Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding Theory

By Saul Mcleod, PhD

Updated on
February 1, 2024
Reviewed by Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

The zone of proximal development (ZPD) refers to the difference between what a learner can
do without help and what he or she can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a
skilled partner.

It represents tasks beyond the learner’s current abilities but are attainable with the help and
guidance of the more knowledgeable other (MKO). The ZPD is the range of tasks a person
can’t complete independently but can accomplish with support.

Thus, the term “proximal” refers to skills the learner is “close” to mastering. The ZPD ensures
challenge is not too hard or too easy.

ZPD is the zone where instruction is the most beneficial, as it is when the task is just beyond
the individual’s capabilities.

To learn, we must be presented with tasks just out of our ability range. Challenging tasks
promote maximum cognitive growth.

The ZPD bridges the gap between current and potential ability. What a learner does with help
today, they will be able to do independently tomorrow. The ZPD defines the parameters of the
learner’s immediate future development. (Image source: Dastranj & Helali, 2016)

ZPD Theory

The zone of proximal development was developed by Soviet psychologist and social
constructivist Lev Vygotsky (1896 – 1934).

Vygotsky introduced the ZPD concept to criticize psychometric testing which only measured
current abilities, not potential for development. He argued assessment should be collaborative
to reveal emerging skills.

The zone of proximal development (ZPD) has been defined as:

“the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem
solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving under
adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86).

For teachers, the ZPD is the space between current teaching knowledge and potential new
level with assistance. Willingness to learn enables ZPD progression.

Vygotsky believed that when a student is in the zone of proximal development for a particular
task, providing the appropriate assistance will give the student enough of a “boost” to achieve
the task.

To assist a person to move through the zone of proximal development, educators are
encouraged to focus on three important components which aid the learning process:

• The presence of someone with knowledge and skills beyond that of the learner (a more
knowledgeable other).
• Social interactions with a skillful tutor that allow the learner to observe and practice
their skills.
• Scaffolding, or supportive activities provided by the educator, or more competent
peer, to support the student as he or she is led through the ZPD.

Scaffolding Theory

The ZPD has become synonymous in the literature with the term scaffolding. However, it is
important to note that Vygotsky never used this term in his writing, and it was introduced by
Wood, Bruner, and Ross (1976).

Scaffolding consists of the activities provided by the educator, or more competent peer, to
support the student as he or she is led through the zone of proximal development.

Support is tapered off (i.e., withdrawn) as it becomes unnecessary, much as a scaffold is

removed from a building during construction. The student will then be able to complete the
task again independently.

Wood et al. (1976, p. 90) define scaffolding as a process “that enables a child or novice to
solve a task or achieve a goal that would be beyond his unassisted efforts.”
As they note, scaffolds require the adult to “controlling those elements of the task that are
initially beyond the learner’s capability, thus permitting him to concentrate upon and
complete only those elements that are within his range of competence” (p. 90).

It is important to note that the terms cooperative learning, scaffolding and guided learning all
have the same meaning within the literature.

The following study provides empirical support both the concept of scaffolding and the ZPD.

Wood and Middleton (1975)

Procedure: 4-year-old children had to use a set of blocks and pegs to build a 3D model
shown in a picture. Building the model was too difficult a task for a 4-year-old child to
complete alone.

Wood and Middleton (1975) observed how mothers interacted with their children to build the
3D model. The type of support included:

• General encouragement e.g., ‘now you have a go.’

• Specific instructions e.g., ‘get four big blocks.’

• Direct demonstration, e.g., showing the child how to place one block on another.

The results of the study showed that no single strategy was best for helping the child to
progress. Mothers whose assistance was most effective were those who varied their strategy
according to how the child was doing.

When the child was doing well, they became less specific with their help. When the child
started to struggle, they gave increasingly specific instructions until the child started to make
progress again.

The study illustrates scaffolding and Vygotsky’s concept of the ZPD. Scaffolding (i.e.,
assistance) is most effective when the support is matched to the needs of the learner. This puts
them in a position to achieve success in an activity that they would previously not have been
able to do alone.

Wood et al. (1976) named certain processes that aid effective scaffolding:

• Gaining and maintaining the learner’s interest in the task.

• Making the task simple.
• Emphasizing certain aspects that will help with the solution.
• Control the child’s level of frustration.
• Demonstrate the task.

Intersubjectivity

Intersubjectivity is when two people (i.e., the child and helper) start a task together with
different levels of skill and understanding, and both end up with a shared understanding.
As each member of the dyad adjusts to the perspective of the other, the helper has to translate
their own insights in a way that is within the grasp of the child, and the child develops a more
complete understanding of the task.

It is essential that they work towards the same goal, otherwise there won’t be any
collaboration. It is important that they negotiate, or compromise by always working for a
shared view.

If you try to force someone to change their mind, then you”ll just get conflict. You need to
stay within the boundaries of the other person’s zone of proximal development.

Example of Scaffolding

Vygotsky emphasized scaffolding, or providing support to learners to help them reach higher
levels of understanding. This can be mapped to progressing through Bloom’s taxonomy,
where educators scaffold tasks from basic understanding to more complex analysis and
creation.

For example, a teacher might start by providing information (Remembering) and then ask
questions that require understanding.

As students become more proficient, tasks can be scaffolded to require application, analysis,
evaluation, and creation.

Example: In teaching a concept like photosynthesis:

1.
1. Remembering: The teacher provides the basic definition.
2. Understanding: Students explain the process in their own words.
3. Application: They might conduct an experiment on plants.
4. Analysis: Dive deeper into how different variables affect the process.
5. Evaluation: Debate the most critical components of photosynthesis.
6. Creation: Design an optimal environment for plant growth.

Each step can be scaffolded, starting with substantial teacher support and gradually releasing
responsibility to the students as they climb Bloom’s taxonomy, guiding students from
foundational knowledge to higher-order thinking skills.

Scaffolding vs. Discovery Learning

Freund (1990) wanted to investigate if children learn more effectively via Piaget’s concept of
discovery learning or guided learning via the ZPD.

She asked a group of children between the ages of three and five years to help a puppet decide
which furniture should be placed in the various rooms of a doll’s house. First, Freund assessed
what each child already understood about the placement of furniture (as a baseline measure).

Next, each child worked on a similar task, either alone (re: discovery-based learning) or with
their mother (re: scaffolding / guided learning). To assess what each child had learned, they
were each given a more complex, furniture sorting task.
The study’s results showed that children assisted by their mothers performed better at
furniture sorting than the children who worked independently.

More Knowledgeable Other

The more knowledgeable other (MKO) refers to anyone who has a better understanding or a
higher ability level in a particular task, process, or concept than the learner.

It’s essential to note that the MKO isn’t necessarily an adult or a teacher. It could be a peer, a
younger person, or even technology or media, as long as they provide the learner with the
knowledge or scaffolding needed to perform a task.

Often, a child’s peers or an adult’s children may be the individuals with more knowledge or
experience.

The relationship between the MKO and the ZPD is vital to Vygotsky’s theory. The MKO
assists or scaffolds the learning experience to help the learner function within their ZPD.

Through this guidance, the learner can tackle and master tasks they couldn’t accomplish
independently.

Over time, as the learner internalizes this support and becomes more capable, the scaffolding
can be reduced, and the learner can perform the task without assistance. The ZPD moves as
learners acquire new skills and knowledge with the help of the MKO.

In educational settings, the concepts of MKO and ZPD have inspired practices like
cooperative learning, differentiated instruction, and scaffolded learning experiences.

Teachers aim to identify each student’s ZPD and then act as the MKO, or facilitate
interactions with other MKOs, to provide the right level of support, allowing students to
achieve and learn effectively.

Educational Applications

Vygotsky believes the role of education is to provide children with experiences which are in
their ZPD, thereby encouraging and advancing their individual learning. (Berk, & Winsler,
(1995).

“From a Vygotskian perspective, the teacher’s role is mediating the child’s learning activity
as they share knowledge through social interaction” (Dixon-Krauss, 1996, p. 18).

Cooperative Learning

According to Vygotsky (1978), much important learning by the child occurs through social
interaction with a skillful tutor. The tutor may model behaviors and/or provide verbal
instructions for the child.

Vygotsky refers to this as cooperative or collaborative dialogue.

The child seeks to understand the actions or instructions provided by the tutor (often the
parent or teacher) and then internalizes the information, using it to guide or regulate their own
performance.

Lev Vygotsky views interaction with peers as an effective way of developing skills and
strategies. He suggests that teachers use cooperative learning exercises where less competent
children develop with help from more skillful peers – within the zone of proximal
development.

Scaffolding is a key feature of effective teaching, where the adult continually adjusts the level
of his or her help in response to the learner’s level of performance.

In the classroom, scaffolding can include modeling a skill, providing hints or cues, and
adapting material or activity (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009).

Consider these guidelines for scaffolding instruction (Silver, 2011).

• Assess the learner’s current knowledge and experience with the academic content.
• Relate content to what students already understand or can do.
• Break a task into small, more manageable tasks with opportunities for intermittent
feedback.
• Use verbal cues and prompts to assist students.

Scaffolding not only produces immediate results, but also instills the skills necessary for
independent problem-solving in the future.

A contemporary application of Vygotsky’s theories is “reciprocal teaching,” used to improve

students” ability to learn from text.

In this method, teachers and students collaborate in learning and practicing four key skills:
summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting. The teacher’s role in the process is
reduced over time.

Vygotsky’s theories also feed into current interest in collaborative learning, suggesting that
group members should have different levels of ability so more advanced peers can help less
advanced members operate within their zone of proximal development.

Examples of ZPD

Example 1

Maria just entered college this semester and decided to take an introductory tennis
course. Her class spends each week learning and practicing a different shot. Weeks go by,
and they learn how to properly serve and hit a backhand.

During the week of learning the forehand, the instructor noticed that Maria was very
frustrated because she kept hitting her forehand shots either into the net or far past the
baseline.
He examines her preparation and swing. He notices that her stance is perfect, she prepares
early, she turns her torso appropriately, and she hits the ball at precisely the right height.

However, he notices that she is still gripping her racquet the same way she hits her backhand,
so he goes over to her and shows her how to reposition her hand to hit a proper forehand,
stressing that she should keep her index finger parallel to the racquet.

He models a good forehand for her, and then assists her in changing her grip. With a little
practice, Maria’s forehand turns into a formidable weapon for her!

In this case, Maria was in the zone of proximal development for successfully hitting a
forehand shot. She was doing everything else correctly, but just needed a little coaching and
scaffolding from a “More Knowledgeable Other” to help her succeed in this task.

When that assistance was given, she was able to achieve her goal. Provided with appropriate
support at the right moments, students in classrooms will be able to achieve tasks that would
otherwise be too difficult for them.

Example 2

Clinical psychology trainees at the Center for Children and Families at Florida International
University are trained using approaches aligned with Vygotsky’s zone of proximal
development (Hong & del Busto, 2020).

• Trainees are paired with more senior trainees (e.g., a first-year student with a second
or third-year student) for co-therapy sessions. The senior trainee scaffolds the junior
trainee’s learning by initially taking the lead and modeling skills, then gradually
encouraging the junior trainee to become more independent in leading sessions as they
demonstrate competence.
• This allows trainees to be involved in clinical care early in their training, with support
and coaching from a more experienced peer. It meets them in their zone of proximal
development – what they can do with guidance vs what they cannot yet do
independently.
• Supervisors assign trainees different roles based on experience level. More senior
trainees are given opportunities to develop supervisory skills by training junior peers.
Junior trainees are supported in gaining clinical skills.
• The zone of proximal development concept is applied not just for patients in case
conceptualization but also for trainees’ own professional development. Supervisors
provide individualized support and scaffolding to help each trainee progress.

Example 3

Social interaction, aided by cultural tools, supports teachers in developing new aspects of their
practice and identity. The interpersonal activity facilitates the transformation of their teaching
expertise.

This demonstrates the value of mediation through the ZPD (Shabani et al., 2010).
 • Collaborative peers and mentors: Observing and discussing teaching practices with
experienced colleagues helps teachers learn new instructional approaches and
strategies. This social exchange facilitates development within their ZPD.
• Action research: By studying their own teaching through classroom inquiry, teachers
can gain insights into improving their methods. The self-reflection shifts their ZPD
forward.
• Diaries: Writing reflectively about teaching experiences enables teachers to analyze
their development and assumptions. This metacognition expands their ZPD.
• Technology: Using digital tools and platforms introduces teachers to innovative
teaching techniques. The technology mediates new pedagogical capabilities.
• TESOL discourse: Engaging with academic research and theory opens teachers to
alternative perspectives on teaching and learning. This discourse stretches their ZPD.
• Coursework: Formal professional development courses scaffold teachers’ learning of
new knowledge and competencies. The instruction targets their ZPD.
• Student data: Responses and achievement metrics provide feedback to teachers on
areas needing growth. This evidence shifts teachers’ self-perception.

References

Berk, L., & Winsler, A. (1995). Scaffolding children’s learning: Vygotsky and early
childhood learning. Washington, DC: National Association for Education of Young Children.

Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S. (2009). Developmentally appropriate practice in early

childhood programs. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young
Children.

Dixon-Krauss, L. (1996). Vygotsky in the classroom. Mediated literacy instruction and

assessment. White Plains, NY: Longman Publishers.

Freund, L. S. (1990). Maternal Regulation of Children’s Problem-solving behavior and Its

Impact on Children’s Performance. Child Development, 61, 113-126.

Hong, N., & del Busto, C. T. (2020). Collaboration, scaffolding, and successive
approximations: A developmental science approach to training in clinical
psychology. Training and Education in Professional Psychology, 14(3), 228.

Shabani, K., Khatib, M., & Ebadi, S. (2010). Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development:
Instructional implications and teachers’ professional development. English Language
Teaching, 3(4), 237-248.

Silver, D. (2011). Using the ‘Zone’Help Reach Every Learner. Kappa Delta Pi Record,
47(sup1), 28-31.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes.

Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Wass, R., & Golding, C. (2014). Sharpening a tool for teaching: the zone of proximal
development. Teaching in Higher Education, 19(6), 671-684.
Wood, D., Bruner, J., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of
Child Psychology and Child Psychiatry, 17, 89−100.

Wood, D., & Middleton, D. (1975). A study of assisted problem-solving. British Journal of
Psychology, 66(2), 181−191.

Further Reading

• Educational implications of Vygotsky’s ZPD

• Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development: Instructional Implications and Teachers”
Professional Development
• Scaffolds for Learning: The Key to Guided Instruction