EVOLUTION &

SPECIATION

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EVOLUTION, SELECTIVE BREEDING
Statement(s) and Objective(s):

A4.1.1: Evolution as change in the heritable characteristics of a population

● Define evolution.
● Distinguish between heritable and acquired characteristics (Comparing Lamarck and
Darwin’s theories of evolution).

A4.1.2: Evidence for evolution from base sequences in DNA or RNA and amino acid
sequences in proteins
● Identify the sources of evidence of evolution

A4.1.3: Evidence for evolution from selective breeding of domesticated animals and crop
plants
● Define selective breeding and artificial selection.
● List reasons why humans have selectively bred domesticated animals and crop
plants.
● Outline how selective breeding can lead to rapid evolutionary change..
● Explain an example of artificial selection in a crop plant.
● Explain an example of artificial selection in a domestic animal.
EVOLUTION, SELECTIVE BREEDING
A4.1.4: Evidence from evolution from homologous structure
● State an example of homologous structures.
● Define vestigial structure.
● State an example of a vestigial structure.
● Define pentadactyl limb.
● List the bone structures present in the pentadactyl limb.
● Identify pentadactyl limb structures in diagrams of amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.
● Relate differences in pentadactyl limb structures to differences in limb function.

A4.1.5: Convergent evolution as the origin of analogous structures

● Define analogous structure.
● State an example of an analogous structure found in two species.
● Outline how convergent evolution results in analogous structures.

A4.1.6: Speciation by splitting of pre-exisiting species

● Define speciation.
● Compare the process of speciation with that of gradual evolutionary change in an existing species.
● State the impact of speciation and extinction on the total number of species on Earth.

A4.1.7: Roles of reproductive isolation and differential selection in speciation

● Define reproductive isolation.
● Outline how reproductive isolation and differential survival lead to speciation.
● Outline examples of speciations
● Explain how reproductive isolation can maintain the divergent evolution of two separate species
occupying the same habitat.
Evolution

Evolution at its most fundamental level simply describes a change over time
■ In living organisms this change refers to the heritable characteristics of a species (biological
evolution)

Heritable characteristics are encoded for by genes and may be transferred between generations as
alleles
■ Hence biological evolution describes cumulative changes that occur within a population
between one generation and the next

A concise definition for biological evolution is:

■ A cumulative change in the allele frequency of a population’s gene pool over successive
generations

Evolution = Change Over Time

“… but, evolution is just a theory
Despite the strength of evidence
…”
Evolution: It's a Thing there is still widespread disbelief of
evolution among some religious
groups.

Why science is NOT 'Just a Theory'

Richard Dawkins - Growing up in the Universe

1 hour long, but worth it

Watch the videos to learn more

about theories, evolution and the
http://youtu.be/dw4w1UsOafQ evidence supporting evolution.
Supposed examples of evolution by acquired characters (Lamarckism)
● The ancestors of the giraffe appeared similar to modern horses, with smaller necks and forelimbs
compared to modern giraffes. Lamarckism states that the ancestors of giraffes, striving to reach
the leaves of trees as an alternative source of food, were able to lengthen their necks. If such
characters are inherited, the next generation of giraffes would be born with longer necks and
would then stretch them further (Figure A4.1.1).

● Weightlifters acquire better-developed muscles, which can then be passed on to their offspring.

In contrast, the theory of evolution proposed by Charles Darwin proposed that variation within a
population leads to selection pressures, which enables organisms that are better adapted to the
environment to survive and pass on this advantage to future generations (with reference to giraffes,
see Figure A4.1.1).
Feature Lamarckism Darwinism

Acquired characteristics during an Random variations within a population due

Basis of Variation
organism's lifetime. to mutation, gene recombination, etc.

Mechanism of Inheritance of acquired traits to the Natural selection acting on heritable

Change next generation. variations.

Relatively rapid, as changes occur Gradual, occurring over generations as

Rate of Evolution
within the lifetime of individuals. advantageous traits are selected for.

Individuals with traits advantageous for

Concept of Traits acquired through use or disuse
survival and reproduction are more likely
Fitness are passed on.
to pass on their genes.

Environment acts as a selective pressure,

Role of Environment shapes the traits an
determining which traits are
Environment organism develops.
advantageous.

Giraffes stretching their necks to Peppered moths evolving darker

Examples reach higher leaves, leading to longer coloration in polluted environments for
necks in offspring. camouflage.

Accumulation of evidence from fossil

Supportive Lack of understanding of genetics at
records, comparative anatomy, molecular
Evidence the time led to acceptance.
biology, etc.

Rejected due to lack of empirical Accepted as the fundamental mechanism

Acceptance in
evidence and advancements in of evolution, supported by extensive
Modern Biology
genetics. research.
 Fossils give us data on species
that are no longer living. We
can estimate the age that
fossils were living. A sequence
of fossils can demonstrate
(gradual) changes in
features/characteristics in a
series of species that are
evolving.

By comparing the DNA or RNA

sequences of different species,
scientists can identify similarities
and differences. The degree of
similarity between the genomes of
different species can indicate their
evolutionary relationships.
Homologous genes are those Common ancestry is often reflected
derived from a common ancestor in shared sequences, while
The presence of vestigial structures through divergent evolution. By differences can suggest divergent
in organisms, such as the remnants comparing the base sequences of evolutionary paths.
of ancestral bones in whale flippers these homologous genes across
or the human appendix, reflects different species, scientists can Observable changes like
evolutionary history. infer evolutionary relationships. mutations
 Selective Breeding - a form of artificial selection

Selective breeding is a form of artificial selection, whereby man intervenes in the breeding of species to produce
desired traits in offspring
■ By breeding members of a species with a desired trait, the trait’s frequency becomes more common in
successive generations
■ Selective breeding provides evidence of evolution as targeted breeds can show significant variation in a
(relatively) short period

Selective breeding of plant crops has allowed for the generation of new types of foods from the same ancestral
plant source
■ Plants of the genus Brassica have been bred to produce different foods by modifying plant sections through
artificial selection
■ This includes broccoli (modified flower buds), cabbage (modified leaf buds) and kale (modified leaves)

Selective breeding of domesticated animals has also resulted in the generation of diverse breeds of offspring
■ Examples of selective breeding of domesticated animals can be seen in horse, cows and dogs

How Crop Development

Has Evolved article HERE.
Selective breeding in dogs

Domestic breeds show great

variation compared to wild
populations populations subject
Populations show to only natural variation.
variation in traits

Individuals which do Individuals which show

not show the desired the most desirable
traits are not allowed traits are chosen to
to breed. breed together.
The process is repeated
for many generations
until the entire population
shows the desired trait
The next generation
will have an
increased frequency
of the desired trait.

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Variation in Domesticated Dog Breeds
Example 1: Horse Breeding
Horses have been selectively bred across many generations to produce variation according
to a targeted function
■ Race horses have been bred for speed and hence are typically leaner, lighter, taller and
quicker
■ Draft horses have been bred for power and endurance and hence are sturdier and
stockier

Example 2: Cow Breeding

Cows have been selectively bred across many generations to produce offspring with
improved milk production
Farmers have also targeted the breeding a cows with a mutation resulting in increased
muscle mass
■ The resulting stock of cattle (termed Belgian Blue) have excessive bulk and produce
more edible lean meat
Comparative anatomy of groups of animals or
plants shows certain structural features are The tale of the limb
basically similar. Structures or anatomical
features having similar basic structure as in
other species said to be homologous.

Homologous structures are those that are

similar in shape in different types of organisms

The structural
similarities imply
Click HERE to play.
a common
ancestry

This illustrates adaptive radiation since

the basic structure adapted to different
niches
Homologous structures are used in
The more exclusive the shared
different ways in different species
homologies the closer two organisms
are related.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Homology_vertebrates-en.svg
Pentadactyl Limbs

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Pentadactyl Limbs

The pentadactyl limb in

vertebrates is an example of a
homologous structure
It is adapted to different
mode of locomotion in
particular environment.

• dolphin fin for
swimming
• bat wing for flying
• monkey hand for
grasping
• horse hoof for
galloping

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Pentadactyl Limbs

The pentadactyl limb in

vertebrates is an example of a
homologous structure

NOS: Despite the obvious

differences all the organisms
share the same bones. For
example, the bones may vary
in size and shape but all
vertebrates have five fingered
“hands” at the end of each
limb.

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Vestigial Features Video
Convergent Evolution

We can contrast homologous structures with other structures of

organisms that have similar functions but fundamentally different
origins. Their resemblances are superficial; these are described as
analogous structures.

Convergent evolution occurs when different species evolve similar

biological adaptations in response to similar selective pressures. This
happens when species occupy similar ecological niches.

● Traits that arise through convergent evolution are referred to as

analogous structures. Analogous features are features that have
similar functions in different organisms but have different
evolutionary origins.

● The similarity of function makes them look similar – such as the

fins in dolphins and sharks, or bird and insect wings – but they are
not similar either in terms of anatomy or origin
Divergent Evolution

Divergent evolution occurs when an ancestral species splits into two

reproductively isolated groups, causing each group to develop different due
to their respective selective pressures and natural selection.

Aspect Analogous Structures Homologous Structures

Structures with similar functions but Structures with similar origins but may
Definition
different origins serve different functions

Evolutionary
Arise from convergent evolution Arise from divergent evolution
Basis

Common Forelimbs of mammals (e.g., humans,

Wings of bats and birds
Example cats, whales, bats)

May serve different functions in different

Functionality Serve similar functions in different species
species

Structural
Often structurally different Similar in structure
Similarity

Evolve independently in different lineages Share a common evolutionary origin but

Evolutionary
to adapt to similar environmental diverges into different descendant
History
pressures species
Coevolution

● A process in which one species evolves

in response to the evolution of another
species.
● Two species can become completely
dependent on each other for survival
Roles of Reproductive Isolation & Differential Selection in Speciation

The degree of divergence between geographically separated populations will gradually

increase the longer they are separated (in other words become more and more isolated)
■ As the genetic divergence between the related populations increase by means of
differential selection (traits that affect reproductive success), their genetic compatibility
consequently decreases
■ Eventually, the two populations will diverge to an extent where they can no longer
interbreed if returned to a shared environment
When two populations can no longer interbreed and produce fertile, viable offspring they
are considered to be separate species.
■ The evolutionary process by which new species form, where one species is split into two
or more species is called speciation
 1 If populations, e.g. fruit flies, become separated (e.g. a population is
blown by a storm to a distant island). Then it is very likely the
population will experience different ecological conditions.

2
Over many generations the shape of the flies, food preference, mating rituals etc.
will likely diverge as the result of natural selection.

3
If the island fruit flies
migrate back to the
mainland they will not
easily mate with the
mainland flies as:
• Mating rituals
are different
• Because of genetic
4 differences the
Because genes cannot flow between the populations resulting offspring
the island fruit flies are said to have evolved into are infertile
separate species (this process is called speciation).
n.b. islands often have many endemic (unique to that island) species due to the fact that island environments can easily
cause species to become separated. http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/evo101/VBDefiningSpeciation.shtml
 There are many examples of
speciation. Darwin famously
used the example of the
finches on the Galapagos
islands.

The lava lizards of the Galápagos Islands are

an example of this. One species is present
on all the main islands of the archipelago.
On six smaller islands there is a closely
related but different species, formed by
migration to the island and by reproductive
isolation and divergence
due to differential
selection.
http://www.sepa.duq.edu/finches.html
http://fhs-bio-wiki.pbworks.com/w/page/24002829/Evidence%20-%20geographical%20distribution