VISION OF THE DEPARTMENT

To become reputed in providing technical education in the field of electronics and communication
engineering and produce technocrats working as leaders.

MISSION OF THE DEPARTMENT

1. To provide congenial academic environment and adopting innovative learning process.

2. To keep valuing human values and transparency while nurturing the young engineers.

3. To strengthen the department by collaborating with industry and research organization of repute.

4. To facilitate the students to work in interdisciplinary environment and enhance their skills for employability
and entrepreneurship.
 Program Specific Outcomes (PSO’s)

PSO1: Analyze specific engineering problems relevant to Electronics & Communication Engineering by
applying the knowledge of basic sciences, engineering mathematics and engineering fundamentals.

PSO2: Apply and transfer interdisciplinary systems and engineering approaches to the various areas, like
Communications, Signal processing, VLSI and Embedded system, PCB Designing.

PSO3: Inculcate the knowledge of Engineering and Management principles to meet demands of industry and
provide solutions to the current real time problems.

PSO4: Demonstrate the leadership qualities and strive for the betterment of organization, environment and
society.

Program Educational Objectives (PEO’s)

PEO1: Recognize and apply appropriate experimental and scientific skills to solve real world
problems to create innovative products and systems in the field of electronics and communication
engineering.

PEO2: To evolve graduates with ability to apply, analyze, design in Electronics &
Communication Systems.

PEO3: Motivate graduates to become responsible citizens with moral & ethical values for the
welfare of Society.

PEO4: Inculcate the habit of team work with professional quality of leadership to become
successful contributors in industry and/ or entrepreneurship in view of Global & National status
of technology.

Course Outcomes (CO's)

Student will be able to
C704.1 Demonstrate various microwave bench setup for measuring various parameters.
C704.2 Analyse the operation and working of various microwave tubes.
C704.3 Determine scattering parameters of magic tee circulator
C704.4 Measure Microwave Frequency using microwave bench
C704.5 Measure various Waveguide Parameters.
SCHEME
 LAKSHMI NARAIN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY EXCELLENCE

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
Exp. AIM Experiment Submission
No. Date Date Remark
1. To become familiar with microwave components
and instruments available in the laboratory

2. To Study Reflex Klystron Characteristics.

3. To study the V-I characteristics of Gunn diode.

4. To study the function of multi-hole directional coupler

5.
To study the standing-wave ratio and reflection coefficient.

6. To study an unknown impedance measurement using the

smith chart.

7. To Study the operation of Magic Tee and calculate Coupling

Co-efficient and Isolation.

8. To study the Isolator and circulators and

Insertion Loss and Isolation of Circulator.

9. To study insertion loss and attenuation of attenuator.

10. To study the frequency and wavelength measurement technique.

 1-Introction to Microwave Components

Aim: To become familiar with microwave components and instruments available in the laboratory.

Apparatus Used: Klystron power supply, Gunn power supply, VSWR meter, power meter, Slotted
section, Frequency/wave meter, RF Generator, Vector Network Analyzer.

Theory: Components/Devices: Attenuator, circulator, Isolator, Waveguide twist, Magic Tee, E plane, H plane
Tee, Directional coupler, Matched termination, PIN modulator, Crystal detector, Reflex klystron tube, Gunn diode,
different types of antennas available.

LIST OF EQUIPMENTS AND DEVICES TO BE STUDIED:

1. Klystron Power Supply
2. Klystron tube
3. Isolator
4. Circulator
5. Attenuator
6. Direct reading frequency meter
7. Slotted line section with probe carriage
8. Crystal Detector
9. VSWR Meter
10. Different types of Antennas available
11. Magic tee
12. E and H Plane Tee
13. Matched Termination
14. Waveguide to coaxial adapter

INTRODUCTION

A microwave test bench is an assembly of various microwave components, held together by Nuts
& Bolts. It consists of a microwave source (Oscillator) at one end. The waves generated are led
down by a wave guide through various components, so that the student can observe the
propagation of waves, and their interaction and/or processing by various components.

2
1. Klystron Power Supply
Klystron Power supply is a regulated power supply
for operating low power klystron. Klystron power
supply generates voltage required for driving the
reflex klystron tubes like 2k25, 2k56, 2k22. It is
absolutely stable, regulated and short circuit
protected power supply. It has the facility to vary the
Beam Voltage continuously and built in facility of
square wave and saw tooth generators, for amplitude
and frequency modulation.

2. Reflex Klystron (Klystron mount with tube)

A waveguide of suitable length having octal base on the broad
wall of the waveguide for mounting the klystron tube. It
consists of movable short at one end of the waveguide to direct
the microwave energy generated by the klystron tube. A small
hole located exactly at the center of the broad wall of the
waveguide is used to put the coupling pin of the tube as the
electric field vector of EM energy is maximum at the center
only. The maximum power transfer can be achieved by tuning
of the movable plunger.

3. The Reflex Klystron

The reflex klystron, shown in Fig., employs a somewhat different stratagem to extract energy
from an electron beam in the form of microwave oscillation. The anode of the klystron is a
resonant cavity that contains perforated grids to permit accelerated electrons to pass through
and continue their journey. Such electrons are not, however, subsequently collected by a
positive electrode. Rather, they are deflected by a negatively polarized 'reflector' and are
thereby caused to fall back into the cavity grids. The operational objective of the tube is to
have such electrons return to the cavity grids at just the fight time to reinforce the electric
oscillatory field appearing across these grids. When this situation exists, oscillations are
excited and sustained in the cavity. Microwave power is coupled out of the cavity by means
of a loop if coaxial cable is used, or simply through an appropriate aperture if a waveguide is
used for delivering the power to the load. After the kinetic energy of the electrons has been

3
 given up to the oscillatory field of the
cavity, the spent electrons fall back to
the positive biased control grid where
they are collected, thereby adding to
control grid current. If the tube is not
oscillating, a relatively high number of
electrons are deflected by the retarding
field of the reflector with sufficient
energy to pass through the cavity
grids, thence to be collected by the
control grid. However, when
oscillations are sustained in the cavity,
the falling electrons yield most of their
energy to the oscillating electric field appearing across the cavity grids. Such electrons are
subsequently collected by the cavity grids, which in this function behave as the plate of an
ordinary diode. Inasmuch as the spent electrons do not fall into the positive field of the
control grid, a profound dip in control-grid current accompanies the onset of oscillation
within the cavity.

4. Isolator:
The microwave test bench includes an attenuator, and an
isolator. Both of these help to stop the reflected power from
reaching the oscillator and pulling the frequency of the cavity
and Gunn diode off tune when the load impedance is varied.
An isolator is a two port device that transmits microwave or
radio frequency power in one direction only. It is used to
shield equipment on its input side, from the effects of
conditions on its output side; for example, to prevent a
microwave source being detuned by a mismatched load. An
ideal isolator transmits all the power entering port 1 to port 2, while absorbing all the power
entering port 2.
An isolator in a non-reciprocal device, with a non-symmetric matrix.

To achieve non-reciprocity, an isolator must necessarily incorporate a non-reciprocal

material. At microwave frequencies this material is invariably a ferrite which is biased by a
static magnetic field. The ferrite is positioned within the isolator such that the microwave
signal presents it with a rotating magnetic field, with the rotation axis aligned with the
direction of the static bias field. The behavior of the ferrite depends on the sense of rotation
with respect to the bias field, and hence is different for microwave signals travelling in

4
 opposite directions. Depending on the exact operating conditions, the signal travelling in one
direction may either be phase-shifted, displaced from the ferrite or absorbed.

5. Circulator
A circulator is a passive non-reciprocal three port device in which microwave or radio
frequency power entering any port is transmitted to the next port in rotation only. There are
two types of circulators and their [S] matrices i.e. Clockwise circulator and Counterclockwise
circulator.
Clockwise Circulator

Counterclockwise Circulator

6. Attenuator:
Attenuators are required to adjust the power flowing in
a waveguide. Attenuators are of fixed, variable and
rotary vane type, i.e.
Fixed: Any amount of fixed attenuation can be
supplied between 3 to 40 dB. These attenuators are
calibrated frequency band. Variable: Variable
attenuators provide a convenient means of adjusting
power level very accurately.

5
7. Direct reading frequency meter
This Frequency Meter has convenient readout with high
resolution is provided by long spiral dials. These dials
have all frequency calibrations visible so you can tell at a
glance the specific portion of each band you are
measuring. Overall accuracy of these frequency meters is
0.17% and includes such variables as dial calibration. It is
constructed from a cylindrical cavity resonator with a
variable short circuit termination. The shorting plunger is
used to change the resonance frequency of the cavity by
changing the cavity length. DRF measures the frequency directly. It is particularly useful
when measuring frequency differences of small changes. The cylindrical cavity forms a
resonator that produces a suck-out in the frequency response of the unit. This you would turn
the knob until a dip in the response is observed.

8. Slotted line section with probe carriage:

The slotted line represented the basic instrument
of microwave measurements. With its help it is
possible to determine the VSWR, attenuation,
phase and impedances. The position of carriage
(probe) can be read from a scale with its vernier.
The total travel of probe carriage is more than
three time of half of guide wavelength.This
system consists of a transmission line
(waveguide), a traveling probe carriage and
facility for attaching/detecting instruments. The
slot made in the center of the broad face do not radiate for any power of dominant mode. The
precision built probe carriage having centimeters scale with a vernier reading of 0.1 mm least
count is used to note the position of the probe. Additionally slotted section can be used to
measure reflection coefficient and the return loss.
9. Crystal Detector:
The crystal detector (Detector mount) can be used for the
detection of microwave signal. RF choke is built into the crystal
mounting to reduce leakage from BNC connector. Square law
characteristics may be used with a high gain selective amplifier
having a square law meter calibration. At low level of
microwave power, the response of each detector approximate to
square law characteristics and may be used with a high gain
selective amplifier having a square law meter calibration.

6
10. VSWR Meter
The SWR meter or VSWR (voltage standing wave
ratio) meter measures the standing wave ratio in a
transmission line. The meter can be used to indicate the
degree of mismatch between a transmission line and its
load (usually a radio antenna), or evaluate the
effectiveness of impedance matching efforts.

Ways to express VSWR

The reflection coefficient is what you'd read from a Smith chart. A reflection coefficient with
magnitude of zero is a perfect match and a value of one is perfect reflection. The symbol for
reflection coefficient is uppercase Greek letter gamma ( ). Note that the reflection
coefficient is a vector, so it includes an angle. Unlike VSWR, the reflection coefficient can
distinguish between short and open circuits. A short circuit has a value of -1 (1 at an angle of
180 degrees), while an open circuit is one at an angle of 0 degrees.The return loss of a load
is merely the magnitude of the reflection coefficient expressed in decibels. The correct
equation for return loss is:

Here are the equations that convert between VSWR, reflection coefficient and return loss:

7
11. Different types of Antennas
available
 Conical Horn :
It is also called as waveguide fed Conical Horn. The
conical horn antenna is a practical microwave antenna,
often used as a feed for communication / satellite dishes
and radio telescopes. Although the axial symmetry makes
it capable of handling any polarization of the exciting
fundamental (TE11) mode, the pin-fed horn design
provided here is for linearly polarization.
There are a number of permutations on the basic horn
design which can serve to minimize the effects of diffractions, improve pattern symmetry
and reduce the side lobe levels. These include corrugating the internal walls, curving the
walls at the aperture, incorporating corrugations with the wall curvature at the aperture,
and introducing higher order modes in the horn to reduce the field at the aperture edges.
A lens is often placed across the aperture to compensate for phase error and thus narrow
the beam width.
 Parabolic Dish:
A parabolic antenna is an antenna that uses a parabolic reflector, a surface with the cross-
sectional shape of a parabola, to direct the radio waves. The most common form is
shaped like a dish and is popularly called a dish antenna or parabolic dish. The main
advantage of a parabolic antenna is that it is highly directive; it functions analogously to a
searchlight or flashlight reflector to direct the radio waves in a narrow beam, or receive
radio waves from one particular direction only. Parabolic antennas have some of the
highest gains that is they can produce the narrowest beam width angles, of any antenna
type. They are used as high-gain antennas for point-to-point radio, television and data
communications, and also for radiolocation (radar), on the UHF and microwave (SHF)
parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. The relatively short wavelength of electromagnetic
radiation at these frequencies allows reasonably sized reflectors to exhibit the desired
highly directional response.
With the advent of TVRO and DBS satellite television dishes, parabolic antennas have
become a ubiquitous feature of the modern landscape, not only in rural locales where
CATV and terrestrial signals were limited or non-existent, but also in urban and suburban
regions, where the aforementioned services compete with CATV and broadcast media.
Extensive terrestrial microwave links, such as those between cell phone base stations, and
wireless WAN/LAN applications have also proliferated this antenna type. Earlier
applications included ground-based and airborne radar and radio astronomy.
Although the term dish antenna is often used for a parabolic antenna, it can connote a
spherical antenna as well, which has a portion of spherical surface as the reflector shape.

8
TYPES OF PARABOLIC DISH:
Parabolic antennas are distinguished by their shapes:
1. Cylindrical - The reflector is curved in only one direction and flat in the other. The radio waves
come to a focus not at a point but along a line. The feed is often a dipole antenna located along the
focal line. It radiates a fan-shaped beam, narrow in the curved dimension, and wide in the uncurved
dimension. The curved ends of the reflector are sometimes capped by flat plates, to prevent
radiation out the ends, and this is called a pillbox antenna.
2. Orange peel - Another type is very long and narrow, shaped like the letter "C". This is called an
orange peel design, and radiates an even wider fan beam. It is often used for radar antennas.
3. Paraboloidal or dish - The reflector is shaped like a paraboloid. This is the most common type.
It radiates a narrow pencil-shaped beam along the axis of the dish.Shrouded dish - Sometimes a
cylindrical metal shield is attached to the rim of the dish. The shroud shields the antenna from
radiation from angles outside the main beam axis, reducing the side lobes. It is sometimes used to
prevent interference in terrestrial microwave links, where several antennas using the same
frequency are located close together. The shroud is coated inside with microwave absorbent
material. Shrouds can reduce back lobe radiation by 10 dB.
They are also classified by the type of feed; how the radio waves are
supplied to the antenna:
Axial or front feed - This is the most common type
of feed, with the feed antenna located in front of the
dish at the focus, on the beam axis. A disadvantage
of this type is that the feed and its supports block
some of the beam, which limits the aperture
efficiency to only 55 - 60%.
Offset or off-axis feed - The reflector is an
asymmetrical segment of a paraboloid, so the focus,
and the feed antenna, is located to one side of the
dish. The purpose of this design is to move the feed
structure out of the beam path, so it doesn't block
the beam. It is widely used in home satellite
television dishes, which are small enough that the
feed structure would otherwise block a significant
percentage of the signal.
Figure (right) shows the main types of
parabolic antenna feeds.

9
 Cassegrain - In a Cassegrain antenna the feed is located on or behind the dish, and
radiates forward, illuminating a convex hyperboloidalsecondary reflector at the focus of
the dish. The radio waves from the feed reflect back off the secondary reflector to the
dish, which forms the main beam. An advantage of this configuration is that the feed,
with its waveguides and "front end" electronics does not have to be suspended in front
of the dish, so it is used for antennas with complicated or bulky feeds, such as large
satellite communication antennas and radio telescopes. Aperture efficiency is on the
order of 65 - 70%.
Gregorian - Similar to the Cassegrain design except that the secondary reflector is
concave, (ellipsoidal) in shape. Aperture efficiency over 70% can be achieved.
Gain:
The directive qualities of an antenna are measured by a dimensionless parameter called
its gain, which is the ratio of the power received by the antenna from a source along its
beam axis to the power received by a hypothetical isotropic antenna. The gain of a
parabolic antenna is:

Where,

A is the area of the antenna aperture, that is, the mouth of the parabolic reflector

d is the diameter of the parabolic reflector

λ is the wavelength of the radio waves.

eA is a dimensionless parameter called the aperture efficiency. The aperture efficiency

of typical parabolic antennas is 0.55 to 0.60.

12. Magic Tee:

The magic tee is a combination of E and H plane tees.
Arm 3 forms an H-plane tee with arms 1 and 2. Arm 4
forms an E-plane tee with arms 1 and 2. Arms 1 and 2
are sometimes called the side or collinear arms. Port 3
is called the H-plane port, and is also called the Sum
port or the P-port (for Parallel). Port 4 is the E-plane
port, and is also called the (delta) port, difference
port, or S-port (for Series).
The name "magic tee" is derived from the way in which
power is divided among the various ports. A signal
injected into the H-plane port will be divided equally between ports 1 and 2, and will be in

10
 phase. A signal injected into the E-plane port will also be divided equally between ports 1
and 2, but will be 180 degrees out of phase. If signals are fed in through ports 1 and 2, they
are added at the H-plane port and subtracted at the E-plane port. Thus, with the ports
numbered as shown, and to within a phase factor, the full scattering matrix for an ideal magic
tee is

13. E and H Plane Tee

In E Plane Tee the junction of the auxiliary arm is made on the broad wall of the main
waveguide. And in H Plane Tee the junction of auxiliary arm is made on the narrow wall of
the main waveguide.

E Plane Tee H Plane Tee

14. Matched Termination

These are used for terminating the waveguide systems
operating at low average power and are designed to absorb
all the applied power assuring low SWR. Where a matched
load is required as in the measurement of reflection,
discontinuities of obstacle in waveguide systems, these
components are used. These are also employed as a precise
reference loads with tee junctions, directional couplers etc.

11
15. W/g Coaxial Adaptor:
These adapters consist of a short section of waveguide with a
probe transition coax mounted on broad wall. It transforms
waveguides impedance into coaxial impedance. Power can
be transmitted in either direction. Each adaptor covers 50%
of the waveguide band.

RESULT: The study of microwave components and instruments has been successful.

12
 2.REFLEX KLYSTRON CHARACTERISTICS

AIM: To study the mode characteristics of the reflex klystron tube.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
1. Klystron power supply
2. Klystron tube with klystron mount
3. Isolator
4. Frequency meter
5. Detector mount
6. Variable Attenuator
7. Wave guide stand
8. VSWR meter
9. Oscilloscope
10. BNC Cable

THEORY: The reflex klystron is a single cavity variable frequency microwave generator of low
power and low efficiency. This is most widely used in applications where variable frequency is
desired as
1. In radar receivers
2. Local oscillator in μw receivers
3. Signal source in micro wave generator of variable frequency
4. Portable micro wave links.
5. Pump oscillator in parametric amplifier
Voltage Characteristics: Oscillations can be obtained only for specific combinations of anode
and repeller voltages that gives farable transit time.
Power Output Characteristics: The mode curves and frequency characteristics. The frequency
of resonance of the cavity decides the frequency of oscillation. A variation in repeller voltages
slightly changes the frequency.

13
BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Klystron Power
supply SKPS-610

Multi
meter

Klystron
Variable Detector
Mount
attenuator mount VSWR
XM-251 Isolator Frequency
XA-520 XD-451 meter
XI-621 meter XF-455 SW-115

CRO

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

CARRIER WAVE OPERATION:

1. Connect the equipments and components as shown in the figure.
2. Set the variable attenuator at maximum Position.
3. Set the MOD switch of Klystron Power Supply at CW position, beam voltage control knob to
fully anti clock wise and repeller voltage control knob to fully clock wise and meter switch to
‘OFF’ position.
4. Rotate the Knob of frequency meter at one side fully.
5. Connect the DC microampere meter at detector.
6. Switch “ON” the Klystron power supply, CRO and cooling fan for the Klystron tube..
7. Put the meter switch to beam voltage position and rotate the beam voltage knob clockwise
slowly up to 300 Volts and observe the beam current on the meter by changing meter switch
to beam current position. The beam current should not increase more than 30 mA.
8. Change the repeller voltage slowly and watch the current meter, set the maximum voltage on
CRO.

9. Tune the plunger of klystron mount for the maximum output.

14
10. Rotate the knob of frequency meter slowly and stop at that position, where there is less output
current on multimeter. Read directly the frequency meter between two horizontal line and
vertical marker. If micrometer type frequency meter is used read the micrometer reading and
find the frequency from its frequency calibration chart.

11. Change the repeller voltage and read the current and frequency for each repeller voltage.

B. SQUARE WAVE OPERATION:

1. Connect the equipments and components as shown in figure
2. Set Micrometer of variable attenuator around some Position.
3. Set the range switch of VSWR meter at 40 db position, input selector switch to crystal
impedance position, meter switch to narrow position.
4. Set Mod-selector switch to AM-MOD position .beam voltage control knob to fullyanti
clockwise position.
5. Switch “ON” the klystron power Supply, VSWR meter, CRO and cooling fan.
6. Switch “ON” the beam voltage. Switch and rotate the beam voltage knob clockwise upto
300V in meter.
7. Keep the AM – MOD amplitude knob and AM – FREQ knob at the mid position.
8. Rotate the reflector voltage knob to get deflection in VSWR meter or square wave on CRO.
9. Rotate the AM – MOD amplitude knob to get the maximum output in VSWR meter or CRO.
10. Maximize the deflection with frequency knob to get the maximum output in VSWR meter or
CRO.
11. If necessary, change the range switch of VSWR meter 30dB to 50dB if the deflection in
VSWR meter is out of scale or less than normal scale respectively. Further the output can be
also reduced by variable attenuator for setting the output for any particular position.

C. MODE STUDY ON OSCILLOSCOPE:

1. Set up the components and equipments as shown in Fig.
2. Keep position of variable attenuator at min attenuation position.
3. Set mode selector switch to FM-MOD position FM amplitude and FM frequency knob at mid
position keep beam voltage knob to fully anti clock wise and reflector voltage knob to fully
clockwise position and beam switch to ‘OFF’ position.

15
4. Keep the time/division scale of oscilloscope around 100 HZ frequency measurement and
volt/div. to lower scale.
5. Switch ‘ON’ the klystron power supply and oscilloscope.
6. Change the meter switch of klystron power supply to Beam voltage position and set beam
voltage to 300V by beam voltage control knob.
7. Keep amplitude knob of FM modulator to max. Position and rotate the reflector voltage anti
clock wise to get the modes as shown in figure on the oscilloscope. The horizontal axis
represents reflector voltage axis and vertical represents o/p power.
8. By changing the reflector voltage and amplitude of FM modulation in any mode of klystron
tube can be seen on oscilloscope.

EXPECTED GRAPH:

RESULT: The study of characteristics of Reflex Klystron is successful.

16
 3.GUNN DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

AIM: To study the V-I characteristics of Gunn diode.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

1. Gunn power supply

2. Gunn oscillator
3. PIN Modulator
4. Isolator
5. Frequency Meter
6. Variable attenuator
7. Slotted line
8. Detector mount and CRO.
THEORY:
Gunn diode oscillator normally consist of a resonant cavity, an arrangement for coupling
diode to the cavity a circuit for biasing the diode and a mechanism to couple the RF power from
cavity to external circuit load. A co-axial cavity or a rectangular wave guide cavity is commonly
used.
The circuit using co-axial cavity has the Gunn diode at one end at one end of cavity along with
the central conductor of the co-axial line. The O/P is taken using a inductively or capacitively
coupled probe. The length of the cavity determines the frequency of oscillation. The location of
the coupling loop or probe within the resonator determines the load impedance presented to the
Gunn diode. Heat sink conducts away the heat due to power dissipation of the device.

17
BLOCK DIAGRAM

Gunn
power
supply

Gunn Isolator Pin Frequenc Matched

oscillator XI -621 modulator y meter termination
XG -11 XF- 710 XL -400

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

Voltage-Current Characteristics:
1. Set the components and equipments as shown in Figure.
2. Initially set the variable attenuator for minimum attenuation.
3. Keep the control knobs of Gunn power supply as
below Meter switch – “OFF”
Gunn bias knob – Fully anti clock wise
PIN bias knob – Fully anti clock wise
PIN mode frequency – any position
4. Set the micrometer of Gunn oscillator for required frequency of operation.
5. Switch “ON” the Gunn power supply.
6. Measure the Gunn diode current to corresponding to the various Gunn bias voltage through
the digital panel meter and meter switch. Do not exceed the bias voltage above 10 volts.
7. Plot the voltage and current readings on the graph.
8. Measure the threshold voltage which corresponding to max current.

Note: Do not keep Gunn bias knob position at threshold position for more than 10-15 sec.
readings should be obtained as fast as possible. Otherwise due to excessive heating Gunn diode
may burn

18
EXPECTED GRAPH:

Threshold voltage

I
(mA)

Volts (V)

I-V CHARACTERISTICS OF GUNN OSCILLATOR

RESULT: The study of V-I characteristics of Gunn Diode is successful.

19
 4. DIRECTIONAL COUPLER CHARACTERISTICS

AIM: To study the function of multi-hole directional coupler.

1. The Coupling factor, Insertion Loss and Directivity of the Directional coupler
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
1. Microwave Source (Klystron or Gunn-Diode)
2. Isolator, Frequency Meter
3. Variable Attenuator
4. Slotted Line
5. Tunable Probe
6. Detector Mount Matched Termination
7. MHD Coupler
8. Waveguide Stand
9. Cables and Accessories
10. CRO.

THEORY:
A directional coupler is a device with which it is possible to measure the incident and
reflected wave separately. It consist of two transmission lines the main arm and auxiliary arm,
electromagnetically coupled to each other Refer to the Fig.1. The power entering, in the main-
arm gets divided between port 2 and 3, and almost no power comes out in port (4) Power
entering at port 2 is divided between port 1 and 4.
The coupling factor is defined as
Coupling (db) = 10 log10 [P1/P3] where port 2 is terminated, Isolation (dB) = 10 log 10 [P2/P3]
where P1 is matched.

20
 With built-in termination and power entering at Port 1, the directivity of the coupler is a
measure of separation between incident wave and the reflected wave. Directivity is measured
indirectly as follows:

Hence Directivity D (db) = I-C = 10 log10 [P2/P1]

Main line VSWR is SWR measured, looking into the main-line input terminal when the
matched loads are placed at all other ports.
Auxiliary live VSWR is SWR measured in the auxiliary line looking into the output terminal
when the matched loads are placed on other terminals.
Main line insertion loss is the attenuation introduced in the transmission line by insertion of
coupler, it is defined as:
Insertion Loss (dB) = 10 log10 [P1/P2]

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

21
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
1. Set up the equipments as shown in the Figure.
2. Energize the microwave source for particular operation of frequency .
3. Remove the multi hole directional coupler and connect the detector mount to the slotted
section.
4. Set maximum amplitude in CRO with the help of variable attenuator, Let it be X.
5. Insert the directional coupler between the slotted line and detector mount. Keeping port 1 to
slotted line, detector mount to the auxiliary port 3 and matched termination to port 2 without
changing the position of variable attenuator.
6. Note down the amplitude using CRO, Let it be Y.
7. Calculate the Coupling factor X-Y in dB.
8. Now carefully disconnect the detector mount from the auxiliary port 3 and matched
termination from port 2 , without disturbing the setup.
9. Connect the matched termination to the auxiliary port 3 and detector mount to port 2 and
measure the amplitude on CRO, Let it be Z.
10. Compute Insertion Loss= X – Z in dB.
11. Repeat the steps from 1 to 4.
12. Connect the directional coupler in the reverse direction i.e., port 2 to slotted section, matched
termination to port 1 and detector mount to port 3, without disturbing the position of the
variable attenuator.
13. Measure and note down the amplitude using CRO, Let it be Y0.
14. Compute the Directivity as Y-Y0 in dB.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Avoid loose connections.
2. Avoid Parallax errors.

RESULT: The study of fucntion of multi-hole directional coupler is successful.

22
 5. VSWR MEASUREMENT
AIM: To study the standing-wave ratio and reflection coefficient.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
1. Klystron tube
2. Klystron power supply
3. VSWR meter
4. Klystron mount
5. Isolator
6. Frequency meter
7. Variable attenuator
8. Slotted line
9. Wave guide stand
10. Movable short/termination
11. BNC CableS-S Tuner
THEORY:
Any mismatched load leads to reflected waves resulting in standing waves along the
length of the line. The ratio of maximum to minimum voltage gives the VSWR. Hence
minimum value of S is unity. If S<10 then VSWR is called low VSWR. If S>10 then VSWR is
called high VSWR. The VSWR values more than 10 are very easily measured with this setup. It
can be read off directly on the VSWR meter calibrated. The measurement involves simply
adjusting the attenuator to give an adequate reading on the meter which is a D.C. mill volt meter.
The probe on the slotted wave guide is moved t get maximum reading on the meter. The
attenuation is now adjusted to get full scale reading. Next the probe on the slotted line is
adjusted to get minimum, reading on the meter. The ratio of first reading to the second gives the
VSWR. The meter itself can be calibrated in terms of VSWR. Double minimum method is used
to measure VSWR greater than 10. In this method, the probe is inserted to a depth where the
minimum can be read without difficulty. The probe is then moved to a point where the power is
twice the minimum.

23
 BLOCK DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Set up equipment as shown in figure.
2. Keep variable attenuator in minimum attenuation position.
3. Keep control knobs of VSWR meter as below
Range dB = 40db / 50db
Input switch = low impedance
Meter switch = Normal
Gain (coarse fine) = Mid position approximately
4. Keep control knobs of klystron power supply asbelow.
Beam Voltage = OFF
Mod-Switch = AM
Beam Voltage Knob = fully anti clock wise
Reflection voltage knob = fully clock wise
AM-Amplitude knob = around fully clock wise
AM frequency and amplitude knob = mid position
5. Switch ‘ON’ the klystron power supply, VSWR meter and cooling fan.
6. Switch ‘ON” the beam voltage switch position and set (down) beam voltage at 300V.
7. Rotate the reflector voltage knob to get deflection in VSWR meter.
8. Tune the O/P by turning the reflector voltage, amplitude and frequency of AM modulation.
9. Tune plunges of klystron mount and probe for maximum deflection in VSWR meter.

24
10. If required, change the range db-switch variable attenuator position and (given) gain control knob
to get deflection in the scale of VSWR meter.
11. As your move probe along the slotted line, the deflection will change.

A. Measurement of low and medium VSWR:

1. Move the probe along the slotted line to get maximum deflection in VSWR meter.
2. Adjust the VSWR meter gain control knob or variable attenuator until the meter indicates 1.0
on normal VSWR scale.
3. Keep all the control knob as it is move the probe to next minimum position. Read the
VSWR on scale.
4. Repeat the above step for change of S-S tuner probe depth and record the corresponding
SWR.
5. If the VSWR is between 3.2 and 10, change the range 0dB switch to next higher position
and read the VSWR on second VSWR scale of 3 to 10.

B. Measurement of High VSWR: (double minimum method):

1. Set the depth of S-S tuner slightly more for maximum VSWR.
2. Move the probe along with slotted line until a minimum is indicated.
3. Adjust the VSWR meter gain control knob and variable attenuator to obtain
n a reading of 3db in the normal dB scale (0 to 10db) of VSWR meter.
4. Move the probe to the left on slotted line until full scale deflection is obtained on 0-10 db
scale. Note and record the probe position on slotted line. Let it be d1.
5. Repeat the step 3 and then move the probe right along the slotted line until full scale
deflection is obtained on 0-10db normal db scale. Let it be d2.
6. Replace S-S tuner and termination by movable short.
7. Measure distance between 2 successive minima positions of probe. Twice this distance is
guide wave length λg.
8. Compute SWR from following equation
λg
SWR =
 (d1 - d2)

25
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
15. Set up the equipments as shown in the Figure.
16. Energize the microwave source for particular operation of frequency .
17. Remove the multi hole directional coupler and connect the detector mount to the slotted
section.
18. Set maximum amplitude in CRO with the help of variable attenuator, Let it be X.
19. Insert the directional coupler between the slotted line and detector mount. Keeping port 1 to
slotted line, detector mount to the auxiliary port 3 and matched termination to port 2 without
changing the position of variable attenuator.
20. Note down the amplitude using CRO, Let it be Y.
21. Calculate the Coupling factor X-Y in dB.
22. Now carefully disconnect the detector mount from the auxiliary port 3 and matched
termination from port 2 , without disturbing the setup.
23. Connect the matched termination to the auxiliary port 3 and detector mount to port 2 and
measure the amplitude on CRO, Let it be Z.
24. Compute Insertion Loss= X – Z in dB.
25. Repeat the steps from 1 to 4.
26. Connect the directional coupler in the reverse direction i.e., port 2 to slotted section, matched
termination to port 1 and detector mount to port 3, without disturbing the position of the
variable attenuator.
27. Measure and note down the amplitude using CRO, Let it be Y0.
28. Compute the Directivity as Y-Y0 in dB.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Avoid loose connections.
2. Avoid Parallax errors.

RESULT: The study of standing wave ratio and reflection coefficient.

26
 6.IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT USING REFLEX KLYSTRON

AIM: To study an unknown impedance measurement using the smith chart.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
1. Klystron tube
2. Klystron power supply Skps
3. Klystron mount
4. Isolator
5. Frequency meter
6. Variable attenuator
7. Slotted line
8. Tunable probe
9. VSWR meter
10. Wave guide stand
11. S-S tuner
12. Movable short/termination

THEORY:
The impedance at any point on a transmission line can be written in the form R+jx.
For comparison SWR can be calculated as
1 R
S  where reflection coefficient ‘R’
1 R

Given as

Z
Z0
R
Z
Z0

27
 Zo = characteristics impedance of wave guide at operating frequency.
Z is the load impedance
The measurement is performed in the following way.
The unknown device is connected to the slotted line and the position of one minima is
determined. The unknown device is replaced by movable short to the slotted line. Two
successive minima portions are noted. The twice of the difference between minima position will
be guide wave length. One of the minima is used as reference for impedance measurement. Find
the difference of reference minima and minima position obtained from unknown load. Let it be
‘d’. Take a smith chart, taking ‘1’ as centre, draw a circle of radius equal to S. Mark a point on
circumference of smith chart towards load side at a distance equal to d/λg.
Join the center with this point. Find the point where it cut the drawn circle. The co- ordinates
of this point will show the normalized impedance of load.

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Calculate a set of Vmin values for short or movable short as load.
2. Calculate a set of Vmin values for S-S Tuner + Matched termination as a load.
Note: Move more steps on S-S Tuner
3. From the above 2 steps calculate d = d1~d2
4. With the same setup as in step 2 but with few numbers of turns (2 or 3). Calculate low
VSWR.
Note: High VSWR can also be calculated but it results in a complex procedure.
5. Draw a VSWR circle on a smith chart.
6. Draw a line from center of circle to impedance value (d/λg) from which calculate admittance
and Reactance (Z = R+jx)
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
29. Set up the equipments as shown in the Figure.
30. Energize the microwave source for particular operation of frequency .
31. Remove the multi hole directional coupler and connect the detector mount to the slotted
section.
32. Set maximum amplitude in CRO with the help of variable attenuator, Let it be X.
33. Insert the directional coupler between the slotted line and detector mount. Keeping port 1 to
slotted line, detector mount to the auxiliary port 3 and matched termination to port 2 without
changing the position of variable attenuator.
34. Note down the amplitude using CRO, Let it be Y.
35. Calculate the Coupling factor X-Y in dB.
36. Now carefully disconnect the detector mount from the auxiliary port 3 and matched
termination from port 2 , without disturbing the setup.
37. Connect the matched termination to the auxiliary port 3 and detector mount to port 2 and
measure the amplitude on CRO, Let it be Z.
38. Compute Insertion Loss= X – Z in dB.
39. Repeat the steps from 1 to 4.
40. Connect the directional coupler in the reverse direction i.e., port 2 to slotted section, matched
termination to port 1 and detector mount to port 3, without disturbing the position of the
variable attenuator.
41. Measure and note down the amplitude using CRO, Let it be Y0.
42. Compute the Directivity as Y-Y0 in dB.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Avoid loose connections.
2. Avoid Parallax errors.

RESULT: The study of unknown impedance measurement using the smith chart is successful.
 7. SCATTERING PARAMETERS OF MAGIC TEE

AIM: To Study the operation of Magic Tee.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
1. Microwave source : Klystron tube
2. Isolator
3. Frequency meter
4. Variable Attenuator
5. Slotted line
6. Tunable probe
7. Detector Mount
8. Matched Termination
9. Magic Tee
10. Klystron Power Supply + Klystron Mount
11. Wave guide stands and accessories
THEORY:
The device Magic Tee is a combination of E and H plane Tee. Arm 3 is the H-arm and arm 4 is
the E-arm. If the power is fed, into arm 3 (H-arm) the electric field divides equally between
arm1 and 2 with the same phase and no electric field exists in the arm 4. If power is fed in arm 4
(E-arm) it divides equally into arm 1 and 2 but out of phase with no power to arm 3, further, if
the power is fed in arm 1 and 2 simultaneously it is added in arm 3 (H-arm) and it is subtracted in
E-arm i.e., arm 4.

Fig: Magic Tee

A. Isolation:
The Isolation between E and H arm is defined as the ratio of the power supplied by the
generator connected to the E-arm (port 4) to the power detected at H-arm (port 3) when side arm
1 and 2 terminated in matched load.
Isolation (dB) = 10 log10 [P4/P3]
Similarly, Isolation between other ports may be defined.
B. Coupling Factor:
It is defined as Cij = 10 – /20
Where ‘’ is attenuation / isolation in dB when ‘i' is input arm and ‘j’ is output arm.
Thus,  = 10 log10 [P4/P3]
Where P3 is the power delivered to arm ‘i’ and P4 is power detected at ‘j’ arm.

BLOCK DIAGRAM:
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

1. Setup the components and equipments as shown in figure.

2. Energize the microwave source for particular frequency of operation and tune the detector
mount for maximum output.
3. With the help of variable frequency of operation and tune the detector mount for maximum
output attenuator, set any reference in the CRO let it be V3.
4. Without disturbing the position of the variable attenuator, carefully place the Magic Tee after
the slotted line, keeping H-arm to slotted line, detector mount to E-arm and matched
termination to Port-1 and Port-2.
5. Note down the amplitude using CRO, Let it be V4.
6. Determine the Isolation between Port-3 and Port-4 as V3-V4.
7. Determine the coupling co-efficient from the equation given in theory part.
8. The same experiment may be repeated for other Ports also.

CALCULATIONS:
Coupling Co-efficient:
Vi
α = 10 log
Vj
Therefore C = 10 – α /20

RESULT: The study of Magic Tee is successful.

 8. SCATTERING PARAMETERS OF CIRCULATOR

AIM: To study the Isolator and circulators.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
1. Microwave Source (Klystron or Gunn-Diode)
2. Isolator, Frequency Meter
3. Variable Attenuator
4. Slotted Line
5. Tunable Probe
6. Detector Mount Matched Termination
7. Circulator
8. Waveguide Stand
9. Cables and Accessories
10. VSWR Meter.

CIRCULATOR:
Circulator is defined as device with ports arranged such that energy entering a port is coupled to
an adjacent port but not coupled to the other ports. This is depicted in figure circulator can have
any number of ports.

ISOLATOR:
An Isolator is a two-port device that transfers energy from input to output with little attenuation
and from output to input with very high attenuation.
The isolator, shown in Fig. can be derived from a three-port circulator by simply placing a
matched load (reflection less termination) on one port.
The important circulator and isolator parameters are:
A. Insertion Loss
Insertion Loss is the ratio of power detected at the output port to the power supplied by source to
the input port, measured with other orts terminated in the matched Load. It is expressed in dB.
B. Isolation
Isolation is the ratio of power applied to the output to that measured at the input. This ratio is
expressed in db. The isolation of a circulator is measured with the third port terminated in a
matched load.

BLOCK DIAGRAM:
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
Measurement of insertion
1. Remove the isolator or circulator from slotted line and connect the detector mount to the
slotted section. The output of the detector mount should be connected with CRO.
2. Energize the microwave source for maximum output for a particular frequency of operation.
Tune the detector mount for maximum output in the CRO.
3. Set any reference level of output in CRO with the help of variable attenuator, Let it be V1.
4. Carefully remove the detector mount from slotted line without disturbing the position of the
set up. Insert the isolator/circulator between slotted line and detector mount. Keep input port
to slotted line and detector its output port. A matched termination should be placed at third
port in case of Circulator.
5. Record the output in CRO, Let it be V2.
6. Compute Insertion loss given as V1-V2 in db.
Measurement of Isolation:
7. For measurement of isolation, the isolator or circulator has to be connected in reverse i.e.
output port to slotted line and detector to input port with other port terminated by matched
termination (for circulator).
8. Record the output of CRO and let it be V3.
9. Compute Isolation as V1-V3 in db.
10. The same experiment can be done for other ports of circulator.
11. Repeat the above experiment for other frequency if needed.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Avoid loose connections.
2. Avoid Parallax errors.

RESULT: The study of Isolators, Circulators, Insertion loss and Isolation of Circulation is successful.
 9. ATTENUATION MEASUREMENT

AIM: To study insertion loss and attenuation measurement of attenuator.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

1. Microwave source Klystron tube

2. Isolator
3. Frequency meter
4. Variable attenuator
5. Slotted line
6. Tunable probe
7. Detector mount
8. Matched termination
9. Test attenuator
a) Fixed
b) Variable
10. Klystron power supply & Klystron mount
11. Cooling fan
12. BNC-BNC cable
13. VSWR or CRO

THEORY:
The attenuator is a two port bidirectional device which attenuates some power when
inserted into a transmission line.
Attenuation A (dB) = 10 log (P1/P2)
Where P1 = Power detected by the load without the attenuator in the line
P2 = Power detected by the load with the attenuator in the line.
PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the equipments as shown in the above figure.

2. Energize the microwave source for maximum power at any frequency of operation
3. Connect the detector mount to the slotted line and tune the detector mount also for max
deflection on VSWR or on CRO
4. Set any reference level on the VSWR meter or on CRO with the help of variable attenuator.
Let it be P1.
5. Carefully disconnect the detector mount from the slotted line without disturbing any position
on the setup place the test variable attenuator to the slotted line and detector mount to O/P
port of test variable attenuator. Keep the micrometer reading of text variable attenuator to
zero and record the readings of VSWR meter or on CRO. Let it to be P2. Then the insertion
loss of test attenuator will be P1-P2 db.
6. For measurement of attenuation of fixed and variable attenuator. Place the test attenuator to
the slotted line and detector mount at the other port of test attenuator. Record the reading of
VSWR meter or on CRO. Let it be P3 then the attenuation value of variable attenuator for
particular position of micrometer reading of will be P1-P3 db.
7. In case the variable attenuator change the micro meter reading and record the VSWR meter
or CRO reading. Find out attenuation value for different position of micrometer reading and
plot a graph.
8. Now change the operating frequency and all steps should be repeated for finding frequency
sensitivity of fixed and variable attenuator.
Note:1. For measuring frequency sensitivity of variable attenuator the position of micrometer
reading of the variable attenuator should be same for all frequencies of operation.
EXPECTED GRAPH:

RESULT: The study of insertion loss and attenuation of attenuator is successful.

 10.MEASUREMENT OF FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH

AIM: To study the measurement of frequency and wavelength in a rectangular wave guide
working in TE10 mode.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
1. Klystron tube
2. Klystron power supply
3. Klystron mount
4. Isolator
5. Frequency meter
6. Variable attenuator
7. Slotted section
8. Tunable probe
9. VSWR meter
10. Wave guide stand
11. Movable Short
12. Matched termination
THEORY:
The cut-off frequency relationship shows that the physical size of the wave guide will determine
the propagation of the particular modes of specific orders determined by values of m and n. The
minimum cut-off frequency is obtained for a rectangular wave guide having dimension a>b, for
values of m=1, n=0, i.e. TE10 mode is the dominant mode since for TMmn modes, n#0 or n#0 the
lowest-order mode possible is TE10, called the dominant mode in a rectangular wave guide for
a>b.
For dominant TE10 mode rectangular wave guide λo, λg and λc are related as below.
1/λo² = 1/λg² + 1/λc²
Where λo is free space wave length
λg is guide wave length
λc is cut off wave length
For TE10 mode λc – 2a where ‘a’ is broad dimension of wave guide.
PROCEDURE:
1. Set up the components and equipments as shown in figure.
2. Set up variable attenuator at minimum attenuation position.
3. Keep the control knobs of klystron power supply as below:
Beam voltage – OFF
Mod-switch – AM
Beam voltage knob – Fully anti clock wise
Repeller voltage – Fully clock wise
AM – Amplitude knob – Around fully clock wise
AM – Frequency knob – Around mid position
4. Switch ‘ON’ the klystron power supply, CRO and cooling fan switch.
5. Switch ’ON’ the beam voltage switch and set beam voltage at 300V with help of
beam voltage knob.
6. Adjust the repeller voltage to get the maximum amplitude in CRO
7. Maximize the amplitude with AM amplitude and frequency control knob of power supply.
8. Tune the plunger of klystron mount for maximum Amplitude.
9. Tune the repeller voltage knob for maximum Amplitude.
10. Tune the frequency meter knob to get a ‘dip’ on the CRO and note down the frequency from
frequency meter.
11. Replace the termination with movable short, and detune the frequency meter.
12. Move the probe along with slotted line. The amplitude in CRO will vary .Note and record the probe
position , Let it be d1.
13. Move the probe to next minimum position and record the probe position again, Let it be d2.

14. Calculate the guide wave length as twice the distance between two successive
minimum position obtained as above.
15. Measure the wave guide inner board dimension ‘a’ which will be around 22.86mm
for x-band.
16. Calculate the frequency by following equation.
c  1 1
f   2 2
  g c 

Where C = 3x108 meter/sec. i.e. velocity of light.
17. Verify with frequency obtained by frequency modes
18. Above experiment can be verified at different
frequencies. fo = C/λo => C => 3x108 m/s (i.e.,
velocity of light)
1/λo² = 1/λg² + 1/λc²
gc
0 
g 2  c
2

RESULT: The study of frequency and wavelength measurement technique is successful.

43