Electrical Engineering 1

(04 28604/30326)

Lecture 1: Building Bridges

Learning Outcomes
• Understand the null method for measuring small
changes
• Understand the use of sensors to generate electrical
signals
• Apply functional blocks to build useful circuits
containing sensors
• Describe some examples of sensors

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Sensors

Enable us to convert signals from one domain into the electrical domain

Strain Gauge (RS components)

Temperature
Pressure
Chemicals
Light

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Applications

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Small changes – Null Indicator
• We want to work around 0 when we measure a
quantity
• This is called a “null indicator” approach
• This means we can have high sensitivity to small
changes

• We can’t increase sensitivity without overloading our

instruments if we have a large background signal
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Null Indicator

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Sensitivity

On the 600V setting we

have no decimal places

On the 200mV setting we

have one decimal places

To measure 20 mV change
to 600 V I have to get rid
of the 600 V in my measurement

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Wheatstone Bridge

R1 R2

𝑉𝑠 𝑅3 𝑉𝑠 𝑅4
+ 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅3 𝑅2 + 𝑅4
Vs

R3 R4

𝑅3 𝑅4
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝑠 −
𝑅1 + 𝑅3 𝑅2 + 𝑅4

Null Indicator: Balance the bridge for zero output

if all four resistors are equal 8
Wheatstone Bridge
𝑅3 − 𝛿𝑅 𝑅4
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝑠 −
𝑅1 + 𝛿𝑅 + 𝑅3 − 𝛿𝑅 𝑅2 + 𝑅4

𝑅1 + 𝛿𝑅 𝑅2

Vs

𝑅3 − 𝛿𝑅 𝑅4

𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅4 = 𝑅4 = 𝑅

−𝛿𝑅
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝑠
2𝑅 9
Data sheet

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 Applications – beam bending
R1
Δ𝑙
𝜖=
𝑙
R3

Tension: positive strain, 𝜀 > 0

𝑅1 + 𝛿𝑅

Gauge factor
𝛿𝑅ൗ Compression: negative strain, 𝜀 < 0
𝐺= 𝑅=2
𝑅3 − 𝛿𝑅
𝜖
𝜖 = 10−3 , 𝛿𝑅Τ𝑅= 2 × 10−3 ,
𝛿𝑅 = 0.24 Ω for 𝑅 = 120 Ω
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 Example: Gauge factor =2, 𝑅 = 120 𝛀
If 𝑅1 is in tension with a strain of 0.5% then
𝜀 = 0.005, Δ𝑅 = 1.2 Ω

If 𝑅3 is in compression with a strain of -0.5% then

𝜀 = −0.005, Δ𝑅 = −1.2 Ω

−1.2
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝑠 = −0.005𝑉𝑠
2 × 120

Computer input generally ~ 1 𝑉 therefore we will need an amplifier

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Summary
• High sensitivity sensors often employ null-indicator
methods
• The Wheatstone bridge can be used to measure small
changes in resistance through small changes in voltage
• Voltages are easily read into computing systems with
analogue to digital converters – may need amplifiers
• Examples
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with-load-cells/all

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Electrical Engineering 1
(04 28604/30326)

Lecture 2: System Thinking

Learning Outcomes
• Describe the concepts of input resistance and output
resistance (or input and output impedance)
• Explain the ideal relationships between input and
output resistance in cascaded sub-systems
• Understand the need for equivalent circuits in systems
design
• This will help us design amplifiers

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Summary
• If we can simplify sub-systems into equivalent circuits
we can calculate the “load” of one sub-system on the
preceding sub-system
• We need methods to
1. Measure input and output resistance
2. Calculate the equivalent circuits

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Electrical Engineering 1
(04 28604/30326)

Lecture 3: Three Theorems for

calculating equivalent circuits
Learning Outcomes
• Learn
Principle of Superposition
Thévenin’s Theorem
Norton’s Theorem
• Be able to reduce circuit diagrams down to their
Thévenin and Norton equivalents using circuit analysis

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 Superposition
• Principle of superposition
In any linear network of resistors, voltage sources and
current sources, each voltage and current in the circuit is
equal to the algebraic sum of the voltages or currents that
would be present if each source were to be considered
separately. When determining the effects of a single
source the remaining sources are replaced by their internal
resistance

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Example

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Thévenin’s Theorem

• Thévenin’s Theorem
As far as its appearance from outside is concerned, any
two-terminal network of resistors and energy sources
can be replaced by a series combination of an ideal
voltage source V and a resistor R, where V is the open-
circuit voltage of the network and R is the voltage that
would be measured between the output terminals if the
energy sources were removed and replaced by their
internal resistance

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Example

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Norton’s Theorem
• Norton’s Theorem
As far as its appearance from outside is concerned,
any two terminal network of resistors and energy
sources can be replaced by a parallel combination of
an ideal current source I and a resistor R, where I is
the short-circuit current of the network and R is the
voltage that would be measured between the
output terminals if the energy sources were
removed and replaced by their internal resistance

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Example

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 Source Transformations

𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑉𝑇ℎ 𝐼𝑁
+

𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝑉𝑇ℎ = 𝐼𝑁 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡

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Summary
• Following two steps, a linear circuit and be reduced to
an equivalent with one source and one output
resistance
• Remember the internal resistance of sources:
Voltage source short circuit when OFF
Current source open circuit when OFF
• With these theorems we can reduce sensor circuits to
their equivalents – next we’ll see how this helps us
work with sensor circuits in systems

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Electrical Engineering 1
(04 28604/30326)

Lecture 4: Examples
Learning Outcomes
• Calculate the Thévenin Equivalent circuit of a
Wheatstone bridge

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Application – Wheatstone Bridge

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Application – Wheatstone Bridge

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Summary
• We can change the shape of a circuit as we calculate
the equivalent so long as we keep the circuit pathways
the same
• Remember the definitions of series and parallel
components
• The bridge circuit has almost constant output
resistance for practical ranges of strain
• The output voltage of the bridge changes with strain
• Bridges are also used
to measure temperature
in the drive and control of motors
in conversion of AC to DC and DC to AC
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Electrical Engineering 1
(04 28604/30326)

Lecture 5:
A Computational Approach to Analysis
Learning Outcomes
• Understand how application of Kirchoff’s laws can be
used to solve complex circuits with simultaneous
equations
Nodal analysis
Mesh analysis

• Apply matrix maths to automate the computation

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 Example – Nodal Analysis
Determine the current I1 in the following circuit

• Six steps:
1. Chose one node as the reference node
2. Label remaining nodes V1, V2, etc.
3. Label any known voltages
4. Apply Kirchhoff’s current law to each unknown node
5. Solve simultaneous equations to determine voltages
6. If necessary calculate required currents

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At node 2 50 − 𝑉2 𝑉3 − 𝑉2 𝑉2
+ =
10 20 15

100 − 𝑉3 𝑉3 − 𝑉2 𝑉3
At node 3 = +
30 20 25

Solve to find 𝑉2 = 32.24 V and 𝑉3 = 40.14 V

𝑉3
𝐼1 = = 1.6 𝐴
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Using Matrices: I=GV

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Example – Mesh Analysis
Determine the voltage across the 10  resistor

Four steps:
1. Identify the meshes and assign a clockwise-flowing current to each. Label these
I1, I2, etc.
2. Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law to each mesh
3. Solve the simultaneous equations to determine the currents I1, I2, etc.
4. Use these values to obtain voltages if required

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Step 1

Step 2: Sum of sources = sum of voltage drops around each loop

Mesh 1 50 = 70 + 20 + 30 + 40 𝐼1 − 20𝐼2 − 30𝐼3

Mesh 2 0 = 100𝐼2 + 𝐼2 − 𝐼1 20 + 80𝐼2 + 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 10

Mesh 3 0 = 90𝐼3 + 𝐼3 − 𝐼1 30 + 𝐼3 − 𝐼2 10 + 60𝐼3

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Solve to find
𝐼1 = 326 𝑚𝐴 𝐼2 = 34 𝑚𝐴 𝐼3 = 53 𝑚𝐴

Voltage across 10 Ω

𝑉 = (𝐼3 − 𝐼2 )10 = 0.19 V

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Using Matrices: V=RI
Re-arrange the sum of sources = sum of voltage drops around each loop

Mesh 1 50 = 160𝐼1 − 20𝐼2 − 30𝐼3

Mesh 2 0 = −20𝐼1 + 210𝐼2 − 10𝐼3
Mesh 3 0 = −30𝐼1 − 10𝐼2 + 190𝐼3

50 160 −20 −30 𝐼1

0 = −20 210 −10 𝐼2
0 −30 −10 190 𝐼3
Solve by hand or by using maths software
𝐼1 = 326 𝑚𝐴 𝐼2 = 34 𝑚𝐴 𝐼3 = 53 𝑚𝐴

Voltage across 10 Ω

𝑉 = (𝐼3 −𝐼2 ) ∗ 10 = 0.19 V

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Directions in mesh analysis
• Currents ALWAYS clockwise

𝐼
𝐼

+ −𝑉1
+𝑉1 ….
…. ….
….

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Which method to use?
• If have current sources
If want nodal voltages
then nodal analysis

• If have voltage sources

If want mesh currents
then mesh analysis

• Remember – you can transform sources

• Decide on a case by case basis which method is

suitable
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Summary
• Methods of matrix maths from Engineering Maths 1
can be used to compute circuit analysis in complicated
circuits
• All circuit analysis based on Kirchoff’s laws
• Matrices follow rules which allow rapid formation “by
inspection”
• Matrices are like “Ohm’s law for the whole circuit”
• Take care over the signs

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