Scaling and fouling of heat exchangers

Summary
Langelier's saturation index and Stoke's law are two fundamental concepts that can help explain the
formation of scaling and fouling in water treatment processes or heat exchangers. Langelier's
saturation index explains instability of soluble calcium and magnesium salts in water while and
Stoke's law explains sedimentation of insoluble suspended particles in water.
The deposit issues in heat exchangers can be grouped into three main categories:
-Scaling
-Fouling
-Under deposit corrosion
The post covers all these three factors
Scaling and fouling are two unwanted events in every heat exchanger with practically no cure rather
than prevention. Understanding scaling and fouling is crucial as they can have a significant impact
on the performance and lifespan of heat exchangers. Regular monitoring, maintenance, and
appropriate cleaning techniques can help mitigate these issues and optimize the heat exchanger's
efficiency and longevity.
How scaling is different from fouling
Scaling occurs when dissolved solids, such as minerals and salts, precipitate and form a solid layer
on the surfaces of heat exchangers. Fouling, on the other hand, refers to the deposition of
suspended solids, such as particles or debris, onto the heat exchanger surfaces.
These terms may cause confusion. Most people may use the term "fouling" interchangeably to refer
to any type of deposit or unwanted accumulation in a heat exchanger, whether it be scaling or
other forms of fouling. It is important to note the distinction between scaling and fouling for those
who work in the field or need to address specific issues related to heat exchanger performance.
However, when communicating with the general public, it may be simpler to use a more general
term like "deposits" or "unwanted accumulation" to avoid confusion.
Scaling vs Fouling
Scaling: Scaling occurs when minerals and other impurities in the fluid being heated or cooled
deposit onto the heat exchanger surfaces. These deposits gradually build up over time and form a
thick layer, reducing heat transfer efficiency. Scaling can occur due to the presence of hard water,
high mineral content in the fluid, or improper water treatment. The scaling layer acts as an
insulator, causing an increase in the thermal resistance between the fluid and the heat exchanger
surface, leading to reduced heat transfer rates and increased energy consumption. Ultimately,
scaling can lead to a loss in heat exchanger efficiency, increased maintenance requirements, and
even complete system failure if left untreated.
Fouling: Fouling refers to the accumulation of unwanted substances, such as dirt, sediment, organic
matter, or biological growth, on the heat exchanger surfaces. Fouling can occur due to the nature of
the fluid being processed, the presence of contaminants, or inadequate cleaning procedures.
Similar to scaling, fouling reduces heat transfer efficiency by creating a layer of insulation on the
heat exchanger surface. This layer increases the thermal resistance and reduces the heat transfer
rates between the fluid and the heat exchanger, leading to decreased performance and increased
energy consumption. Fouling also restricts the flow of fluid, reducing the overall flow rate and
increasing pressure drop across the heat exchanger. This can further decrease the efficiency of the
system and lead to increased maintenance and operational costs.
Scaling and fouling could be potential source of under deposit corrosion
Two reasons
Corrosive deposits: Scaling in heat exchangers can also lead to under deposit corrosion, which is
another unwanted consequence. Scaling creates an uneven surface on the heat exchanger's inner
walls, providing areas where corrosive agents can become trapped and accumulate. The trapped
corrosive agents can initiate corrosion of the heat exchanger material, leading to metal loss, pitting,
and potentially leaks.
Differential oxygen concentration corrosion cells under the deposit
Discussed later
Under deposit corrosion is particularly challenging because the scale layer protects the corrosion
underneath, making it difficult to detect and address. Over time, the corrosion can weaken the heat
exchanger structure, compromise its integrity, and increase the risk of failure.

Detail

Scaling
Scaling is primarily associated with the precipitation and deposition of soluble salts, particularly
calcium and magnesium salts, from water or other fluids. When water with high concentrations of
dissolved calcium and magnesium compounds is heated or evaporated, these salts can form solid
deposits on heat transfer surfaces, such as the inside of pipes or the outer surface of heat
exchanger tubes. Over time, these deposits can reduce heat transfer efficiency, restrict flow, and
impair equipment performance if not properly addressed.
Langelier’s saturation index [LSI]
The Langelier Saturation Index (LSI) is a crucial concept in comprehending the instability of calcium
and magnesium salts. The LSI is a calculated value used to predict the scaling potential of water and
determine whether the water is under-saturated, saturated, or over-saturated with respect to
calcium carbonate. It takes into account factors such as pH, temperature, alkalinity, and calcium and
magnesium concentrations.
LSI is an empirically calculated number. It is used to predict the CaCO3 stability of water, that is
whether CaCO3 will precipitate, dissolve or be in equilibrium with water. Langelier had developed
this index for predicting the pHs at which pH water is saturated in CaCO3. LSI is expressed as, LSI =
pH - pHs, where pH is the actual pH of water and pHs is the saturation pH of water with respect to
CaCO3. pHs is calculated as, pHs = [ 9.3 + a + b] – [ c + d], where a,b,c and d are empirical constants
based on total dissolved solids, [ TDS, ppm ], water temperature degc, calcium hardness [ CH as
CaCO3 ppm ] and total alkalinity [ TA as CaCO3 ppm ] respectively.
if pH > pHs, the system water is supersaturated with respect to CaCO3 and hence it has an urge to
deposit [ throw out] the excess CaCO3 present in the water as scales. Hence, if LSI is positive, water
is scale forming.
If pH < pHs, the system water is unsaturated with respect to CaCO3 and hence there is an urge to
dissolve the protective CaCO3 layer already present on the pipelines and expose them for the
corrosive attack. Hence if LSI is negative, water is corrosive.
If, pH = pHs, water is considered balanced.
The greater the deviation of actual pH from pHs, the more pronounced is the instability
By monitoring and understanding the LSI, individuals can recognize the saturation levels of calcium
and magnesium salts and make necessary adjustments or treatments to prevent scaling problems in
various industrial processes, cooling towers, boilers, and other applications that involve water
heating and evaporation.

Fouling
Fouling is caused by suspended solids.
Imagine a suspended particle in water flowing in a pipeline. Two forces acting on it [1] upward
frictional force Fd [2] a downward gravitational force, g, When Fd > g, the particle floats. when Fd <
g, the particle sinks on pipe surface. This is the fundamental of fouling.
In turbulent flow, swirling of fluid and reverse current generating eddies, keep SS particles floating.
Fouling begins typically in low velocity areas in pipeline network and then spreads.
Fouling can be best explained by Stoke’s law.
Stoke’s law
Fd = 6ηπRv, Fd is frictional force, η is dynamic liquid visc , R is particle radius , v is relative velocity of
liquid and particle.
Fd = 6ηπRv, depends on [1] visc of liquid,[2] size of particle [3] relative liquid - solid velocity. .
In a given system [1] and [2] are constant, Fd, then depends on v, the relative liquid – solid velocity.
An important point - it is the relative velocity between liquid and solid decides when a SS particle
will sink.
As v reduces, Fd reduces and when Fd < g, particle deposits as foulant. Process continues.
Inter-molecular forces hold solid particles.
How and why suspended solids deposit inside a bend?

A liquid with suspended solids is basically a slurry. This is a two phase flow. So conventional fluid
dynamics has limitations. In this two phase flow , there are two independent controls acting on the
velocity of slurry. Liquid velocity is controlled by the pressure while the velocity of solids is
controlled by the viscosity drag between solids and liquid.
The bend is adding additional frictional loss of head to flow. Head = Pressure head + velocity head
with static head being constant. Both pressure and velocity are falling in the bend.This is resulting
into a drop in the relative velocity between liquid and solid particles. While there is a drop in liquid
velocity, solid velocity remains unchanged because no change in viscosity of liquid. Consequently
The drag force acting on particle, Fd = 6ηπRv, is falling. When g exceeds Fd solid particles are
depositing on surface.
Summary- Fouling of solids is triggered when the gravitational force acting on solid particle exceeds
the frictional drag acting on the particle.

Under deposit corrosion

Differential oxygen concentration cells occur when there is a difference in oxygen concentration
between two areas. This difference in concentration sets up an electrochemical cell, where the
more oxygenated area acts as the cathode, the less oxygenated area acts as the anode, and the
metal surface between them becomes the site of corrosion.

The stagnant water in the crevices of scale deposits can have reduced oxygen availability compared
to the bulk of the water flowing through the heat exchanger. This creates areas of low oxygen
concentration, which act as anodic sites for corrosion to occur.