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SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

1. Flower: – Reproductive Structure of angiosperm
2. Androecium :– male sex organ. consists of stamens (two parts. Filament & bilobed anther).
3. Microsporogenesis :- formation of microsp
microspore
ore from Microspore mother cells or pollen mother cells
through meiosis
4. How many microsporangia are present in a young anther ::– Four. ( two in each lobe)
5. How many pollensacs are present in a mature anther – Two
6. Stages of Microsporogenesis & gametogenesis :-
 Each cell of Sporogenous tissue ( mass of tissue occupy the central portion of
microsporangium) forms Microspore mother cell /Pollen mother cell (PMC)
 PMC undergo Meiosis to form Microspore tetrad (group of 4 microspores)
 Later Microspores separate
eparate & develop into Pollen grain / Male gametophyte
 Haploid nucleus in pollengrain undergo Mitosis to form 2 celled pollengrain (vegetative &
generative cell)
 Generative cell nucleus undergo Mitosis to form 3 celled Pollengrain (vegetative cell & 2 male
gametes)
7. Structure of Microsporangium :–– 4 wall layers ( Epidermis, Endothecium, Middle layers, & Tapetum) +
Sporogenous tissue ( central mass of tissue contain Microspore mother cells).
8. Functions of Epidermis, Endothecium & Middle layers ::– Protection
ction & dehiscence of anther to release
pollen
9. Tapetum :– Innermost multinucleated wall contain dense cytoplasm.
10. Function of Tapetum :- Give food to developing pollen grains
11. Structure of young anther , enlarged view of microsporangium & mature dehisced
dehisce anther

12. Structure of pollengrain

 Spherical in shape about 20-2525 micrometers in diameter.
 Two wall layers. Exine (Hard outer layer , made up of sporopollenin) & Intine (thin inner layer, made up
of cellulose & pectin)
 Central
ntral haploid nucleus & dense cytoplasm which is surrounded by plasmamembrane. Later vacoule
develop pushing nucleus towards periphery.

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 2 mitotic division leads to the formation of 2 celled & 3 celled pollengrain.

13. Pollengrains are preserved as fossils. Why?:- Due to the presence of Sporopollenin (Organic material
resistant to high temperature, strong acids & alkali & cannot be degraded by enzymes)
14. Germ pores :– Thin walled area in exine where sporopollenin is absent.Pollen tube comes out through
germ pore during germination.
15. Pollentube :– Tube formed by pollengrain & it carry 2 male gametes into the embryosac
16. Vegetative cell :– Bigger cell. Contain reserve food materials. Large irregularly shaped nucleus.
17. Generative cell :– Small cell. Float in the cytoplasm of vegetative cell. Spindle shaped with dense
cytoplasm and nucleus.
18. Pollen bank :– Storage of pollengrains in liquid nitrogen (-196°c). Pollen bank can be used in crop
breeding programmes.
19. Pollen viability :– Period for which pollengrains remain functional.
20. Effect of pollengrain :– Cause allergies & lung disorders (asthma, bronchitis). eg., Pollengrain of
Parthenium /carrot grass
21. Pollen tablets & syrups are in use by people these days. Why? : - (a) Pollen grains are rich in nutrients .
(b) Pollen consumption increase the performance of athletes & race horses.
22. Gynoecium (pistil) :– Female sex organ consists of carpels (Ovary, style & stigma)
23. Megasporogenesis :– Formation of megaspore from megasporemother cell through meiosis.
24. Stages of Megasporogenesis & formation of Embryosac :-
 Megaspore mother cell (single cell at mycropylar end of nucellus) develops within the Ovule
(megasporangium)
 MMC undergo meiosis to form 4 megaspores (Linear tetrad)
 Three megaspores degenerate .
 Functional megaspore undergo 3repeated mitotic divisions (8 nucleus formed)
 Out of 8 nucleus, 3 located at chalazal region, 3 located at micropylar region , 2 remain in the
centre.
 Cytokinesis leads to the formation of 7 celled 8 nucleate stage called Embryosac / Female
gametophyte

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25. Development of female gametophyte is monosporic development. Why? :- – Embryosac developed

from single haploid megaspore.
26. Structure of Ovule :-

27. Funicle :– Stalk of the ovule

28. Hilum :– Junction between ovule and funicle.
29. Nucellus – Multicellular mass of tissue with resrerve food materials ( Give food to Embryo sac).
30. Integuments :– Protective covering. (Outer and inner integuments)
31. Micropyle :– Small opening through which pollen tube enters into the ovule.
32. Chalaza :– Opposite side of micropyle where integuments originate
33. Emryosac / female gametophyte :– Central oval shaped structure
34. Egg apparatus :- 3 cells at micropylar region of embryosac ( 2 synergids and 1 egg cell)
35. Antipodals :- 3 cells at chalazal region
36. Secondary nucleus / Polar nucleus :- Central diploid cell
37. Pollination :- transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma
38. Autogamy / Self pollination :- Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of same flower
39. Features of flower which shows complete autogamy :- (a) synchrony in pollen release & stigma
receptivity (b) anther and stigma should lie close to each other.
40. Chasmogamous flowers – Flowers with exposed anther and stigma
41. Cleistogamous flowers :- (a) Closed flowers (b) Anther and stigma lie close to each other(c)
Autogamous (d) No chance of cross pollination (e) Assured seed set in the absence of pollinators (f)
No chance for variation (g) Causes inbreeding depression
42. Geitonogamy – Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of another flower of the same plant
(Genetically similar to autogamy but functionally similar to cross pollination)
43. Xenogamy / Cross pollination – Transfer of pollen grains from anther of a flower to stigma of the
flower of another plant of same species. Pollen grains are transferred by external agencies.
44. Advantage of xenogamy :- (a) Ensure genetic recombination and variation (b) Reduce inbreeding
depression
45. Agents of pollination :- Abiotic (wind & water) & Biotic ( animals, insects, bats, birds etc)
46. Pollen robbers/ Nector robbers – Insects consume pollen grains / nector without bringing about
pollination.
47. Characters of Anemophilous, hydrophilous & entomophilous flowers :-

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Anemophily Hydrophily Entomophily

(wind pollination) (water pollination) (Insect pollination)
 light , non sticky and  Colourless, Nector less  Large, colourful
dry pollen grains. &Odourless flowers
 Well exposed stamens.  Unisexual flowers  Produce nector.
 Feathery stigma.  Pollen grains  Produce fragrance.
 Colourless, are protected by It may be pleasant
 nectorless. mucilagenous covering. (Jasmine, Rose etc,)
 Odourless (Do not have  Sticky and unwettable or foul (Rafflessia,
smell) stigma Aristolochia)
 Pollen grains are  Female flowers have  Sticky and spiny
produced in large long coiled stalk pollen grains.
quantities.  Female flowers remain  Sticky stigma.
 Single ovule in each submerged e .g., Rose, Sunflower,
ovary.  Male flowers are Jasmine, Orchids etc.
 Numerous small released on to the
flowers are packed into surface of water and
an inflorescence. carried by water
 Most of them are currents to the surface
Unisexual flowers. of stigma
 Long, ribbon like pollen
e.g., Coconut, rice, wheat, grain
grasses, maize, date palm etc. e.g., Vallisneria, Zostera.

48. Pollen Pistil Interaction :-

 All events from pollen deposition of stigma until the entry of pollen tube into ovule .
 Through chemical conversation between pollen & stigma Pistil recognize right pollen and
wrong pollen, then pistil accept (Promote pollen germination) or reject (prevent pollen
germination) pollengrain.
49. Outbreeding devices :-
 Self incompatibility :- genetic mechanism to prevent pollen germination / pollen tube
formation.
 Pollen release & stigma receptivity not synchronized ( Anther & stigma mature at different
time)
 Anther & stigma are placed at different positions.
 Unisexual flowers. (a) Monoecious plants - prevent autogamy but not geitonogamy. (b)
Dioecious plant – prevent both autogamy & geitonogamy.
50. Artificial hybridisation :-Process of crossing of two genetically different organisms artificially.
Steps :-
 Selection of parents
 Emasculation – Removal of anther from the flower buds of female flower before maturity to prevent
self pollination.

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 Bagging – Emasculated flowers are covered with a bag to prevent cross pollination.
 Artificial pollination – pollen grains from male parent are dusted on stigma of female parent , when
stigma attain receptivity.
 Rebagging to prevent cross pollination
 Tagging and labeling
 Seed set
51. Duble Fertilization :-
Syngamy :- Male gamete (n) + female gamete/e
gamete/egg cell (n) →Zygote (2n) → embryo (2n)

Triple fusion :- Male gamete (n) + Secondary nucleus(2n) → PEN (3n) → Endosperm (3n)

52. Expand PEN – Primary endosperm nucleus.

53. Embryogenesis :- Formation of embryo from zygote
 Zygote → proembryo→ Globular embryo → Heart shaped embryo → Mature embryo
 Proembryo :- 2 celled – basal cell towards mycropy
mycropyle & terminal cell towards chalaza
 Terminal cell divides to form multicellular globular, heart shaped & mature embryo.
 Basal cell divides to form a filamentous suspensor (it pushes the developing embryo into the
endosperm and absorb nutrients)

54. Zygote is dormant for some time in fertilized ovule. Why? ::- Endosperm provide food to developing
embryo. So zygote divide only after certain amount of endosperm is formed.
55. Endosperm development :-
 PEN undergoes free nuclear div divisions
isions to form many triploid nuclei . This is liquid endosperm /
nuclear endosperm
 Then cell wall formed from periphery towards centre to form solid endosperm /multicellular
endosperm
 Coconut water from tender coconut – Liquid endosperm. White kernel – Solid endosperm
56. Parts of embryo :- Embryonal axis & Cotyledon
57. Epicotyl :- Portion of embryonal axis above the level of cotyledon. Terminate with plumule
58. Hypocotyl :- Portion of embryonal axis below the level of cotyledon . Terminate with radicle.
59. Plumule /stem tip :- develops into shoot
60. Radicle /root tip :- develops into root.
61. Cotyledon :- First formed leaf.Give nourishment to developing seedling. In dicot plants 2 cotyledons &
in monocot plant 1 cotyledon present.
62. Identify the figure & label the par
parts :- Dicot embryo.

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63. Identify the figure

ure & label the parts:
parts:- Monocot embryo

64. Scutellum – Single cotyledon of monocot embryo, situated towards the lateral side of the embryonal
axis.
65. Coleoptyle – Covering of plumule
66. Coleorhiza – Covering of radicle.
67. Aleurone layer :- Proteinacous layer which separate endosperm & cotyledon in monocot seed.
68. Fruit :-fertilized ovary
69. Seed :- Fertilized Ovule. Basis of agriculture.
70. Albuminous / endospermous seed ::- Seeds with endosperm. eg., rice, wheat, coconut
71. Exalbuminous / Non endospermous
spermous seed ::- Seeds without endosperm. eg., pea
72. True fruit – develop from the ovary . e.g., mango
73. False fruit – develop from the part of the flower other than ovary. e .g., Apple , Strawberry , Cashew .
Here Thalamus is the edible part.
74. Pericarp :- Fruit wall
75. Perisperm :- Remnants of nucellus in the seed. eg., black pepper, beet
76. Testa :- Outer hard seed coat developed from outer integument of ovule
77. Tegmen :- Inner thin seed coat developed from inner integument of ovule.
78. Parthenocarpy :- Formation of fruit without fertilization. Can be Induced by auxin & giberellin. eg.,
banana, seedless grapes
79. Polyembryony :- Formation of more than one embryo in the seed . eg., Seeds of orange, citrus, mango.
80. Reason for poly embryony :- (a) Presence of more thathan
n one egg cells & all get fertilized (b) Presence of
more than one embryosac (c) Many embryos develop from parts like synergids, antipodals, nucellus,
integuments etc
81. Apomixis :- Seed formation without fertilization. It mimic sexual reproduction.
 Diploid egg cell may develop into embryo without fertilization
 Cells of nucellus develops into embryo & pu pushed into embryosac
 eg., Some species of Asteraceae & Grasses.
82. Apomictic seeds are used in hybrid industry. Why? ::-
 Apomixis helps in the production of hybri
hybrid
d seeds with a combination of desirable characters.
 In apomictic hybrid seeds, there is no segregation of characters .
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 Farmers do not have to buy hybrid seeds every year because apomixis preserve good
characters over generations for crop plants.
83. Dormancy :- Temporary inactive state of a viable seed.
84. Importance of seed dormancy :- (a) helps the storage of seeds . (b) help to use as food throughout the
year . (c) helps to raise crops in next season. (d) hard seed coat provide protection to young embryo.
85. Seed viability :- Ability of seed to germinate & producing seedlings. Lupine (Lupinus arcticus) is oldest
seed (flowered after 10,000 years of dormancy). 2000 year old viable seed:- seed of date palm
(excavated at King Herod’s Palace near Dead sea).
86. Diploid parts :- Zygote, Anther, Microsporangium, Sporogenous tissue, Microspore mother cells
(Pollen mother cells), Ovary, Nucellus, Megaspore mother cells , Secondary nucleus (polar nucleus)
87. Haploid parts :-Microspores, Pollengrains, Male gamete, Megaspore, Egg (female gamete), Synergids,
Antipodals.

BIOTECHNOLOGY - PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES

1. Biotechnology : - Branch of science which deals with the manipulation of organisms, animals, plant
cells or their components to generate products useful to mankind.
2. Definition given by EFB (European Federation of Biotechnology ) :- Biotechnology is the integration
of natural science, organisms, cells, parts thereof and molecular analogues for products and services.
3. Principles of Biotechnology :- Genetic engineering & Bioprocess engineering
4. Genetic engineering :- Technique to alter chemistry of genetic material (DNA or RNA) to introduce
these into host organisms and thus change the phenotype of the host organisms.
5. Bioprocess engineering :- Maintenance of sterile environment in chemical engineering process to
enable the growth of only the desired microbe/ eukaryotic cell in large quantities for the manufacture
of biotechnological products like antibiotics, vaccines , enzymes etc.
6. Techniques of genetic engineering :- (a) Creation of recombinant DNA (b) Gene cloning (making
identical copies) (c) Gene transfer
7. What is recombinant DNA / rDNA ? Artificially made DNA that is composed of a combination of DNA
sequences from two or more organisms.
8. Who constructed the first rDNA ? Stanly Cohen & Herbert Boyer(1972)
9. Creation of First recombinant DNA :-
 Isolate antibiotic resistance gene from plasmid of Salmonella typhimureum
 Piece of DNA was cut at specific site by restriction endonuclease & linked it to the plasmid of
Escherichia coli. By DNA ligase.
 These rDNA was transferred to E.coli host.
10. Gene cloning :- rDNA replicated by using host DNA polymerase enzyme and made multiple copies.
11. Tools of recombinant DNA technology :- (1) Restriction enzymes (2) Polymerase enzymes (3) Ligase or
Molecular glue (4) Vectors (5) Host
12. Nuclease :- Enzyme that cut nucleic acids.
13. Types of nucleases :- (1) Exonucleases (Cut the DNA at the end) (2) Endonucleases
(Cut at specific site within the DNA)
14. Restriction endonuclease/ Molecular scissors :- enzyme that cut DNA into fragments at specific sites
within molecules
15. Which is the first restriction enzyme ? Hind ΙΙ from Haemophilus influenzae.

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16. Recognition sequence :- Specific & short sequence (composed of less than 10 base pairs) that is
recognised by restriction enzymes and they cut DNA at that point.
17. How many restriction enzymes are known to be isolated? More than 900 restriction enzymes have
been isolated from 230 strains of bacteria each of which recognizes different recognition sequences.
18. Naming of Restriction Enzyme :-
 First letter comes from genus name
 second two letters come from the first two letters of species name of the prokaryotic cell from
which they were isolated
 fourth letter denotes the strain
 Last letter is a romen number , denotes the order in which they are isolated from that strain of
bacteria.
 eg. EcoRΙ isolated from Escherichia coli RY 13
19. Palindrome in DNA :- sequence of base pairs that read the same on the two strands when
orientation of reading is kept the same.
eg. 5' -GAATTC - 3'
3' -CTTAAG - 5'
20. What is meant by sticky ends? When a fragment of DNA is cleaved by restriction enzyme, Two
separate strands obtained. Both are overhanging piece of DNA.
21. Why are they called sticky ends? They form hydrogen bonds with their complementary cut counter
parts.
22. DNA ligase / Molecular glue :- Enzyme used to join two fragments of DNA
23. Cloning vectors :- vehicles which are used to transfer gene from one cell to another. eg., Plasmids and
bacteriophages
24. Plasmid :- Small ,double stranded, extra chromosomal, self replicating, circular DNA.
25. Features of cloning vector:- (1) Origin of replication (2) Selectable markers (3) Cloning site
26. Origin of replication (Ori) :- Specific sequence from where replication starts. It is responsible for
controlling the copy number of linked DNA.
27. Copy number :- number of copies of particular plasmid / chromosome present in a cell
28. Selectable markers :- A gene which helps to identify and eliminate recombinants/ transformants
from non-recombinants/non-transformants
29. Artificially reconstructed plasmid vector from the col EΙ plasmid of E.coli :- pBR322 . It was named
after Boliver and Rodriguez (two scientists) . The letter ‘p ‘ represent plasmid, ‘ B’ represent Boliver
and ‘ R’ - Rodriguez.
30. Selectable markers in pBR322 ? ampicillin resistance gene (ampR) and tetracycline resistance gene
(tetR)
31. Function of rop in pBR322 :- codes for the proteins involved in the replication of plasmids
32. Identify the figure.

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33. How can we identify recombinants / transformants using selectable markers?

 The foreign DNA is ligated at a restriction site present in one of the two antibiotic resistance
genes. (eg. Foreign DNA is inserted at the BamHΙ site of tetracycine resistance gene in the
vector pBR322)
 Recombinant plasmids lose tetracycline resistance due to insertion of foreign DNA
 Simultaneous plating of bacteria on ampicillin containing medium and tetracycine containing
medium
 Recombinants grow in ampicillin medium but not on tetracycline medium.
 Non-recombinants will grow on the medium containing both the antibiotics.
34. Insertional inactivation :- Inactivation of an enzyme due to inactivation of a gene as a result of insertion
of foreign DNA (Alternative selectable marker)
35. How insertional inactivation is used to identify recombinants?
 A recombinant DNA is inserted within the coding sequence of an enzyme β galactosidase. So
the enzyme is inactivated.
 Recombinants do not produce colour.
 Non - recombinants gives bluish coloured colonies.
36. Cloning sites :- Recognition sites of restriction enzymes are called cloning sites. Vector need a single
recognition sequence/cloning sites for restriction enzymes. More than one cloning sites will generate
several DNA fragments which will complicate the gene cloning.
37. Cloning sites / restriction sites present in pBR322 :- Hind ΙΙΙ , Cla Ι , EcoR Ι , BamH Ι, Sal Ι, Pvu Ι, Pst Ι,
Pvu ΙΙ.
38. Transformation :- Process through which a foreign DNA is introduced into a host.
39. Transformants :- Host bacterium which contain rDNA
40. Disarmed pathogen vectors :- Ti plasmid of Agrobacterium tumifaciens & Retrovirus.
41. Agrobacterium Tumifaciens :- can deliver T-DNA to transform normal plant cells into a tumour.
These tumour cells produce chemicals required by pathogen. Tumour inducing plasmid (Ti plasmid) of
Agrobacterium tumifaciens is modified into a cloning vector.
42. Retrovirus :- transform normal cells into cancerous in animal cells. Disarmed retrovirus are used as
vector.
43. Process of Biotechnology (Steps of recombinant DNA technology) :-
 Isolation of DNA
 Fragmentation of DNA by restriction endonuclease.
 Separation of DNA fragments using Gel electrophoresis
 Amplification using PCR
 Joining of DNA fragments into vector.
 Recombinant DNA is transferred into the host.
 Extraction using Bioreactor
 Downstream processing.
44. Isolation of DNA - Procedure :-
 The cells are treated with enzymes to digest cell wall. ( Lysozyme - bacterial cell wall,
Cellulase - plant cell wall and Chitinase - fungal cell wall)
 Protease enzymes removes proteins. Ribonuclease removes RNA . Other molecules can be
removed by appropriate treatments.
 The purified DNA is precipitated on the addition of chilled ethanol and are seen as threads in
suspension.
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45. Spooling :- Process by which DNA threads wind on a reel. Last step of Isolation of DNA
46. Fragmentation of DNA by restriction endonuclease :- Purified DNA molecules are incubated with
restriction endonuclease . Vector DNA is also cut with same restriction enzymes to get fragments
with complementary sticky ends

47. Separation using Gel electrophoresis :-

 Negatively charged DNA molecules are forced to move towards anode under an electric field
through agarose medium
 DNA fragments are separated according to their size through a sieving effect provided by
agarose gel ( natural polymer extracted from seaweeds)
 Smaller fragments move farther.
 Separated DNA fragments can be visualised after staining with Ethidium bomide followed by
exposure to UV light
 DNA appears as bright orange coloured bands.
 Separated bands of DNA are cut out from the agarose gel and extracted from gel piece. This
step is called Elution.

48. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) :- synthesis of multiple copies of gene invitro using two sets of
Primers and DNA Polymerase enzyme.
49. Primers :- Chemically synthesized oligonucleotides that are complementary to the regions of DNA.
50. DNA Polymerase enzyme - Enzyme responsible for forming new copies of DNA.
51. Name the DNA Polymerase used in PCR :- Taq DNA Polymerase is isolated from a bacterium
Thermus aquaticus. It remains active in high temperature (Thermostable)
52. Explain the steps involved in PCR :-
 Denaturation - Treating DNA at high temperature about 94° C. Two strands of DNA separate
and each strand act as template.
 Annealing - Temperature is lowered about 45° C. Two primers are added. They join with the 3
end of two templates.
 Extension -DNA Polymerase enzyme extend the primer by adding nucleotides.
 Amplification -the above process repeated many times to get billion copies of target DNA

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53. Why should the host cell be made competent ? To take up hydrophylic DNA molecule from external
medium.
54. Competent host -The cell which is capable of taking up alien DNA
55. How can we make host cell competent?
 DNA enters the bacterium through the pores in cell wall.
 The bacterial cell is treated with divalent cation such as calcium.
 Incubate Recombinant DNA and bacterial cell on ice
 Place this bacterial cell at 42° C which provides a heat shock & then Put them back on ice. Now
bacteria can take up the Recombinant DNA
56. Microinjection - Recombinant DNA is directly injected into the nucleus of an animal cell using
micropipette.
57. Biolistics / Gene gun - High velocity microparticles of gold or tungsten coated with DNA and is
bombarded into the host cell (plant cell)
58. Recombinant protein - protein formed in a heterologous host (host which carry recombinant DNA)
59. Bioreactors :- Large vessel (100 – 1000 litres) in which raw materials are biologically converted into
products
60. Qualities of Bioreactor:-
 An agitator system
 Oxygen delivery system
 A foam control system
 A temperature control system
 pH control system
 Sampling ports for periodic withdrawal of culture
61. Two types of bioreactors :- (a) Stirred tank bioreactors ( Oxygen moves through a delivery system) (b)
Sparged stirred-tank bioreactor ( surface area of the culture medium is increased by bubbling the
sterile air into the system)
62. Identify the figure & label the parts :-

63. Downstream Processing :- All process after biosynthetic phase is collectively called Downstream
processing .they include

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 Separation of Products
 Purification of Products
 Addition of Preservative
 Clinical trials for drugs
 Quality control test

BIOTECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATIONS

1. Green revolution :- Movement of the integrated plant breeding practice to increase the production of
food grains (rice, wheat) . Yield increases due to the (a) use of improved crop varieties (b) use of better
management practices & (c) use of agrochemicals (fertilizers & pesticides)
2. Drawback of conventional breeding :- (a) Agrochemicals are expensive for farmers in the developing
world. (b)Accumulation of undesirable genes (c) Limitted number of disease resistant genes in wild
varieties
3. Alternative methods for crop improvement :- (a) Tissue culture (b) Genetic engineering
4. Tissue culture :- in-vitro technique of regeneration of whole plant from any part of a plant growing in
culture medium under sterile condition
5. Totipotency :- Capacity to generate whole plant from any part of a plant
6. Explant - Cell / Plant part from which whole plant is regenerated
7. Micropropagation :– Method of producing thousands of plants in short time through tissue culture.
8. Somaclones :- Plants produced through tissue culture . ( Morphologically & Genetically identical to
the plant from which they are grown)
9. Meristem culture :- Disease free / Virus free plants can be obtained ( Due to active cell division,
meristem is free of virus). e .g., virus free – banana, sugarcane, potato
10. Contents of nutrient medium :- (a) A carbon source – Sucrose (b) Inorganic salts (c)Vitamins (d)
Aminoacids – Glycine (e) Growth regulators – Auxin, Cytokinins etc.
11. Somatic hybridization :- Fusion of protoplasts from two different varieties of plants with desirable
characters in a nutrient medium in-vitro to get hybrid protoplasts.
12. Somatic hybrids :- Hybrid produced by somatic hybridization
13. Somatic hybridization – procedure :-
 Select single cell from two plants with desirable characters.
 Cell wall is digested (to isolate naked protoplast which is surrounded by plasma mermbrane)
 Fusion of naked protoplasts of two varieties
 Hybrid protoplast regenerate cell wall
 Hybrid cell divide and grown to form somatic hybrid.
 eg., Pomato - Somatic hybrid developed by fusing Tomto and Potato cells (pomato did not
have all the desired combination of tomato & potato)
14. Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) :- Plants, bacteria, fungi & animals whose genes have been
altered by manipulation.
15. Uses of Genetically Modified Organisms. (GMO) :-

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 It makes crops more tolerant to abiotic stresses

 reduce the use of chemical pesticides
 Helped to reduce post harvest loses
 Increased efficiency of mineral usage by plants
 Enhanced nutritional value of food, eg., Vitamin ‘A’ enriched rice (Golden rice)
16. Bt Cotton :- Genetically modified cotton plant with ‘cry’ gene. Bioinsecticide
17. What does Bt stands for in Bt cotton ? Or Expand the letter B & t? Bacillus thuringiensis ( It is a soil
bacteria)
18. Name the toxic protein produced by Bacillus thuringiensis ? ‘Cry’ protein / Bt toxin (that kill insects
like coleopterans, lepidopterans &dipterans)
19. Name the specific gene that produce Bt toxin? ‘cry’ gene
20. Cry protein is harmless to bacillus. Why? The Bt toxin exist as inactive protoxins.
21. Explain the mechanism of insect resistance in Bt cotton ?
 When an insect ingest the inactive toxin, it is converted into an active toxin due to the alkaline
pH of the gut which solubilise the crystals.
 The activated toxin binds to the surface of midgut epithelial cells and create pores that cause
cell swelling and lysis and eventually leads to death of the insect.
22. ‘cry’ genes are insect group specific.
 Name the gene that control corn borer insects? cryIAb
 Name the genes that control cotton bollworms ? cryIAc & cryIIAb
23. RNA interference (RNAi) :- mRNA silencing / Silencing of mRNA due to complementary double
stranded RNA (dsRNA)
24. Meloidegyne incognitia. :- A nematode which infect roots of tobacco plants & cause reduction in the
yield.
25. What is the origin of RNAi ? It takes place in all eukaryotic organisms as a method of cellular defense.
26. What does complementary RNA (cRNA) mean? Copy of a strand of RNA that will bind to the
appropriate region of the original molecule.
27. In the process of RNAi, the source of cRNA :- (a) From an infection by viruses having RNA genome (b)
Transposons (mobile genetic elements)
28. How can we prevent nematode infestation through RNAi ?
 Introduce nematode specific genes into tobacco plant using Agrobacterium vecor.
 Then that nematode specific genes produce both sense & antisense RNA
 Sense & antisense RNA’s are complementary to each other & bind together to form dsRNA
 dsRNA bind to the mRNA of nematode & prevent the translation of mRNA
29. Consequence of RNAi :- Nematode could not survive in transgenic tobacco plant (Plant got protection
from parasite)
30. What are the problems associated with insulin production? Insulin extracted from pancrease of pigs
causes allergy to some people. So the bacterium E.coli is used as a host in genetic engineering process.
31. Structure of insulin :- Insulin consists of two short polypeptide chains; chain A and chain B, that are
linked together by disulphide bonds
32. What is the structural difference between Proinsulin & mature insulin ? In mammals, including
humans, insulin is synthesized as a prohormone (Proinsulin), which contains an extra stretch called the
C peptide. This C peptide is removed during maturation . ( C peptide present in proinsulin . C
peptide absent in mature insulin)

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33. Which company prepared genetically engineered human insulin ? Eli Lilly , an American company in
1983
34. Steps involved in the preparation of genetically engineered insulin ?
 Prepare two DNA sequences corresponding to chain A & chain B of human insulin
 Introduced them in plasmids of E.coli to produce insulin chains.
 Chain A and B were produced separately, extracted and combined by creating disulfide bonds to form
human insulin
35. Figure showing maturation of proinsulin into insulin.

36. Gene Therapy :- collection of methods that allows correction of a gene defect that has been diagnosed
in a child / embryo. (Functional genes are inserted into patient’s cell to treat hereditary disease. It
compensate for the non-functional gene)
37. Name the disease which was successfully corrected by gene therapy for the first time ? . Adenosine
deaminase (ADA) deficiency
38. In which year first clinical gene therapy was performed and to whom ? In 1990 to a 4 year old girl.
39. Function of Adenosine deaminase enzyme ? Activate immune system
40. Gene therapy – Procedure :-
 Lymphocytes from the blood of the patient are grown in a culture outside the body.
 A functional ADA cDNA is then introduced into these lymphocytes using retroviral vector & are
returned to the patient.
 Lymphocytes are not immortal, so periodic transfusion is necessary.
41. How gene therapy is practiced for a permanent cure? Gene therapy at embryonic stage (ADA gene
from bonemarrow is introduced into cells at early embryonic stage)
42. Alternative methods for gene therapy :- (a) Bone marrow transplantation (b) Enzyme replacement
therapy( functional ADA is given by injection) . But these are not completely curative.
43. Molecular diagnostic methods :- (a) PCR based on amplification of DNA (b) ELISA based on antigen
antibody reaction. (c) Radioactive probe (d) rDNA technology
44. How do radioactive probes works?
 A single stranded DNA /RNA, tagged with radioactive molecule (probe) is allowed to hybridize
to its complementary DNA in a clone of cells
 Then detection using autoradiography.
 Clone having mutated gene will not appear on photographic film
45. Clones having mutated gene will not appear on photographic film. Why? because probe will not have
complimentarity with the mutated gene
46. Trangenic animal :- Animal whose genome has been altered by introducing a foreign gene.
47. Uses of transgenic animals:-
 To study how genes are regulated & how they affect normal functions of the body and its
development eg., Study of complex factors involved in growth.
 to study how genes contribute to the development of disease. ( Transgenic models exist for
cancer, cystic fibrosis, rheumatoid arthritis, & Alzheimers.

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 To Produce biological products :- eg., human protein ,ἀ- 1-antitrypsin use to treat emphysema,
Medicines for phenylketoneuria (PKU) & Cystic fibrosis , human protein enriched milk.
 To test the safety of vaccines :- eg., Trangenic mice –to test safety of polio vaccine.
 To test safety of chemicals (toxicity / safety testing) :- Sensitive transgenic animals are exposed
to toxic substances & effects studied.
48. First transgenic cow :- Rosie
49. Speciality of milk produced by Rosie :- Protein enriched milk (2.4g/l) .This milk contain human protein,
alpha –lactalbumin & nutritionally more balanced product for human babies than natural cow milk.
50. Expand ELISA :- Enzyme Linked Immuno – Sorbent Assay.
51. Expand GEAC :- Genetic Engineering Approval Committee( An Indian Government Organisation)
52. Aim of GEAC :- (1) validity of GM research and (2) safety of introducing GM organisms for public
services
53. Patent- Right granted by Government to an inventor for his new invention.
54. Importants of granting Patent :- This will prevent others from making commercial use of that invention
55. Biopatent – Patent granted for biological products and processes.
56. Biopiracy- Unauthorised use of bioresources by multinational companies & other organisations
,without compensatory payment.
57. Reason for biopiracy :- Developed countries are rich financially but poor in biodiversity & traditional
knowledge. In contrast developing & underdeveloped countries are rich in biodiversity & traditional
knowledge. This inequality leads to biopiracy
58. Examples of biopiracy :-
 In 1997, Indian Basmathi was crossed with semidwarf varieties by an American company and
claimed as a new invention & got patent on Basmathi rice through US Patent and Trademark
office. This allowed the company to sell a new variety of Basmathi in US &abroad.
 Turmeric & Neem are some of the products have patents in other countries.
59. Legal actions against biopiracy :-
 Many countries are developing laws to prevent Biopiracy
 Indian Government cleared second amendment of the Indian Patents Bill , that take such issues
into consideration.

ORGANISMS AND POPULATION

1. Ecology :- Study of organisms in relation to their environment (interactions among organisms & also
with their environment)
2. Four levels of biological Organisation :- Organism → Popula on → Communi es →Biomes
3. Organism :- Individual form of life . Body made up of organs . cannot survive independently. Adapted
to their environment for survival & reproduction . eg., plants, animals, bacteria etc.
4. Population :- A group of similar individuals ( same species) living together, sharing or competing for
same resources, & interbreeding within a given area at a particular time. eg., Lotus plants in a pond &
Bacteria in a culture plate

5. Population attributes :- Birth rate, death rate, sex ratio, age group etc.
6. Birth rate :- Rate of production of new individuals in a population by birth per unit time. eg., In a pond,
last year 20 lotus, 8 new lotus are added this year. Birth rate is 8/20 =0.4 offsprings per lotus per year

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7. Death rate :- Rate of loss of individuals in a population per unit time by death. eg., Out of 40 fruit flies,
4 died. Death rate = 4/40 =0.1% individual per fruit fly in that period.
8. Sex ratio :- individual is either male or female. But population has sex ratio eg., 60% females & 40%
males in a population
9. Age group :- (a) Pre reproductive age groups – children (b) Reproductive age group - Young people
,who add new members to the population (c) post reproductive age group – Older individuals
10. Age pyramid - Graphical representation of properties of various age groups. (% individuals of a given
age or age group).
11. Characteristics of age pyramid :- (a) shows age distribution of males & females in a combined
diagram. (b) shows nature of population, whether it is growing, stable or declining.
12. Expanding age pyramid – More number of pre-reproductive individuals. Population is growing.
13. Stable age pyramid – Pre-reproductive &reproductive individuals are almost equal. No increase or
decrease in population.
14. Declining age pyramid – Pre-reproductive individuals are lesser in number. Large number of
reproductive individuals.

15. Population density / Population size :- Number of individuals present per unit area at a given time.
indicated by the letter N.
16. How can we measure population density ?
 In number of individuals of a population
 In % cover / biomass ( e.g., 200 parthenium plant and one huge banyan tree in an area. The
role of banyan tree in that community is greater than parthenium)
 Relative population density. ( e .g., The number of fish caught /trap is used to measure total
population density of fish in the lake)
 Counting the colonies in a bacterial culture
 Indirect method – In tiger reserves tiger census is done on pug marks (foot prints)and fecal
matter
17. Population growth :- Number of individuals added in a population per unit time due to birth &
immigration over the death & emigration.
18. What are the physical factors that affect population density ? (a) Food availability (b) Predation
pressure (c) Weather
19. What are the four basic processes that affect population density :- Natality, Mortality, Immigration &
Emigration
20. Natality (B) – Number of births in a population during a given period , that are added to the initial
density. Population increase
21. Immigration (I) – Number of individuals of the same species that have come into the habitat from
elsewhere during a given period. population Increase
22. Mortality (D) – Number of deaths in the population in a given period. population Decreases
23. Emigration (E) – Number of individuals of the population who left the habitat during a given period.
population Decreases

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24.

 If N is the population density at time ‘t’, then its density at time ‘t+1’
Nt+1 = Nt + [(B + I) – (D + E)]
 Population density will increase if (B+I) > (D+E)
25. Exponential /Geometric growth model ::- Growth curve is J shaped.. Initial slow growth or lag phase,
followed by rapid growth/ exponential growth/ log phase. Growth stops suddenly due to death of
individuals. eg., Insect population.
26. Equation for exponential growth ::- dN/dt= rN ( dN/dt = [b-d]*N . [b-d]= r, here N - population density,
t- time, b- birthrate, d- death rate, rr- intrinsic rate of natural increase).
gral form of the exponential growth equations ::- Nt = N0ert ( Nt –population
27. Intergral population density at time t, N0
- initial density, e – base of natural logarithms, rr- intrinsic rate of natural increase)
28. Species undergo exponential growth can reach great population densities in short time. why? (a)
There is an unlimited supply of resources (b) There is no environ
environmental
mental resistance/ check eg.,(1)
eg.,(1 Slow
growing animal like elephant could reach enormous numbers in the absence of environmental
envi
resistance / check (2) bacterial
acterial culture reach enormous amount if they provide unlimited supply of
food & space
29. Environmental resistance :- Things that limit the growth of population. ( predators, disease,
competition, lack of food, fire, flood , drought etc)
30. Logistic growth model / verhulst pearl logistic growth ::- S shaped growth th curve. Initial slow growth
(lag phase) followed by rapid growth (exponential /log phase) . When environmental resistance come
into play / when carrying capacity reaches, growth slows down (Stationarytationary phase)
phase
31. Carrying capacity (K) :-Maximum
Maximum number of individuals of a particular species that can live in a
particular area.
32. Equation for logistic growth :- dN/dt =rN [K [K-N/k]
33. Which growth model is realistic or natural? Why? Logistic growth model. Resources for growth for
most animal populations are finite & become limiting sooner or later.
34. Identify the growth models

35. Darwinian fitness :- relative measure of reprodu

reproductive
ctive success of an organism .Population evolve to
maximize their , reproductive fitness/Darwinian fitness (high r value)
36. Life history variation :-
 Certain organism breed only once in their life time( eg., bamboo, pacific salmon
salm fish). Others
breed many times during their life time. eg., Most birds & mammals

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 Some produce large number of small- sized offspring ( eg., Oysters, pelagic fishes). Others
produce small number of large- sized offspring ( eg., birds, mammals)
37. Life history variation is evolved. Why? Variations have evolved in relation to the stresses created by
abiotic & biotic components of the area in which they live.
38. Population interactions:- Interaction between different populations (In nature, organisms cannot live
in isolation. They interact in different ways to form a biological community).
39. Interspecific interactions - Interactions of populations of two different species ( may be beneficial ,
harmful or neutral)
40. Types of Interactions :-

Name of Interaction Species A Species B + Positive effect - Detrimental effect

0 Neutral effect
Mutualism
+ +
_
Parasitism +

Commensalism + 0

Predation + _

Competition _ _

Ammensalism _ 0

41. Mutualism (++) :- interaction in which both the interacting species are benefited
42. Mutualism- examples :-
 Lichen – Symbiotic association between fungi and algae. Algae prepare food &give it to the
fungus. Fungus give shelter & protection.
 Mycorrhiza – Association between fungi& roots of higher plants. Fungus absorbs moisture and
nutrients from the soil and give it to root. Root gives food to fungus.
 Pollination & seed dispersal. Examples are
(a) Fig tree & wasp .Female wasp , while searching for suitable place for egg laying, it pollinate
the inflorescence of fig tree. In return, fig gives some developing seeds as food.
(b) Mediterranean orchid, Ophrys & bees. sexual deceit for pollination. One petal of its
flower resembles female bees in size , colour &markings. So male bee pseudocopulate
with the flower & dusted with pollen. When this bee pseudocopulate with another flower,
it transfers pollen to it. If the female bee’s colour pattern change slightly during evolution,
pollination success will be reduced, unless orchid flower co-evolves to maintain the
resemblance of its petals to the female bee.
43. Parasitism (+ -) : interaction where one species (parasite) depends on the other species (host) for food
and shelter, host is harmed , parasite is benefited. ( Parasites and host self-evolve)
44. Adaptations of parasites :- (a) Loss of unnecessary sense organs (b) Hooks and sucker (c) Loss of
digestive system (d) High Reproductive capacity

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45. What are the effects of parasites on their host? (a) Reduce the survival of host (b) Growth and
reproductive rate of host reduced (c) Render the host vulnerable to its predators by making them
weak (d) Reduce the population density of host
46. Ectoparasites :- depend on the external surface of the host. eg., (a) head lice on humans (b) ticks on
dogs (c) Copepods on marine fish (d) Cuscuta – Total stem parasite
47. Endoparasites :- take shelter within the body of the host organism . eg., (a) Liverfluke,
(b)Plasmodium
48. Is female mosquito is a parasite? No. It act as a vector. It needs blood only for reproduction, not for
food.
49. Brood parasitism – seen in parasitic bird e.g., between cuckoo & crow . Cuckoo lays its eggs in the
nest of its host, Crow for incubation, hatching &rearing of youngones. The eggs of cuckoo resembles
the eggs of crow in size, shape & colour. Crow cannot detect the foreign egg.
50. Commensalism (+ 0) :- Interaction between two organisms in which one is benefited and other is
neither harmed or benefited.
51. Commensalism – examples :-
 Orchid (+) growing on mango tree (0)
 Barnacles (+) grow on the back of the whale(0)
 Cattle egret (+) and grazing cattle(0) - The egret forage close to where the cattle are grazing.
As the cattle move the vegetation, insect come out. Otherwise it is difficult for egrets to find
and catch insects.
 Sea anemone (0) and clown fish(+) - Stinging tentacles of sea anemone gives protection to fish
from predators.
52. Predation (+ -) :-Interaction in which one organism captures and feeds on another. Predator :–
organism which captures & feeds (+) , Prey :– organism consumed (-)
53. Importance of predation :-
 Predation act as a channel for energy transfer across trophic levels
 Predators keep prey population under control (otherwise prey species become very high in
number & cause unstable ecosystem) eg.,uncontrolled spreading of a cactus (introduced into
Australia) was brought under control only after cactus feeding predator from its natural habitat
was introduced (It is a way of biological control) .
 Predators help in maintaining species diversity (by reducing competition among competing prey
species) eg., In the rocky intertidal communities of the American pacific coast, all the starfish
(predator) were removed from an enclosed intertidal area, then more than 10 species of
invertebrates became extinct within a year due to interspecific competition.
54. Predators in nature are prudent. Why? If predator overexploits the prey, then the prey become
extinct. When there is a shortage of prey the predator will also become extinct.
55. Adaptations of prey to protect from predation in animals:- (a) Camouflaged (cryptically coloured to
avoid being detected easily by predator. eg., certain insects & frogs (b) Some are poisonous & so
avoided by predator. eg., Monarch butterfly is distasteful to its predator (bird) due to poisonous
chemical content in the body.

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56. Adaptations of prey to protect from predation in plants :- (a) Thorns in cactus, opuntia, Acacia etc (b)
Poisonous chemical content kill insects (c) Poisonous cardiac glycosides seen in calotropis (d)
Presence of alkaloids (nicotine, caffeine, quinine, strychnine , opium etc ) against grazers & browsers
57. Phytophagous insects :- Insects which are feeding on plant sap ( eg., 25% insects)
58. Competition (- -) :- Interaction between two organism for same resource.
 Interspecific competition:- Competition between unrelated species for the same resource.
eg., in some shallow south American lakes visiting flamingoes & native fishes compete for
common food, zooplankton
 Interference competition :- The feeding efficiency of one species is reduced due to the
interfering & inhibitory presence of the other species even if resources are abundant
 Competitive exclusion :- When resources are limited, competitively superior species will slowly
eliminate the other species. eg., Abingdon tortoise in Galapagos islands became extinct
within a decade after goats were introduced due to the greater browsing capacity of the
introduced goats.
 Gause’s competitive exclusion principle :- Two closely related species competing for the same
resources cannot co-exist indefinitely & the competitively inferior one will be eliminated
eventually.
 Competitive release :- A species is restricted to a small geographical area due to competitively
superior species. When the superior species is experimentally removed, the small species
flourish. eg., Connell’s field experiment. Competitively superior barnacle called Balanus
dominates the intertidal area & excludes the smaller barnacle Chathamalus from that zone
 Co-existance by resource partitioning :- Two species choose different times for feeding or
different patterns of foraging. eg., Mc Arthur showed that 5 closely related species of
warblers living on the same tree co-exist due to behavioural differences in their foraging
activities. No species is eliminated.
59. Ammensalism (- 0) :- Interaction in which one species is harmed and the other is neither benefited
nor harmed. eg., Penicillium (fungus) produces toxin- Penicillin which kills bacteria. But penicillium is
neither benefited nor harmed.

ECOSYSTEM
1. Ecosystem :- Functional unit of nature . The sum total of interaction between biotic and abiotic
components , which is capable of independent existence
2. Classification of Ecosystem :- Natural ecosystem & Artificial ecosystem
3. Natural ecosystem :- Terrestrial ecosystem ( forest, grassland, desert etc) & Aquatic ecosystem ( fresh
water & salt water)
4. Artificial ecosystem / Man made ecosystem :-Dam, Tree plantations, Aquarium, etc
5. Biotic component :- Living components of an ecosystem (Producer, consumer, decomposer)
6. Abiotic component :- Non living component of an ecosystem :- temperature, light, soil, water etc.

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7. Stratification :- Vertical distribution of different species occupying different levels in an ecosystem
8. Productivity :- Rate of biomass /Organic matter produced per unit area during a given period of time. It
is expressed in 𝑔 𝑦𝑟 .
9. Primary productivity :- Rate of biomass produced per unit area during a given period of time by plants
through photosynthesis ( Rate of biomass production at producer level).
10. Gross primary productivity (GPP) :- Rate of total biomass production by plants through
photosynthesis.
11. Net primary productivity (NPP) – Producer use some biomass for life processes ,balance energy is NPP.

NPP = GPP – R (Respiratory loss)

12. Factors influencing primary productivity :- Sunlight, temperature, moisture, plants in that area,
photosynthetic capacity, availability of nutrients etc.
13. Secondary productivity :- Rate of biomass production at consumer level
14. Annual NPP of biosphere - 170 billion tons .
15. Productivity of ocean - 55 billion tons. (Light can penetrate upto 250m depth from water surface).
16. Decomposition :- Breakdown of organic materials into inorganic materials by decomposers. Oxygen
requiring process.
17. Detritus :– Dead remains of plants (leaves, barks etc) and animals including fecal matters. Detritus are
raw material for decomposition.
18. Detritivores :- Organism which breakdown detritus. e .g., Earth worm.
19. Steps of Decomposition:-
 Fragmentation – Breakdown of organic matter into small fragments by detritivores.
 Leaching – Water soluble substances penetrate into the deeper layers of soil and get
precipitate as unavailable salts.
 Catabolism – Enzymatic breakdown of detritus into inorganic materials. Enzymes are released
by micro organisms.
 Humification – Formation of partially decomposed dark coloured amorphous substance
called Humus from detritus. Humus is resistant to microbial action and it is colloidal in nature.
So It undergoes slow decomposition . Humus is Reservoir of nutrients.
 Mineralisation – Humus is degraded by micro organisms and release inorganic nutrients.
20. Factors affecting decomposition :-
 Warm and moist environment favour decomposition
 Decomposition rate becomes high if detritus, rich in nitrogen and water soluble substances .
 Decomposition rate is slow in detritus, rich in lignin & chitin.
 Low temperature and lack of Oxygen inhibit decomposition .
21. Energy flow :- Unidirectional flow of energy from sun to producers, consumers ,and decomposers .
22. Ultimate source of energy – Sun.
23. Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) :- Amount of light available for photosynthesis (visible light)

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24. 10% law of energy transfer :- 10% of the energy in the food is fixed into their flesh & is available to
next trophic level. 90% of energy is utilized for life activities & released as heat energy
25. Food chain :- Linear sequence of energy transfer in an eecosystem
cosystem by eating and being eaten
26. Producer :- Organism which produce food using sunlight
27. Consumer :- Organism which depend on plants for their food
28. Primary consumer :- herbivores which eat plants
29. Secondary consumer :- Animals which eat primary consumeconsumers
30. Teritiary consumer :- Animals which eat secondary consumers
31. Grazing food chain (GFC)– Begins from plants. Major food chain in aquatic ecosystems.
ecosystems Less fraction of
energy flow. eg., Grass →Goat→Lion→Hawk
32. Detritus food chain (DFC) – Energy transfer begbegins
ins from detritus. It include Saprophytes which take
food from detritus. Major food chain in terrestrial ecosystem
ecosystem.. Large fraction of energy flow takes place.

33. Food web :- Interconnected food chain

34. Trophic levels :- Based on the source of food, organisms occupy a specific place in the food chain (First
trophic level – Producer, Second trophic level – Herbivores/
rbivores/ primary consumers, Third trophic level –
Carnivores / secondary consumers, Fourth trophic level – Teritiary consumers)
35. Standing crop :- Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material at a particular time. (Measured
as the biomass/ numberber in a unit area.
36. Measurement of biomass in terms of dry weight is more accurate. Why? Fresh weight may vary
according to seasonal moisture variations , but dry weight remain unaffected by such variations.
37. Ecological pyramids :- Representation of food chain in the form of pyramid
38. Pyramid of number :–Representation
Representation of number of organisms in different trophic levels. (Grassland
ecosystem - Upright , Tree ecosystem - inverted)

39. Pyramid of biomass :– Representation of biomas

biomasss of organisms at successive trophic levels ( Aquatic
ecosystem – inverted, All others Upright)

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40. Pyramid of energy – Representation of energy used by organisms of successive trophic levels. Always
upright because energy flow in a food chain is always unidirectional and only
nly 10% of energy is
transferred to next trophic level, rest is lost as heat

41. Limitations of Ecological pyramids :

 Ecological
cological pyramid does not accommodate food web
 Do not take into account same species belonging to two or more trophic levels.
 Assumes simple food chain, which never exist in nature,
 Saprophytes are not included.

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