakage current of

diodes using a Source-Measure-Unit (SMU) or a SourceMeter instru-
ment. In this example, the Output HI terminal of the SMU is connect-
ed to the normally open output terminal of the Model 7111-S 40
Channel Form C Switch Card. The Guard terminal of the SMU is con-
nected to the normally closed output terminal of the switch card. The
guard voltage is at the same potential as the Output HI terminal, so the
test voltage is applied to all diodes at all times through the guard con-
nection. If the SMU is set for a positive output voltage, the diodes will
be reverse biased. The Output LO terminal of the SMU is connected to
the common anode terminal of the diodes.

- SECTION 6
 7111-S
R
Ch. 1

R
Ch. 2

.
.
.
R
Ch. 40

R typical value 100kΩ LO HI

Output

Guard Output HI

A
SMU or
SourceMeter

Output LO

Figure 6-22. Using an SMU or SourceMeter instrument to test the leakage

current of diodes

APPLICATIONS -
6.10 Capacitance Measurements
Overview
Capacitance measurements are made to verify that capacitors meet
their manufacturer’s specifications. For quality control purposes, a
group of capacitors may be placed in an environmental chamber and
the capacitance of each capacitor tested. Multiple switches connect the
capacitors to the capacitance meter.
Test frequency and stray capacitance may impose limitations when
switching capacitance. Capacitance measurements are often made at a
high frequency (kHz –MHz ranges), so it’s important to choose switch-
es carefully to avoid errors due to bandwidth limitations. The capaci-
tance introduced to the system by both the switches and the cable
must be corrected for by the LCR meter by using open and short circuit
calibration; therefore, it’s important to determine if a particular LCR
meter is capable of performing the necessary corrections.

7011-S
Bank A Bank B Bank C Bank D
Ch. 1 C1

Ch. 2 C2

.
.
.
Ch. 8 C8

Ch. 9 Open
Circuit

Short
Ch. 10 Circuit

HI HI LO LO
CURR POT POT CURR
LCR Meter

Figure 6-23. Capacitance measurement using a Model 7011-S card

- SECTION 6
Switching Configurations
In Figure 6-23, the Model 7011-S Quad 1×10 Multiplexer Card connects
an LCR meter to a number of unknown capacitors (C1 through C8). For
any given capacitor measurement, four relays, one in each bank, must
be closed. The outputs of the four banks are connected to the LCR
meter’s four input terminals.
The Model 7011-S card allows making four-wire connections to as
many as ten capacitors. However, two sets of channels should be used
to perform open and short calibration, so the system can only test up
to eight capacitors. When performing the open calibration, the HI
CURR and HI POT leads must be connected together using Ch. 9 of
each bank; the LO CURR and LO POT leads must also be connected
together. When performing the short calibration, all four leads are con-
nected together using Ch. 10 of each bank.
The shields of the four coaxial cables connected to the unknown
capacitors are connected to each other. This connection should be
made near the capacitor for best accuracy. For simplicity, the shields
are not shown in Figure 6-23. Space limitations on the Model 7011-S
card make it necessary to use sub-miniature coax cables. The length of
the coaxial cables for all channels should be approximately the same.
With the Model 7011-S card, the test frequency may be as high as
100kHz. The minimum unknown capacitance that can be switched
with this card is on the order of 10pF. There is no maximum capaci-
tance other than determined by the card’s maximum current rating.
The system shown can be expanded easily by adding more Model
7011-S cards. The backplane of the scanner mainframe will connect the
appropriate banks of each card. Remove any bank-to-bank jumpers
from all cards. As more switch cards are added to expand the system,
the maximum allowable test frequency may decrease.
The Model 7011-C version is not recommended for this application
because the added coupling due to this card’s mass-terminated con-
nectors may cause an unacceptable amount of error.
To measure capacitors at 1MHz or higher, an RF switch card, such
as the Model 7062 RF Switch Card, is essential. The Model 7062 consists
of two banks of five RF switches. As shown in Figure 6-24, two Model
7062 cards provide four-terminal connections from a four-terminal
capacitance bridge to test up to four capacitors. One card switches the
HI and LO CURR terminals of the bridge, while the second card switch-
es the HI and LO POT terminals.
The fifth channel of each switch bank is connected to a jumper to
allow short-circuit calibration. When no channels are selected, the
input to the card is connected to the output port, which is effectively a
sixth channel. By connecting coax cables to all four output ports as

APPLICATIONS -
 7062 #1 7062 #2

Open
Circuit

Ch. 10 Ch. 25
Short
Circuit
Ch. 5 Ch. 30

Ch. 7 Ch. 22
C2

Ch. 2 Ch. 27

Ch. 6 Ch. 21
C1

Ch. 1 Ch. 26

HI HI LO LO
CURR POT LCR Meter POT CURR

Figure 6-24. High frequency capacitance measurements with two

Model 7062 cards

shown, an open-circuit calibration can be performed. Again, note that

these cables should be the same length as those for the other channels.
To expand the system and allow testing more capacitors, the sixth
channel of each bank must be connected to the input ports of two
additional cards. The cables used for the open-circuit calibration must
now be connected to the output ports of the last added cards. This sys-
tem, with a total of four Model 7062 cards in a Model 7002 Switch
Mainframe, will test up to nine capacitors.
Figure 6-25 illustrates a system that measures both the capaci-
tance and leakage current of capacitors. In this diagram, note the
picoammeter (pA) and LCR meter are connected to the capacitors
under test via Chs. 9 and 10 respectively. The output ports on the Model
7011-S card have no connections. However, the output ports would be

- SECTION 6
 7011-S
Bank A Bank B Bank C Bank D
Ch. 1 C1

Ch. 2 C2

.
.
.
Ch. 8 C8

Ch. 9 R3

R1 R2

HI
pA
LO

Ch. 10

HI HI LO LO
CURR POT POT CURR
LCR Meter
NOTE: All bank-to-bank jumpers must be removed from card.
Open-circuit and short-circuit channels are omitted for clarity.

Figure 6-25. Measuring capacitance and leakage current with a

Model 7011-S card

used to increase the total number of capacitors being tested by adding

more cards.
To measure the leakage current of C1, the capacitor must first be
polarized by closing Chs. 1 and 9 of both Banks B and C. This connects
the voltage source across to the capacitor through the current limiting
resistor, R2. After an appropriate “soak” time, close both Ch. 1/Bank A
and Ch. 9/Bank A to connect the picoammeter to the capacitor, then
open Ch. 9/Bank B to avoid short-circuiting the picoammeter. Once

APPLICATIONS -
 the leakage has been measured, the capacitor should be discharged by
first opening Ch. 9/Bank A and Ch. 9/Bank C. Then close Ch. 9 on Bank
B and Bank D, which will place resistor R3 across capacitor C1.
The diode and resistor R1, in series with the picoammeter input,
serve two functions. First, the resistor will limit the current in case a
capacitor becomes shorted. Second, the diode minimizes the picoam-
meter noise introduced when measuring capacitors of 1nF or greater.
The diode is photosensitive, so it should be enclosed with R1 in a light-
tight electrostatic shield.
The capacitance of C1 can now be measured by first opening Ch. 9,
Banks B and D, then closing Ch. 10, Banks A through D. This will con-
nect the LCR bridge to capacitor C1. Ensure that all capacitors are dis-
charged before connecting the LCR bridge.
This system is relatively low in cost; however, it has several perfor-
mance limitations:
• The maximum test voltage is 110VDC. It’s capable of measuring
a leakage current of 1nA with fair accuracy, so it can verify capac-
itor leakage resistance of 100V/1nA or 100GΩ.
• The LCR bridge test frequency should be no more than 100kHz.
• The minimum capacitance that can be measured is on the order
of 10pF.

6.11 Accelerated Lifetime Testing of Cellular Phone Handsets

Overview
Lifetime testing is one of the most common types of production tests
that cell phone handsets undergo. The handsets are placed in an envi-
ronmental chamber and are subjected to severe temperature and
humidity conditions to test their reliability. Depending on the manu-
facturer’s test specification, the handset may be powered on or pow-
ered off during the test. From these tests, the reliability and lifetime of
the cell phone can be estimated.
A typical lifetime test system includes a communication analyzer,
power supplies, a handset controller, audio test instruments, and a
DMM. A switching system makes the necessary connections between
the various test instruments and the handsets.

Switching Configurations
Figure 6-26 is an overview of a cell phone lifetime test system based on
Keithley’s System 40 Microwave/RF Switch System. Given that this sys-
tem must be able to switch RF signals, audio signals, and DC signals, a
variety of switch cards are required.
In this example, high frequency switch cards are required to con-
nect the communications analyzer to the handset. Therefore, the RF

- SECTION 6
 Mobile Phone
RF Test Fixtures
7016A
GSM Comm.
Analyzer
Audio
7011

Power
DMM Audio 7053
Digital
Control
Power Supplies
7020

Power Supplies Conveyor

Control
7013
System 40

System 40
7002 Switch Pass/Fail PASS FAIL
Switch Mainframe Solution Indication

Figure 6-26. Cell phone test system

carrier signal is routed with the Model 7016A 50Ω 2GHz Multiplexer
Card.

A Model 7011 Quad 1×10 Multiplexer Card routes the 20Hz to

20kHz signals used for the audio testing to and from the handset. For
testing the audio quality of the handset, a Model 2015 or 2016 Total
Harmonic Distortion (THD) Multimeter allows making quick measure-
ments of a variety parameters, such as THD, THD plus noise, and sig-
nal-to-noise plus distortion (SINAD)

The handset under test is powered by the Model 2306 Battery/

Charger Simulator; power is routed to the handsets by the Model 7053
High Current Switch Card. This card, which has 10 channels and can
carry up to 5A, can easily handle the high current transients that may
flow when the phone is switched from receive mode to transmit mode.

A Model 7020 Digital I/O Interface Card is employed to switch the

digital signals used to set the phone to various operating modes during
testing. This card provides 40 independent inputs and outputs, so it
can be used to control many handsets at once.

Isolated relays, such as those used in the Model 7013 Relay Switch
Card, can be used to control certain test system requirements, such as
the conveyor.

APPLICATIONS -
6.12 Power Supply Burn-In Testing
Overview
“Burn-in” testing is a method of evaluating the quality of power sup-
plies by monitoring the output voltage with a load connected for a
specified period of time. This test is performed to ensure the power
supply will continue to function properly over its entire service life. As
the temperature in the environmental/burn-in chamber reaches the
upper and lower limits of the temperature range, the power supply out-
put is cycled on and off repeatedly. Even though power supplies may
have several outputs, monitoring a single output is usually sufficient
for burn-in testing. It is not uncommon to age and monitor thousands
of power supplies at once. When designing a burn-in test system, one
task is to determine the best way to switch all the output voltages to be
monitored.
To monitor the output voltage, a voltmeter is connected in parallel
with the load resistance. The load is chosen to emulate the current
draw the power supply undergoes in its intended application. For
accelerated stress testing, the load resistance may be selected to draw
a level of current higher than the rated current of the power supply.
The power supply output is often cycled and measured repeatedly,
then is left on continuously for an extended period. The duration of the
test cycle can range from less than an hour to many days, depending on
the manufacturer’s requirements. Figure 6-27 illustrates a typical
burn-in test cycle.

Switching Configuration
Typically, burn-in systems use switching to monitor the output voltage
and the environmental chamber temperature, and to control the
incoming AC power. Figure 6-28 illustrates a system for testing multi-
ple power supplies. For the sake of simplicity, this figure shows only
two power supplies under test. In this system, a Model 2750/7708
Multimeter/Switch System is used to monitor the voltage across the

Measure Measure Measure Measure Measure Measure Measure

“ON” Voltage

“OFF” Voltage
15s 15s 40 Minute Constant Cycle
“ON” “OFF”

Figure 6-27. Typical burn-in test cycle

- SECTION 6
 2750/7708 Multimeter/Switch System

Line HI
Solid State Power
Power Supply RL Ch. 1 Voltmeter
Input Relay Module
#1 LO

Ribbon
Cable
Power
Supply RL Ch. 2
#2
Digital I/O
Board

Personal
Computer

Thermo-
couple Ch. 40

Figure 6-28. Monitoring the output of a power supply

load resistors (RL), as well as monitor the temperature in the environ-

mental chamber. Each Model 7708 40-Channel Differential Multiplexer
Module has cold junction references to support temperature measure-
ments with thermocouples.
To limit the amount of power that can pass through the switch
mainframe, solid-state relays, such as the OAC5A Solid State I/O
Module in the SRA-01 Module Accessory Board, control the incoming
AC power for each supply under test. The SRA-01 board is controlled by
a KPCI-PIO24 Digital I/O Board that connects directly in the PC main-
frame. The KPCI-PIO24 is controlled via the PC through software.

APPLICATIONS -
APPENDIX A

Glossary
 The following terms are defined CHANNEL — One of several signal
to clarify or expand on how they paths on a switching card. For
relate specifically to the material scanner (or multiplex) cards,
in this handbook. the channel is used as a
switched input in measuring
circuits or as a switched out-
ACTUATION TIME — The time
put in sourcing circuits. For
between application of the
switch cards, each channel’s
nominal relay coil voltage and
signal paths are independent
the final closure of the relay
of other channels. For matrix
contacts after the contact
cards, a channel is established
bounce interval.
by the actuation of a relay at a
AUTOMATIC CJC (COLD JUNCTION row and column crosspoint.
COMPENSATION) — A system for Also see PATH.
multi-channel thermocouple
CHANNEL CROSSTALK — Coupling
measurements where the
of a signal from one channel
temperature at each thermo-
to another or to the output by
couple/switch card junction
stray capacitance, inductive
is sensed and compensated
coupling, or radiation.
for automatically.
Crosstalk is expressed in deci-
BANDWIDTH — The range of fre- bels at a specified load
quencies that can be impedance and at a specific
switched, conducted, or frequency.
amplified within certain lim-
CHANNEL ISOLATION — On a
its. Under given load condi-
switching card, the isolation
tions, bandwidth is defined by
from signal HI and LO of one
the –3dB (half-power) points.
channel to signal HI and LO
BANK — A group of relays with a of any other channel (or the
common connection for scan- output on switch or scanner
ning or multiplex applica- cards). Specified as resistance
tions. and capacitance, except for
BREAK-BEFORE-MAKE — RF cards (decibels and fre-
Disconnecting the present quency range). Also see PATH
circuit before connecting a ISOLATION.
new circuit. Also known as COAXIAL CABLE — A two-
BREAK/MAKE. conductor cable that has a
CARRY CURRENT — The maximum center conductor surrounded
continuous current of closed by a shield conductor, the two
relay contacts. Most relays are being coaxial and separated
rated higher for carry current by an insulator.
than switched current. (Heat COIL RESISTANCE — A nominal
is generated by I2R losses for value of the resistance of the
carry current and I2R losses coil winding of a relay.
plus arcing for switched cur-
rent.)

A-2 APPENDIX A
COLD JUNCTION — The junction in CONTACT LIFE — The maximum
a thermocouple circuit that is number of expected closures
at a known temperature. Also before failure. Life is depen-
known as REFERENCE JUNCTION. dent on the switched voltage,
COLD SWITCHING — Closing the current, and power. Failure
relay contacts before applying usually occurs when the con-
voltage and current and tact resistance exceeds the
removing voltage and current end of life value.
before opening the contacts. CONTACT POTENTIAL — A voltage
(Contacts do not make or produced between contact
break current.) Also see DRY terminals due to the tempera-
CIRCUIT SWITCHING. ture gradient across the relay
COLUMN — As viewed on the contacts, and the reed-to-ter-
schematic of a matrix minal junctions of dissimilar
card/module, the vertical sig- metals. (The temperature gra-
nal lines that are connected dient is typically caused by
via relays to the horizontal the power dissipated by the
rows. energized relay coil.)
COMMON MODE — Between two CONTACT RATING — The voltage,
signal lines and a third line current, and power capacities
(e.g., from signal HI and LO to of relay contacts under speci-
chassis ground or guard). fied environmental condi-
tions. See CARRY CURRENT and
COMMON MODE ISOLATION — On a
SWITCHED CURRENT.
switching card/module, the
isolation from signal HI and CONTACT RESISTANCE — For a relay,
LO to guard (or shield) for a 3- the resistance in ohms across
pole circuit, or from signal HI closed contacts. For a Keithley
and LO to chassis ground for switching card/module, also
a 2-pole circuit. Specified as includes the tape resistance
resistance and capacitance. and connector terminal resis-
tance. Also see PATH
COMMON MODE REJECTION RATIO —
RESISTANCE.
The ability of an instrument
to reject interference from a CONTACTS — The surfaces of cur-
common mode voltage at its rent carrying elements where
input terminals with respect electric circuits are opened or
to ground. Usually expressed closed.
in decibels at a frequency. CROSSPOINT — The intersecting
COMMON MODE VOLTAGE — A volt- point of a column and row in
age between input low and a relay matrix. Specified as
chassis ground of an instru- (column, row) or (row, col-
ment. umn). A crosspoint can con-
sist of one or more poles of
CONTACT BOUNCE — The intermit-
Form A (normally open) relay
tent and undesired opening of
switching.
relay contacts during closure.

GLOSSARY A-3
 CROSSTALK — See CHANNEL ELECTROCHEMICAL EFFECTS — The
CROSSTALK. property that generates cur-
CURRENT SURGE LIMITING — The rent between circuit board
circuitry necessary to protect conductors due to contami-
relay contacts from excessive nation of the card surface.
transient current. Minimized with proper han-
dling and cleaning.
DIFFERENTIAL INPUT ISOLATION —
On a switching card, the isola- ELECTROMECHANICAL RELAY — A
tion from signal HI to LO. relay that uses an electromag-
Specified as resistance and net to move an armature and
capacitance. make or break the relay
contacts.
DIFFERENTIAL MULTIPLEXER — A
type of switching card/mod- EMI — Abbreviation for
ule where one input is routed Electromagnetic Interference.
to one of several outputs (e.g., A term that defines unwanted
sourcing) or one of several electromagnetic radiation
inputs is routed to one output from a device that could
(e.g., measuring), and each interfere with desired signals
channel uses a 2-pole relay in test or communication
configuration (one pole for equipment, for example. RFI
signal HI and one pole for (Radio Frequency Inter-
signal LO). ference) and EMI are often
used interchangeably.
DIGITAL I/O — A TTL-level
input/output port that is pro- FLOATING — The condition where
grammable by the mainframe. a common mode voltage
exists between earth ground
DRY CIRCUIT SWITCHING —
and the instrument or circuit
Switching below specified
of interest. (Low of circuit is
levels of voltage (e.g., 20mV)
not at earth potential.) The
and current to minimize any
condition where signal LO in
physical and electrical
the system is electrically iso-
changes in the contact junc-
lated from earth ground.
tion. Also see COLD SWITCHING.
FORM A — A single-pole, normal-
DRY REED RELAY — A glass-
ly open contact configuration.
enclosed, hermetically sealed,
Also called SPST-NO. A two-
magnetically actuated con-
pole configuration is called 2
tact. No mercury or other wet-
Form A.
ting material is used.
FORM B — A single-pole, normal-
DUT — An abbreviation for
ly closed contact configura-
Device Under Test.
tion. Also called SPST-NC. A
two-pole configuration is
called 2 Form B.

A-4 APPENDIX A
FORM C —A single-pole, double- ISOLATED SWITCH — A type of card
throw contact configuration. where each channel is electri-
Also known as a transfer cally isolated from all other
switch. A two-pole configura- channels. Also called
tion is called 2 Form C or INDEPENDENT SWITCH CARD/
DPDT. MODULE.
GUARDING — A technique that ISOLATION — On a switching
reduces leakage errors and card/module, the impedance
decreases response time. between any stated terminals.
Consists of a guard conductor Specified as resistance and
driven by a low-impedance capacitance. See INPUT
source surrounding the lead ISOLATION.
of a high-impedance signal. ISOTHERMAL BLOCK — The ther-
The guard voltage is kept at or mally conductive block that
near the potential of the equalizes the temperature of
signal. all thermocouple connec-
INDEPENDENT SWITCH CARD/ tions.
MODULE — A type of card LATCHING RELAY — A relay that
where each channel is electri- maintains its contacts in the
cally isolated from all other last position assumed without
channels. Also called ISOLATED the need to keep the coil
SWITCH CARD/MODULE. energized.
INPUT ISOLATION — On a switching LEAKAGE CURRENT — Error current
card, the isolation from signal that flows through insulation
HI to LO (or guard) for a 2- resistance when a voltage is
pole circuit. Specified as resis- applied.
tance and capacitance.
LOW NOISE CABLE — A cable that is
INSERTION LOSS — The attenuation coated with a conductive
of signals being routed layer between the braid and
through a switching card. inner insulator (coax and
Specified as a decibel value triax) and under the inner
over a frequency range. shield (triax). This reduces
INSULATION RESISTANCE — The triboelectric currents caused
ohmic resistance of insula- by friction due to vibration,
tion. It degrades quickly as movement, or temperature
humidity increases. fluctuation.
I/O — Abbreviation for input/
output, which refers to the
transmission of information
to an external device (output),
and the reception of informa-
tion from an external device
(input).

GLOSSARY A-5
 MAINFRAME — A switching instru- MULTIPLEX — Connecting one
ment that operates according instrument to multiple
to user commands to connect devices under test or multiple
signals among sourcing and instruments to one device
measuring instruments and under test. Also see SCAN.
devices under test. Signal MULTIPLEX CARD — See SCANNER
switching is performed on CARD.
cards that are inserted into
NOISE — Any unwanted electron-
the mainframe rack. A main-
ic signal.
frame is also referred to as a
Scanner, Multiplexer, Matrix, NON-LATCHING RELAY — A relay
or Programmable Switch. that maintains its closed con-
tact position when the coil is
MAKE-BEFORE-BREAK —
energized and its open con-
Connecting a new circuit
tact position when the coil is
before disconnecting the pre-
not energized.
sent circuit. Also known as
Make/Break. NORMALLY CLOSED CONTACTS — A
contact pair that is closed
MATRIX — Connecting multiple
when the relay is not ener-
inputs to multiple outputs.
gized.
MATRIX CARD/MODULE — A type of
NORMALLY OPEN CONTACTS — A
card with a switching configu-
contact pair that is open
ration that has columns and
when the relay is not
rows of relay crosspoints.
energized.
With a matrix card, since any
one point can be connected NORMAL MODE — Between two
to any other, you can simulta- signal lines (e.g., from signal
neously have one input with HI to signal LO).
multiple outputs, multiple NORMAL MODE REJECTION RATIO —
inputs with one output, or The ability of an instrument
multiple inputs with multiple to reject an AC interference
outputs. (usually of line frequency)
MERCURY WETTED RELAY — A reed across its input terminals.
relay in which the contacts Usually expressed in decibels
are wetted by a film of mer- at a frequency.
cury. Usually has a required NORMAL MODE VOLTAGE — A volt-
position for proper operation; age applied between the input
some types are position high and input low terminals
insensitive. of an instrument.
MODULE — See SWITCH CARDS/
MODULES.

A-6 APPENDIX A
OFFSET CURRENT — A current that PROPAGATION DELAY — The speci-
comes from a switching card fied amount of time for a sig-
even though no signals are nal to be routed through a
applied. It comes mostly from previously closed channel of
the finite coil-to-contact a switching card. The delay
impedance. It is also generat- must be considered, for
ed by triboelectric, piezoelec- example, when the switched
tric, and electrochemical signal is used to synchronize
effects present on the card. other signals.
PATH — One of many signal paths REED RELAY — A relay using one
on a matrix switching card. A or more glass-enclosed, her-
path is established by the metically sealed, magnetically
actuation of a relay at a row actuated contact members.
and column crosspoint. Also Some types are dry to
see CHANNEL. improve isolation or make
PATH ISOLATION — On a matrix them position independent.
switching card, the isolation Some types are mercury wet-
from signal HI and LO of one ted to improve switched cur-
path to signal HI and LO of rent rating and make contact
any other path. Specified as resistance more predictable.
resistance and capacitance. Also see ELECTROMECHANICAL
Also see CHANNEL ISOLATION. RELAY and SOLID STATE RELAY.
PATH RESISTANCE — On a matrix REFERENCE CHANNEL — On a ther-
switching card, the resistance mocouple scanner card, the
per conductor of a closed channel that measures the
path, including the contact temperature of the isothermal
resistance, wiring resistance, block.
and connector terminal resis- REFERENCE OUTPUT — The output
tance. Also see CONTACT signal representing the tem-
RESISTANCE. perature of the reference
PIEZOELECTRIC CURRENTS — The channel, usually the isother-
current caused by mechanical mal block, on some thermo-
stress to certain insulating couple scanner cards/
materials. To minimize, the modules.
stress is removed from the RELAY — An electrically con-
insulators, and materials with trolled mechanical device that
low piezoelectric effect are opens and closes an electrical
used. contact. A relay provides iso-
POLE — A set of mating contacts lation of control signals from
in a relay or switch: normally switched signals.
open, normally closed, or
both.

GLOSSARY A-7
 RELAY DRIVE — The total current SHIELDING — A metal enclosure
available from the power sup- for the circuit being measured
ply of the mainframe to ener- or a metal sleeving surround-
gize the relay coils on switch- ing wire conductors (coax or
ing cards. This current is der- triax cable) to lessen interfer-
ated at elevated temperatures. ence, interaction, or current
RELAY DRIVE CURRENT — The leakage. The shield is usually
amount of current necessary grounded.
to energize a relay. Usually SINGLE-ENDED MULTIPLEXER — A
specified per channel. type of switching card/mod-
RELAY SETUP — A configuration of ule where one input is routed
open and closed relays. to one of several outputs (e.g.,
sourcing) or one of several
RELEASE TIME — The time
inputs is routed to one output
between the removal of the
(e.g., measuring). Each chan-
coil voltage and the stabilized
nel uses a single-pole relay for
opening of the contacts.
signal HI and a single com-
ROW — As viewed on the mon terminal is connected to
schematic of a matrix signal LO for all channels.
card/module, the horizontal
SOLID STATE RELAY — A relay that
signal lines that are connect-
switches electric circuits by
ed via relays to the vertical
use of semiconductor ele-
columns.
ments without moving parts
SCAN — Sequential connecting or conventional contacts.
(usually break-before-make)
SMA — A type of miniature coax-
of one instrument to multiple
ial connector used in situa-
devices under test or multiple
tions requiring shielded cable
instruments to one device
for signal connections.
under test. Also see MULTIPLEX.
SMB — A type of miniature coax-
SCANNER — See MAINFRAME.
ial connector used in situa-
SCANNER CARD — A type of tions requiring shielded cable
switching card where one for signal connections.
input is routed to one of sev-
SWITCH/MEASURE SYSTEM— An
eral outputs (e.g., sourcing),
instrument that integrates a
or one of several inputs is
switch mainframe and a digi-
routed to one output (e.g.,
tal meter into a single chassis.
measuring). The actual
Signal switching is performed
switching can be nonsequen-
on cards/modules that are
tial (multiplex) or sequential
inserted into the chassis.
(scan). Also known as a
Multiplex Card. SWITCHED CURRENT — The maxi-
mum current level that can be
SETTLE TIME — The time required
reliably handled while open-
for establishing relay connec-
ing and closing contacts. Also
tions and stabilizing user
see CARRY CURRENT.
circuits.

A-8 APPENDIX A
SWITCHING CARD/MODULES — The VOLTAGE CLAMPING — The circuitry
general classification of relay necessary to protect relay
cards. May be subdivided contacts from excessive volt-
into: independent switch age caused by switching cur-
cards (1 input to 1 output), rent into inductive loads.
scanner or multiplex cards VSWR — Abbreviation for Voltage
(1:N, N:1) and matrix cards Standing Wave Ratio.
(M:N). Expressed as a ratio of the
T/C COLD JUNCTION — See COLD highest voltage to the lowest
JUNCTION. voltage found along the signal
TEMPERATURE OFFSET — On a path.
thermocouple scanner card,
the maximum temperature For further reading on switching
difference between any two terminology, see the following
channels on the card’s references:
isothermal block.
TEST FIXTURE — An enclosure,
ANSI/EIA RS-473-1981.
sometime shielded, used for
Definitions and Terminology for
mounting single or multiple
Relays for Electronic Equipment.
devices for testing purposes.
American National Standards
THERMAL OFFSET VOLTAGE — See Institute, 1981.
CONTACT POTENTIAL.
ANSI/IEEE Std. 100-1992. IEEE
TRIAXIAL CABLE — A three-conduc- Standard Dictionary of Electrical
tor cable that has a center and Electronics Terms. 5th edi-
conductor surrounded by an tion. Institute of Electrical and
inner shield conductor that is Electronics Engineers, 1992.
in turn surrounded by an
Engineers’ Relay Handbook. 5th
outer shield conductor.
edition. National Association of
TRIBOELECTRIC CURRENT — The Relay Manufacturers, 1996.
current caused by friction
between a conductor and
insulator when a cable flexes
due to vibrations, movement,
or temperature fluctuation.
Also see LOW NOISE CABLE.
TRIGGER — An external stimulus
that initiates one or more
instrument functions. Trigger
stimuli include: the front
panel, an external trigger
pulse, and IEEE-488 bus X,
Talk, and GET triggers.

GLOSSARY A-9
 APPENDIX B

Switch Card and

Switch Module
Selector Guides
 Switching Cards for 7001 and 7002 Mainframes

B-2
Max.
No. of Card Contact Max. Max. Max. Contact Offset Recomm. Connection
Channels Config. Config. Voltage Current Power Potential Current Frequency Type CE Comments

HIGH DENSITY
7011-C 40 Multiplexer 2 form A 110V 1A 60VA <1µV <100pA 2MHz Connector Yes Four independent 1×10
multiplexers, connec-
tion to backplane
7011-S 40 Multiplexer 2 form A 110V 1A 60VA <500nV <100pA 2MHz Screw term. Yes Four independent 1×10
multiplexers, connec-
tion to backplane
7012-C 4×10 Matrix 2 form A 110V 1A 60VA <1µV <100pA 2MHz Connector Yes Rows connect to analog
backplane
7012-S 4×10 Matrix 2 form A 110V 1A 60VA <500nV <100pA 2MHz Screw term. Yes Rows connect to analog
backplane
7013-C 20 Isolated Switch 2 form A 110V 1A 60VA <1µV <100pA 10MHz Connector Yes
7013-S 20 Isolated Switch 2 form A 110V 1A 60VA <500nV <100pA 10MHz Screw term. Yes
7015-C 40 Multiplexer 2 form A 175V 34mA 0.3VA <5µV <1nA 500kHz Connector Yes Solid state switch for
high reliability
7015-S 40 Multiplexer 2 form A 175V 34mA 0.3VA <5µV <1nA 500kHz Screw term. Yes Solid state switch for
high reliability
7018-C 28 Multiplexer 3 form A 110V 1A 60VA <5µV <100pA 2MHz Connector Yes 3 pole switching
7018-S 28 Multiplexer 3 form A 110V 1A 60VA <5µV <100pA 2MHz Screw term. Yes 3 pole switching
7035 36 Multiplexer 2 form A 60V 1A 30VA <1µV <100pA 10MHz Connector Yes 9 independent 1×4
multiplexers
7036 40 Isolated Switch 1 form A 60V 1A 30VA <4µV <100pA 10MHz Connector Yes 40 independent channels
of 1-pole switching

APPENDIX B
7111-S 40 Multiplexer 1 form C 110V 1A 60VA <500nV <100pA 2MHz Screw term. Yes Four independent 1×10
multiplexers, connection
to backplane
 Switching Cards for 7001 and 7002 Mainframes continued
Max.
No. of Card Contact Max. Max. Max. Contact Offset Recomm. Connection
Channels Config. Config. Voltage Current Power Potential Current Frequency Type CE Comments

GENERAL PURPOSE
7052 4×5 Matrix 3 form A 200V 200mA 10VA <5µV <100pA 3MHz Screw term. Yes Switched High, Low,
Guard
7056 10/20* Multiplexer 2 form A 150V 250mA 10VA <100µV 10MHz Screw term. Yes 10 channel 2-pole,
20 channel 1-pole
7066 10 Isolated switch 2 form A 350V 2A 125VA <30µV 3MHz Screw term. Yes
7156-D 10/20* Multiplexer 2 form A 150V 500mA 10VA <100µV 3MHz Connector Yes
7156-M 10/20* Multiplexer 2 form A 150V 750mA 30VA <100µV 3MHz Connector Yes Mercury wetted contacts
7164-D 20* Multiplexer 2 form A 100V 500mA 10VA <50µV 3MHz Connector Yes
7164-M 20* Multiplexer 2 form A 100V 750mA 30VA <75µV 3MHz Connector Yes Mercury wetted contacts
7166 10 Isolated switch 2 form A 300V 750mA 30VA 75µV typ. 3MHz Connector Yes Mercury wetted contacts

LOW VOLTAGE
7059 10 Multiplexer 2 form A 200V 100mA 2VA <1µV 3MHz Screw term. Yes
7064 20* Multiplexer 2 form A 40V 100mA 2VA <1µV 10MHz Screw term. Yes

SWITCH CARD AND SWITCH MODULE SELECTOR GUIDES

7067 10 Multiplexer 4 form A 150V 350mA 10VA <1µV 1MHz Screw term. Yes 4 wire resistance meas-
urements
7168 8 Multiplexer 2 form A 10V 50mA <30nV 1kHz Screw term. Yes

HIGH VOLTAGE
7054 10 Multiplexer 1 form A 1000V 500mA 10VA 1MHz Screw term. Yes
7154 10 Multiplexer 2 form A 1100V 500mA 10VA <35µV 1MHz Screw term. Yes
7169A 20 Isolated switch 1 form C 500V 500mA 10VA <30µV 2MHz Connector Yes Coupon testing. Use
with 7002.

B-3
 Switching Cards for 7001 and 7002 Mainframes continued

B-4
Max.
No. of Card Contact Max. Max. Max. Contact Offset Recomm. Connection
Channels Config. Config. Voltage Current Power Potential Current Frequency Type CE Comments

Control
7019-C Dual Matrix 1 form A 200V 1A 10VA <25µV <100pA 2MHz Connector Yes 6-wire resistance
3×6 measurements
7020 80 Digital I/O Connector Yes 40 inputs/40 outputs
7020-D**
7021 30/20 Mux/ 2 form A 110V 1A 30VA <3µV <100pA 10MHz Connector Yes Dual multiplexers.
Digital I/O Up to 30 channels, 10
digital inputs, 10 digital
outputs.
7022 30/20 Matrix/ 2 form A 110V 1A 30VA <3µV <100pA 10MHz Connector Yes 5 row×6 column matrix,
Digital I/O 10 digital inputs,
10 digital outputs.
7037 30/20 Isolated/ 1 form A 110V 1A 30VA <4µV <100pA 10MHz Connector Yes 30 independent channels
7037-D** Digital I/O of 1-pole switching, 10
digital inputs, 10 digital
outputs
7065 Hall Effect measurement
buffer card

LOW CURRENT
7058 10 Multiplexer 1 form C 200V 100mA <250µV <1pA 3MHz 2-lug triax Yes Can also be used as a
voltage switch
7152 4×5 Matrix 2 form A 200V 500mA 10VA <20µV <1pA 60MHz Connector Yes

APPENDIX B
7153 4×5 Matrix 2 form A 1300V 500mA 10VA <50µV <1pA 60MHz Connector Yes
7158 10 Multiplexer 1 form C 30V 100mA <200µV <1pA 1MHz BNC Yes
 Switching Cards for 7001 and 7002 Mainframes continued
Max.
No. of Card Contact Max. Max. Max. Contact Offset Recomm. Connection
Channels Config. Config. Voltage Current Power Potential Current Frequency Type CE Comment

HIGH CURRENT
7053 10 Multiplexer 2 form C 300V 5A 100VA <1mV 1MHz Screw term.

RF
7062 double 1×5 2 isolated 1 pole,
switches 5 throw 24V 50mA 0.5VA <20µV 500MHz BNC Yes 50Ω unterminated
7063 double 1×5 2 isolated 1 pole,
switches 5 throw 5V 50mA 0.5VA <20µV 500MHz BNC Yes 50Ω terminated
7016A double 1×4 2 isolated 1 pole,
switches 4 throw 30V 500mA 10VA <6µV 2GHz SMA Yes Optional 50Ω
termination
7017 double 1×4 2 isolated 1 pole, 30V 1A 10VA <25µV 800MHz SMA Yes 108 closures contact life.
switches 4 throw
7038 12 Three 1×4 1 pole, 24V 10mA 10W @ <15µV 2GHz 75Ω SMB Yes 75Ω characteristic
multiplexers 1 of 4 tree 1.2GHz receptacle impedance

SWITCH CARD AND SWITCH MODULE SELECTOR GUIDES

THERMOCOUPLE
7014 39 Multiplexer 2 form A 110V 1A 60VA <1µV <100pA 2MHz Screw term. Yes Built-in cold junction ref.
7057A 9 Multiplexer 2 form A 42V 100mA 2VA <1µV Screw term. Yes Built-in cold junction ref:
–1mV/°C (0mV at +30°C)
7402 9 Multiplexer 2 form A 42V 100mA 2VA <1µV Screw term. Yes Built-in cold junction ref:
+200µV/°C (+54.63mV
at 0°C)

B-5
 Switching Cards for 7001 and 7002 Mainframes continued

B-6
Max.
No. of Card Contact Max. Max. Max. Contact Offset Recomm. Connection
Channels Config. Config. Voltage Current Power Potential Current Frequency Type CE Comment

PROTOTYPE & ADAPTER CARD

7061 10 Prototyping

* An even numbered channel and an odd numbered channel cannot be turned on at the same time (only in the 20 channel mode for 10/20 channel cards).
** Cards with a -D suffix feature D-sub connectors.

APPENDIX B
 Switching Cards for 707A and 708A Mainframes
Max.
No. of Card Contact Max. Max. Max. Contact Offset Recomm. Connection
Channels Config. Config. Voltage Current Power Potential Current Frequency Type CE Comments

LOW CURRENT
7072 8×12 Matrix 2 form A 200V 1A 10VA <20µV <1pA 15 MHz 3-lug triax Yes Optimized for semiconductor
applications.
7072-HV 8×12 Matrix 2 form A 1300V 1A 10VA <20µV <1pA 4 MHz 3-lug triax Optimized for semiconductor
applications.
7172 8×12 Matrix 2 form A 200V 1A 10VA <30µV <500fA 30 MHz 3-lug triax Yes Optimized for semiconductor
applications.
7174A 8×12 Matrix 2 form A 200V 2A <100fA 30 MHz 3-lug triax Yes Optimized for semiconductor
applications.

GENERAL PURPOSE
7071 8×12 Matrix 3 form A 200V 500mA 10VA <5µV <100pA 3 MHz connector Yes Also provides screw terminal
connection.
7071-4 Dual 4×12 Matrix 3 form A 200V 500mA 10VA <5µV <100pA 3 MHz connector Yes Screw terminals available on
row connections.
7074-D Eight 1×12 Multiplexer 3 form A 200V 500mA 10VA <5µV <100pA 5 MHz connector Yes

SWITCH CARD AND SWITCH MODULE SELECTOR GUIDES

7075 Eight 1×12 Multiplexer 2 form A 110V 1A 30VA <5µV <100pA 30 MHz connector Yes
7076 Dual 4×12 Matrix 2 form A 110V 1A 30VA <5µV <100pA 15 MHz connector Yes
7077 Dual 8×12 Matrix 2 form A 42V 1A 30VA <5µV <100pA 15 MHz BNC Yes Isolated BNC for differential
systems.

B-7
B-8
Switching Cards for 707A and 708A Mainframes continued
Max.
No. of Card Contact Max. Max. Max. Contact Offset Recomm. Connection
Channels Config. Config. Voltage Current Power Potential Current Frequency Type CE Comments

HIGH FREQUENCY
7073 8×12 Matrix 1-pole form A 200V 1A 30VA <2µV <200pA 30MHz BNC Yes
7173-50 4×12 Matrix 2 form C 30V 0.5A 10VA <15µV <200pA 200MHz BNC Yes

PROTOTYPE
7070 96 Yes 7070 includes ribbon cable
to extend
7070-PCA 96 backplane outside mainframe.

APPENDIX B
 Switch/Control Modules for Model 2700 and 2750 Multimeter/Switch Systems
Max. Current
# Analog Type of Max. Switched Measurement Digital Switch
Module Inputs Configuration Differential* 4-pole Connector Voltage Current Channels I/O Speed Other
7700 20 Multiplexer 1 × 20 or 1 × 10 Screw 300V 1A 2 channels N/A 3 ms Maximum power
w/CJC two 1 × 10 terminals @ 3A = 125VA.
7701 32 Multiplexer 1 × 32 or 1 × 16 D-sub 150V 1A N/A N/A 3 ms Maximum power
two 1 × 16 = 125VA.
7702 40 Multiplexer 1 × 40 or 1 × 20 Screw 300V 1A 2 channels N/A 3 ms Maximum power
two 1 × 20 terminals @ 3A = 125VA.
7703 32 Multiplexer 1 × 32 or 1 × 16 D-sub 300V 500mA N/A N/A 1 ms Reed relays.
two 1 × 16
7705 40 Independent N/A N/A D-sub 300V 2A N/A N/A 3 ms Maximum power
SPST = 125VA.
7706 20 Multiplexer 1 × 20 or 1 × 10 Screw 300V 1A N/A 16 Digital 3 ms (2) ±12V analog
w/CJC two 1 × 10 terminals Out Only output channels &
100kHz event
counter/totalizer.
Max. power = 125VA.
7707 10 Multiplexer/ 1 × 10 or 1×5 D-sub 300V 1A N/A 32 Digital 3 ms Max. power = 125VA.
Digital I/O two 1 × 5 I/O (4) eight-bit word I/O.

SWITCH CARD AND SWITCH MODULE SELECTOR GUIDES

7708 40 Multiplexer 1 × 40 or 1 × 20 Screw 300V 1A N/A N/A 3 ms Maximum power
w/CJC two 1 × 20 terminals = 125VA.
7709 48 6 × 8 Matrix Yes Yes D-sub 300V 1A N/A N/A 3 ms Connects to inter-
nal DMM. Daisy
chain multiple cards
for up to a 6 × 40
matrix. Maximum
power = 125VA.

* Can be disconnected from internal DMM for routing external signals

B-9
 APPENDIX C

Safety Considerations
 Many electrical test systems or instruments are capable of measuring
or sourcing hazardous voltage and power levels. It is also possible,
under single fault conditions (e.g., a programming error or an instru-
ment failure), to output hazardous levels even when the system indi-
cates no hazard is present.
These high voltage and power levels make it essential to protect oper-
ators from any of these hazards at all times.
Protection methods include:
• Design test fixtures to prevent operator contact with any hazardous
circuit.
• Make sure the device under test is fully enclosed to protect the
operator from any flying debris.
• Double insulate all electrical connections that an operator could
touch. Double insulation ensures the operator is still protected, even
if one insulation layer fails.
• Use high-reliability, fail-safe interlock switches to disconnect power
sources when a test fixture cover is opened.
• Where possible, use automated handlers so operators do not require
access to the inside of the test fixture or have a need to open guards.
• Provide proper training to all users of the system so they understand
all potential hazards and know how to protect themselves from
injury.
It is the responsibility of the test system designers, integrators, and
installers to make sure operator and maintenance personnel protec-
tion is in place and effective.
The following safety precautions should be observed before using any
Keithley product and any associated instrumentation. Although some
instruments and accessories would normally be used with non-
hazardous voltages, there are situations where hazardous conditions
may be present. Keithley products are intended for use by qualified
personnel who recognize shock hazards and are familiar with the safe-
ty precautions required to avoid possible injury. Read the operating
information provided in each product's manual carefully before using
any Keithley product.

The types of product users are:

Responsible body is the individual or group responsible for the use
and maintenance of equipment, for ensuring that the equipment is
operated within its specifications and operating limits, and for ensur-
ing that operators are adequately trained.
Operators use the product for its intended function. They must be
trained in electrical safety procedures and proper use of the instru-
ment. They must be protected from electric shock and contact with
hazardous live circuits.

C-2 APPENDIX C
Maintenance personnel perform routine procedures on the product to
keep it operating, for example, setting the line voltage or replacing con-
sumable materials. Maintenance procedures are described in the man-
ual. The procedures explicitly state if the operator may perform them.
Otherwise, they should be performed only by service personnel.
Service personnel are trained to work on live circuits, and perform safe
installations and repairs of products. Only properly trained service per-
sonnel may perform installation and service procedures.
Exercise extreme caution when a shock hazard is present. Lethal volt-
age may be present on cable connector jacks or test fixtures. The
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) states that a shock haz-
ard exists when voltage levels greater than 30V RMS, 42.4V peak, or
60VDC are present. A good safety practice is to expect that hazardous
voltage is present in any unknown circuit before measuring.
Users of these products must be protected from electric shock at all
times. The responsible body must ensure that users are prevented
access and/or insulated from every connection point. In some cases,
connections must be exposed to potential human contact. Product
users in these circumstances must be trained to protect themselves
from the risk of electric shock. If the circuit is capable of operating at or
above 1000 volts, no conductive part of the circuit may be exposed.
As described in the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
Standard IEC 664, these instruments are Installation Category I, and
signal lines must not be directly connected to AC mains.
For rack mounted equipment in which the power cord is not accessi-
ble, in the event of fire or other catastrophic failure, the user must pro-
vide a separate power disconnect switch.
Do not connect switching cards directly to unlimited power circuits.
They are intended to be used with impedance limited sources. NEVER
connect switching cards directly to AC mains. When connecting
sources to switching cards, install protective devices to limit fault cur-
rent and voltage to the card.
Before operating an instrument, make sure the line cord is connected
to a properly grounded power receptacle. Inspect the connecting
cables, test leads, and jumpers for possible wear, cracks, or breaks
before each use.
For maximum safety, do not touch the product, test cables, or any other
instruments while power is applied to the circuit under test. ALWAYS
remove power from the entire test system and discharge any capacitors
before: connecting or disconnecting cables or jumpers, installing or
removing switching cards, or making internal changes, such as
installing or removing jumpers.
Do not touch any object that could provide a current path to the com-
mon side of the circuit under test or power line (earth) ground. Always

SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS C-3

 make measurements with dry hands while standing on a dry, insulated
surface capable of withstanding the voltage being measured.
Instruments and accessories must be used in accordance with specifi-
cations and operating instructions or the safety of the equipment may
be impaired.
Do not exceed the maximum signal levels of the instruments and
accessories, as defined in the specifications and operating informa-
tion, and as shown on the instrument or test fixture panels, or switch-
ing card.
When fuses are used in a product, replace with same type and rating for
continued protection against fire hazard.
Chassis connections must only be used as shield connections for
measuring circuits, NOT as safety earth ground connections.
If you are using a test fixture, keep the lid closed while power is applied
to the device under test. Safe operation requires the use of a lid
interlock.
If a screw is present, connect it to safety earth ground using the wire
recommended in the user documentation.
The symbol on an instrument indicates that the user should refer
to the operating instructions located in the manual.
The symbol on an instrument shows that it can source or measure
1000 volts or more, including the combined effect of normal and
common mode voltages. Use standard safety precautions to avoid
personal contact with these voltages.
The WARNING heading in a manual explains dangers that might result
in personal injury or death. Always read the associated information
very carefully before performing the indicated procedure.
The CAUTION heading in a manual explains hazards that could dam-
age the instrument. Such damage may invalidate the warranty.
Instrumentation and accessories shall not be connected to humans.
Before performing any maintenance, disconnect the line cord and all
test cables.
To maintain protection from electric shock and fire, replacement com-
ponents in mains circuits, including the power transformer, test leads,
and input jacks, must be purchased from Keithley Instruments.
Standard fuses, with applicable national safety approvals, may be used
if the rating and type are the same. Other components that are not safe-
ty related may be purchased from other suppliers as long as they are
equivalent to the original component. (Note that selected parts should
be purchased only through Keithley Instruments to maintain accuracy
and functionality of the product.) If you are unsure about the applica-
bility of a replacement component, call a Keithley Instruments office
for information.

C-4 APPENDIX C
To clean an instrument, use a damp cloth or mild, water based cleaner.
Clean the exterior of the instrument only. Do not apply cleaner direct-
ly to the instrument or allow liquids to enter or spill on the instrument.
Products that consist of a circuit board with no case or chassis (e.g.,
data acquisition board for installation into a computer) should never
require cleaning if handled according to instructions. If the board
becomes contaminated and operation is affected, the board should be
returned to the factory for proper cleaning/servicing.

SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS C-5

Index
 A Contact potential, 1-3, 2-3, 2-7 to
2-9, 3-3 to 3-4, 4-5, 4-6, 4-24
Analog backplane, 1-9, 1-10, 2-12
to 2-13, 5-2 to 5-3, 6-29 Contact resistance, 2-3, 2-6 to
2-7, 4-7, 4-14, 4-23, 4-31, 6-15
Arcing, 2-5, 3-6
to 6-18
B Continuity testing, 4-23, 6-6 to
Bandwidth, 1-3, 1-7, 2-12, 4-34, 6-7, 6-10 to 6-11
4-35, 6-28 Crosstalk, 1-3, 1-12, 2-9 to 2-10,
Battery testing, 4-2, 6-2 to 6-3 4-34
Built-in reference junction, 6-18 Current limiting resistor, 4-28 to
to 6-19 4-29, 6-3, 6-15, 6-31
Burn-in testing, 6-34 to 6-35 Current switching, 4-10 to 4-22
high, 4-14 to 4-16
C low, 4-16 to 4-19
Capacitance measurements, 6-28 low through a matrix, 4-19 to
to 6-32 4-22
Capacitor leakage measure-
ments, 4-31, 6-3 to 6-6 D
Carry current, 2-5 Differential input isolation, 2-4
Cascade switching, 1-11 to 1-12, Digital input/output (Digital
4-34 I/O), 2-13
Channel-to-channel isolation, Diode testing, 6-23 to 6-27
2-3 to 2-4, 6-9 Drive current, 1-14, 2-2
Channel resistance, 2-3, 2-6 to Dry circuit testing, 6-15 to 6-16
2-7
Coaxial cable, 4-35, 5-4, 6-6, 6-15, E
6-29 Electrostatic interference, 4-8
Cold junction reference, 6-18, Excitation time, 4-29
6-35
External reference junction, 6-20
Cold switching, 2-5, 3-6, 4-7, to 6-22
4-14, 4-16, 4-31
Common mode input isolation, F
2-4 Film contamination, 4-7
Connections and wiring, 5-2 to Form (Contact form), 1-3 to 1-4
5-3, 4-35 to 4-36 Four-wire switching, 2-6, 4-25 to
Connector selection for RF 4-27
switching, 4-36
Contact (or crosspoint) configu- G
ration, 1-3 to 1-4, 2-12 Guarding, 3-4, 4-9, 4-10, 4-16,
Contact bounce, 4-32 4-17, 4-18, 4-21, 4-28, 4-29,
5-5, 5-6, 6-13, 6-26
Contact life, 2-5, 4-14
Grounding, 5-4

I-2 INDEX
Ground loops, 4-5, 4-7, 5-4 Microwave Monolithic Integrated
Circuits (MMICs), 4-33
H Multiplex switch, 1-5
Hardware verification and trou- Multi-position switch, 4-34
bleshooting, 5-4 to 5-6
Hot switching, 2-5, 3-6 O
Offset compensation, 2-8, 4-6,
I 4-23 to 4-25
Ice point, 6-20 Offset current, 1-3, 1-7, 2-3, 2-9,
Ideal switch, 1-2, 2-2 to 2-3 3-3, 3-4, 4-8, 4-16, 4-21, 4-29,
Impedance matching, 4-35, 4-36 5-6
In-rush current, 4-31 to 4-32 Offset voltage, 2-3, 2-7, 2-8, 4-2,
4-5, 4-6, 4-8, 4-23, 4-24, 4-27
Insertion loss, 2-10 to 2-11, 4-34,
4-35 P
Insulation resistance, 1-5 to 1-6, Path isolation, 2-4, 4-34
4-9, 6-4
Phase distortion, 4-35
testing, 6-6, 6-7 to 6-10
Phase-matched cables, 4-36
testing combined with conti-
nuity testing, 6-10 to 6-11 Platinum RTDs, 6-21 to 6-22
testing of printed circuit Plug-in data acquisition boards,
boards, 6-11 to 6-15 1-15
Integrated scanners, 1-15 Pole, 1-3
Isolated switch, 1-10, 4-11 Power transmission, 4-35
Isolation, 2-3 to 2-4 Printed circuit boards, 6-6, 6-10,
6-11 to 6-15
L
R
LCR meter, 6-28 to 6-31
Radio Frequency Integrated
Leakage resistance, 1-3, 2-3, 2-9, Circuits (RFICs), 4-32 to 4-33
4-17, 5-5, 6-3 to 6-4, 6-11
Radio Frequency Interference
M (RFI), 2-5, 3-6
Magnetic interference, 4-7 Reactive loads, 4-7 to 4-8, 4-15,
4-31 to 4-32
Mainframe specifications, 2-12 to
2-13 RC time constant, 3-4 to 3-5, 6-6
Mass-terminated cables and Reflection coefficient, 2-11
connectors, 5-2, 6-29 Relay actuation time, 3-4
Matrix switch, 1-5 to 1-10, 1-14, Relays, 1-2 to 1-15, 2-2 to 2-12
4-19 to 4-22, 4-34 latching, 2-8, 4-6
Maximum signal levels, 2-4 to mercury-filled or -wetted, 2-6
2-5
Relay welding, 4-31
Microwave switching, 4-32 to
4-36 Remote sensing, 4-3 to 4-4

INDEX I-3
 Removable jumpers, 2-13, 4-13, Switching speed, 3-4 to 3-6
5-2 to 5-3, 6-29 System uncertainties, calculat-
Resistance switching, 4-23 to ing, 3-3 to 3-4
4-31
low, 4-23 to 4-27 T
high, 4-27 to 4-31 Temperature scanning, 6-18 to
6-23
Response time, 3-4, 4-9 to 4-10,
4-21 Termination, 4-35

RF switching, 1-11 to 1-14, 2-10, Test coupons, 6-11 to 6-15

4-32 to 4-36 Thermistors, 4-23, 6-22 to 6-23
Thermocouples, 4-2, 6-18 to 6-21
S
Thermoelectric drift, 4-6
Scanner switch, 1-4 to 1-5
Thermoelectric electromotive
Screw terminal connections, 5-2, forces (EMFs), 2-7
5-3
Thermoelectric offset voltage
Settling time, 1-3, 3-4, 4-8, 4-16, (contact potential), 4-5 to 4-6
4-19, 5-5, 5-6
Throw, 1-3
Shielding, 4-7, 4-9, 4-18, 4-27,
4-32, 4-35, 5-3 to 5-4 Tree switching, 1-12 to 1-13

Shunt capacitance, 4-8 to 4-10 Trigger execution time, 3-4

Signal filter, 4-35 Trigger latency, 3-4

Simulated reference tempera- Triggering, 2-13, 3-5 to 3-6

ture, 6-19 to 6-20
V
Single-pole, double-throw
Van der Pauw resistivity meas-
(SPDT) switch, 4-34, 5-6
urements, 4-30 to 4-31
Soak time, 6-4
Voltage clamping, 4-7 to 4-8, 4-32
Source current/measure voltage
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
method of determining resist-
(VSWR), 2-11 to 2-12, 4-34,
ance, 4-31
4-35
Source voltage/measure current
Voltage switching, 4-2 to 4-10
method of determining resist-
ance, 4-28 to 4-31 low, 4-4 to 4-7
Stand-alone scanner main- high impedance, 4-8 to 4-10
frames, 1-14 to 1-15 high, 4-7 to 4-8
Switch card configurations, 1-4
to 1-14, 2-12
Switch card specifications, 2-2 to
2-12
Switch mainframe, 1-2, 2-12 to
2-13
Switch resistance, 4-3 to 4-4
Switched current, 2-5

I-4 INDEX
 A GREATER MEASURE OF CONFIDENCE

Switching Handbook
Switching
Handbook
A Guide to Signal Switching in Automated Test Systems

Specifications are subject to change without notice.

All Keithley trademarks and trade names are the property of Keithley Instruments, Inc. All other
trademarks and trade names are the property of their respective companies.

Keithley Instruments, Inc.

© Copyright 2001 Keithley Instruments, Inc.

28775 Aurora Road • Cleveland, Ohio 44139 • 440-248-0400 • Fax: 440-248-6168
1-888-KEITHLEY (534-8453) www.keithley.com

No. 1716
4
th
Edition
4th

Printed in the U.S.A. 70130KSI

Edition

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