6.720J/3.

43J - Integrated Microelectronic Devices - Spring 2007 Lecture 38-1

Lecture 38 - Bipolar Junction Transistor

(cont.)

May 9, 2007

Contents:

1. Non-ideal effects in BJT in FAR

Reading material:

del Alamo, Ch. 11, §11.5 (§§11.5.1, 11.5.3, 11.5.4, 11.5.5

but only qualitatively)

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 6.720J/3.43J - Integrated Microelectronic Devices - Spring 2007 Lecture 38-2

Key questions

• Why are the output characteristics of a BJT in FAR not perfectly

flat?
• What is the maximum voltage that the collector of a BJT can
sustain in FAR? What are the key design issues for the break­
down voltage?
• Why does the performance of a BJT degrade at high collector
current?
• How does one model the base resistance in a BJT?

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 6.720J/3.43J - Integrated Microelectronic Devices - Spring 2007 Lecture 38-3

1. Non-ideal effects in BJT

� Base-width modulation

VBE and VBC affect xBE and xBC , respectively ⇒ WB = f (VBE , VBC ).

log N log N

NE NE
NB NB

NC NC

xBE xBC x xBE xBC x

thermal equilibrium (VBE=VBC=0) forward active (VBE>0, VBC<0)

• Early effect: impact of VBC on WB

|VBC | ↑⇒ xBC ↑⇒ WB ↓⇒ IC ↑, IB unchanged

• Reverse Early effect: impact of VBE on WB

VBE ↑⇒ xBE ↓⇒ WB ↑⇒ smaller IC than ideal ⇒ βF ↓, IB unchanged

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 6.720J/3.43J - Integrated Microelectronic Devices - Spring 2007 Lecture 38-4

� Early effect: impact of VBC on WB ⇒ IC = f (VBC )

n
nB(0)

nB(x)

IC

ni2 nB(WB)=0
NB
0 WB(VBC) x

VBC more negative ⇒ WB (VBC ) ↓⇒ IC (VBC ) ↑

To capture first-order impact, linearize WB (VBC ):

VBC
WB (VBC )  WB (VBC = 0)(1 + )
VA
VA is Early voltage:
qNB WBo
VA =
Cjco
Impact on IC :
IC (VBC = 0) VBC
IC (VBC )   I C (VBC = 0)(1 − )
1 + VVBC
A
VA

Also, since IB unchanged:

βF (VBC = 0) VBC
βF (VBC ) =  βF (VBC = 0)(1 − )
1 + VVBC
A
VA

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 6.720J/3.43J - Integrated Microelectronic Devices - Spring 2007 Lecture 38-5

Manifestation of Early effect in output characteristics:

IC

IB

IB=0

-VA 0 VCE

Main consequence of Early effect: finite slope in output characteris­

tics in FAR: output conductance.

Cjc
B C
+

vbe Cπ+Cje gπ gmvbe go

with go given by:

IC
go =
VA

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 6.720J/3.43J - Integrated Microelectronic Devices - Spring 2007 Lecture 38-6

� Avalanche breakdown

Sudden rise in IC for large reverse VCB .

Key issue: breakdown voltage depends on terminal configuration:

IC
VCB
VCE

IB=0 IE=0

0
0 BVCEO BVCBO VCE

Experimental observation:

BVCEO < BVCBO

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 6.720J/3.43J - Integrated Microelectronic Devices - Spring 2007 Lecture 38-7

• Common-base configuration: breakdown as in isolated p-n junction

n-Emitter p-Base n-Collector

IE=0 IC

VBC < 0
⇒ breakdown when M → ∞

• Common-emitter configuration: BE and BC junctions interact in

a positive feedback loop
n-Emitter p-Base n-Collector

IC

IB=0

VCE

With IB = 0 (or fixed), holes generated in B-C junction must be

injected into E ⇒ B-E goes into forward bias ⇒ IC ↑.

Breakdown occurs at finite M and enhanced by high βF :

1
Mcrit  1 +
βF

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 6.720J/3.43J - Integrated Microelectronic Devices - Spring 2007 Lecture 38-8

Key dependencies:

• NC ↑⇒ BVCEO ↓, BVCBO ↓

• βF ↑⇒ BVCEO ↓ but BVCBO unchanged ⇒

don’t want more βF than necessary!.

Yamaguchi, T., et. al. "Process and Device Characterization for a 30-GHz fT Submicrometer Double Poly-Si Bipolar Technology
Using BF2 -implanted Base with Rapid Thermal Process." IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices 40, no. 8 (1993): 1484-1495.
Copyright 1993 IEEE. Used with permission.

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 6.720J/3.43J - Integrated Microelectronic Devices - Spring 2007 Lecture 38-9

� High collector current effects

As IC ↑, electron velocity in collector ↑. But, there is a limit: vsat.

Then, as IC approaches:

ICK = qAE NC vsat

the electrostatics of the collector are profoundly modified ⇒ transis­

tor performance degrades:

βF log fT

ideal 1 ideal
βFo 2πτF
fTpk
actual
actual

IC2 log IC ICpk log IC

To first order:

IC2  ICpk  ICK

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 6.720J/3.43J - Integrated Microelectronic Devices - Spring 2007 Lecture 38-10

Main origin: formation of current-induced base inside collector SCR

⇒ effective quasi-neutral base width ↑ ⇒ βF ↓ ⇒ new delay com­
ponent ⇒ fT pk ↓

Key design issue: NC

NC ↑ ⇒ ICK ↑ ⇒ fT pk ↑

Experiments [Crabbé IEDM 1993]:

SiGe base Si base

Key trade-off:
Crabbe, E.F., et. al. "Vertical Profile Optimization of Very High Frequency Epitaxial Si and SiGe-base Bipolar Transistors."
Technical Digest of the International Electron Devices Meeting, Washington, DC, December 5-8, 1993. Piscataway, NJ: Institute
of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 1993, pp. 83-86. ISBN: 9780780314504. Copyright 1993 IEEE. Used with permission.

NC ↑ ⇒ BV ↓

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 6.720J/3.43J - Integrated Microelectronic Devices - Spring 2007 Lecture 38-11

� Base resistance

Very important parasitic for digital and analog applications.

SE
LE
B E B

n+
RBext p
RBint

Two components to RB :

• external: associated with ohmic contact to base and lateral flow

through extrinsic base
• internal: associated with intrinsic base

RB = RBext + RBint

Important issues:

1. RBint is distributed: how does it scale?

2. Non-linear behavior of RBint for high IB

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 6.720J/3.43J - Integrated Microelectronic Devices - Spring 2007 Lecture 38-12

1. Low-current resistance (in absence of debiasing)

Define lateral resistance of intrinsic base:

SE
Rblat = Rshb
LE

With:

1
Rshb =
qμB NB WB

Clearly,

RBint < Rblat

because not all IB flows across entire intrinsic base.

But, what is proportionality constant?

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 6.720J/3.43J - Integrated Microelectronic Devices - Spring 2007 Lecture 38-13

• BJT with one base contact:

SE
LE
B E

p n+

IB

JhE(y)

IB
AE

0
0 SE y

iB(y)

IB

0
0 SE y

Assume small ohmic drop along base ⇒ iB (x) uniformly distributed:

x
iB (x) = IB (1 − )
SE

RBint obtained by examining power dissipation in base:

� S Rshb 1 SE
pB = IB2 RBint = E
0
i2B (x) dx = IB2 Rshb
LE 3 LE
Then:
1 SE 1
RBint = Rshb = Rblat
3 LE 3

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 6.720J/3.43J - Integrated Microelectronic Devices - Spring 2007 Lecture 38-14

• BJT with two base contacts:

SE
LE
B E

p n+

IB IB
2 2

JhE(y)

IB
AE

0
SE y
0

iB(y)
IB
2

0
SE SE y
0
2

Now:
IB 2x SE
iB (x) = (1 − ) for 0 ≤ x ≤
2 SE 2
IB 2x SE
iB (x) = ( − 1) for ≤ x ≤ SE
2 SE 2

Intrinsic base resistance:

1
RBint = Rblat
12

This is a quarter of the design with one-base contact.

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 6.720J/3.43J - Integrated Microelectronic Devices - Spring 2007 Lecture 38-15

Total base resistance is:

RB = RBext + RBint

To get small RB :

• minimize RBext ⇒ self-aligned process

• minimize RBint ⇒

– use two base contacts ⇒ takes more space

– increase WB ⇒ degrades frequency response
– increase NB ⇒ hard, costly, Cje ↑, BVEBO ↓
– decrease SE (scaling!) ⇒ costly

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 6.720J/3.43J - Integrated Microelectronic Devices - Spring 2007 Lecture 38-16

Useful observation: trade-off between RB and IC

Remember:

qVBE qAE n2i DB qVBE

IC = IS exp = exp
kT NB WB kT

Then:

JC qVBE
= q 2n2i DB μB exp
Rshb kT

rather independent of NB or doping profile.

[from Tang TED 27, 563 (1980)]

Tang, D. D. "Heavy Doping Effects in p-n-p Bipolar Transistors." IEEE Transactions on
Electron Devices 27, no. 3 (1980): 563-570. Copyright 1980 IEEE. Used with permission.

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 6.720J/3.43J - Integrated Microelectronic Devices - Spring 2007 Lecture 38-17

2) Non-linear behavior of RB

More accurate equivalent circuit model of distributed RB :

SE
B LE
E B

n+ p
RBext

RBint

jB(x)

IB
AE

0
0 SE x

iB(x)
IB
2

0
SE SE x
0
2

Non-linear B-E diode current ⇒ non-uniform current distribution

across base:

• base resistance ”debiases” center of base

• current ”crowds” at edges of base

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 6.720J/3.43J - Integrated Microelectronic Devices - Spring 2007 Lecture 38-18

Analytical model possible (but not pretty).

General behavior of RBint:

RBint

1 R
blat
12

0
log IB

For negligible debiasing to occur:

kT
IB Rblat < 0.2
q
RBin drops by 50% at:
kT
IB Rblat  6
q
Overall behavior of RB :
RB

1 R +R
blat Bext
12

RBext

0
log IB

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 6.720J/3.43J - Integrated Microelectronic Devices - Spring 2007 Lecture 38-19

Consequences of base debiasing:

• RB depends on IB ⇒ RB depends on VBE and IC

Weng, J., J. Holz, and T. F. Meister. "New Method to Determine the Base Resistance of Bipolar Transistors." IEEE Electron
Device Letters 13, no. 3 (1992): 158-160. Copyright 1992 IEEE. Used with permission.

• For high current,

RBint → 0 ⇒ RB  RBext and independent of SE .

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 6.720J/3.43J - Integrated Microelectronic Devices - Spring 2007 Lecture 38-20

• Non-linear behavior of RBint:

small-signal resistance = large-signal resistance

Ohmic drop in RB :

VB = RB IB

Then, small-signal base resistance:

dVB dRB
rB = = RB + IB
dIB dIB

Since IB ↑⇒ RB ↓:

rB ≤ RB

RBint, rBint

1 R
blat
12

RBint
rBint

0
log IB

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 6.720J/3.43J - Integrated Microelectronic Devices - Spring 2007 Lecture 38-21

Consequences of RB :

• RB has no direct impact on fT , but has indirect impact through

constraint in base design.
Actually, fT,pk does not appear correlated to RB
(fT,pk dominated by NC ):

• rB crucially important to noise

• rB Cjc important time constant in high-frequency operation of
BJT

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 6.720J/3.43J - Integrated Microelectronic Devices - Spring 2007 Lecture 38-22

Key conclusions

• Early effect: modulation of WB by VBC ⇒ output conductance

in output characteristics.
IC
go =
VA
• Base-width modulation effects affect IS and βF , but not IB .
• In avalanche breakdown in a BJT:

BVCEO < BVCBO

because of transistor current gain.

• βF ↑⇒ BVCEO ↓ w/o affecting BVCBO.
• Key device design issue in avalanche breakdown:

NC ↑⇒ BV s ↓

• At high collector current, velocity saturation of electrons in col­

lector ⇒ performance degrades: βF ↓, fT ↓
• Maximum current:

ICpk  qAE NC vsat

• Two components in RB :

– RBext: associated with ohmic contact and transport through

extrinsic base

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 6.720J/3.43J - Integrated Microelectronic Devices - Spring 2007 Lecture 38-23

– RBint: associated with intrinsic base

• RBint is a distributed resistance ⇒

– RBint < Rblat

– RBint is non linear in IB .

• Consequence of non-linearity of RBint at high IB : small-signal

resistance different from large-signal resistance.
• Three technological approaches to reduce RB :

– use two base contacts

– use self-aligned process
– decrease SE

• Fundamental trade-off between IC and Rshb.

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