Usain Bolt

(Runner) Leibnitz
Newton (Philospher
(Mathematician) Mathematician)
 y x

Some Common Functions

A variety of important types of functions are frequently encountered.
(1) Linear function:
f  x   mx  b
f  x   x ; identity function
(2) Power functions:
f  x   x a , where a is constant.
(i) a  n , a positive integer

y  x4
yx yx 3
y  x2

(3)
y 1

y  x
y  x2

Graph of function

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

(4)

4
3
2
1
2 1
1 2 3 4

2

The graph of the greatest integer function y  x lies on or below the line y  x ,
so it provides an integer floor for x.

(5) The graph of the least integer function lies on or above the line y  x
yx

1 y x
2 1
1 2

(6)
 x, y
 

y  x3  odd function
Symmetric about origin

  x,  y 


(7)

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 Symmetric about y  axis

 x, y 
  x, y  y  x 2  even function

Note:
1. The graph of an even function is symmetric about the y-axis
 f x  f  x
2. The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin.
 f x   f  x
Example:
y  x 1
y  x2  1
yx
y  x2

Adding constant term1to Not remains symmetric about origin

y  x ;stillsymmetric about y  axis
2

Limit:

Visualization of concept of Limit of a function at some point-

x2 0
Let us consider a function f  x    f  x   1, x  2 , f  2   undefined
x2 0
Now let us draw graph of f  x 

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 y  f  x 1


x  2 x2 x

Question: If I ask what about x  2 ! I can ask what happens if x goes closer and
closer to 2.
This gives the idea of limit what value the function approaches if x gets closer
and closer to x  2 .
Represented as : lim f  x 
x2

. Let us take another example

 x2 , x  2
g  x  
 1, x  2

y  g  x

5
4 Discontinuity of g  x 
3
2
P
1 

2 1 x 1 x2

It says that when x  2 ; the graph of g  x  dropped to point

P  g  x   1 ; again it approached upward.

Let me ask you an interesting question what happens with g  x  when x

approaches to 2
i.e. in fancy notation

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

  1.92   3.61
2


lim g  x    1.999  3.996001
2

x2

1.999999   Really closed to 4
2


  2.1  4.41
2

4
 2.000001  Really closed to 4
2

lim x 2  4
x2

 x2 , x  2
. f  x  
 3, x2

4 4

3

x2
x2

lim f  x   4 ? Yes
x2

This is the intention which sends us to the concept of limit.

Also we can see here
lim f  x   f  2 
x2

Intention: difference between the limit of a function at a point and value of the
function at that point.

2x  2  0
Example: lim    undefined
x 1
 x 1  0
we can express it as
2  x  1
f  x 
 x  1
i.e. Rewriting the given function
 2, x  1
f  x  
undefined, x  1

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Let us graph this function f  x 

f  x

x  1

Check in graph; f  x  is approaching to 2 as x approaches to -1.

Now you can take a calculator and calculate f  1.001 , f  1.000001 ,
f  0.9999  check where f  x  approaches.

1 1
Example: lim ; f  x 
x 0 x x
Let us form a table to get graph:
x f  x
0 Undefined
- .01 - 100
- - 1000
.001
0.1 100
.001 1000
Now sketch f  x 

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 f  x

1
lim 
x 0 x

1
lim  
x 0 x

1
We say that lim does not exist. (as  and - different)
x 0 x

1
Example: lim
x 0 x2
x x2  f  x 
.1 100
-.1 100
.01 10,000
-.01 10,000

f  x   x2

1 1
lim 2
 lim 2  
x 0  x x  0 x
So, when you go from  x ; f  x  approaches to  and from +x, f  x  tends to ;
so its limit is .(over the extended real line)

x2  6 x  9 0
Example: lim 
x 3 x2  9 0

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

So this expression can be simplified
Here I got lim f  x   0
x 3

f  x 
 x  3 x  3
 x  3 x  3
We can say
x 3
f  x   ; x3
x3

x2  x  2 0
Example: lim 
x 1 x 1 0
Simplify
lim
 x  1 x  2 
n 1  x  1

Sometimes factorization may be tough but you make sure  x  1 will be one of
0
factor as undefined
0

Example: You can visualize it graphically, using calculator as x  1 ; f  x 

approaches to 3.

What happens if you have really large value of x!

x2  3
Question: lim
x  x3
 Denominator is fastest than numerator as x is very large.
x2  3
lim 0
x  x3

3x 2  5
Example: lim
x  4 x 2  3

Its always easy as x is going to be a larger and larger value. So 5 and 3 are
useless as compare to 3x 2 and 4x 2 .
 Just leave them simply
3x 2
Now think about 4 x 2 same pace

3x 2  5 3
lim  ;
x  4 x 2  3 4
Fastest going term in numerator
Fastest going term in denominator

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Example: lim x 2  4 x  1
x 

x  4 x  1  x2
2
lim
x 
x2  4x  1  x
1
4
 lim x
x  4 1
1  2 1
x x
4 4
  2
1 1 2

Some tips to evaluate limits-

1. If f  x  is a rational function, we cancel the common factor(s) in it and then

put x  a .
x2  4x  3  x  1 x  3  lim x  1  1
e.g. lim  lim
x 3 x  2 x  3 x3  x  1 x  3 x3 x  1 2
2

2. If f  x  contains some series capable of being expanded, then after using

proper expansions and satisfy ........., we put x  a
 x2  x2 x3 
 1  x   ........   1  x    ...... 
 e e 
x x
2 2 3   lim 2 1  x  ....   2
3
e.g. lim    lim  
 
x 0
 x  x 0 x x 0
 3! 
Putting x  0
3. If f  x  is a polynomial, trigonometric, log arithmetic or exponential

function, then we have lim f  x   f lim x  f  a 
xa xa

Some useful expansions:
x3 2 5
 tan x  x   x  ..... for all x  
3 15
xm  am
  x m1  x m  2  a  x m 3  a 2  ....  x  a m 2  a m1 , for all x   except x  a
xa

Algebra of limits: If lim f  x    and lim g  x   m , then

xa xa

(i) lim  f  g  x     m (ii) lim  f  g  x     m

xa xa

(iii) lim  f  g  x     m (iv) lim  k  f  x   k 

xa xa

 f  
(v) lim    x  
xa g m
 
m0

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Note- Learnings from graphical approach of limit can also be reflected as Left
Hand Limit and Right Hand Limit. Let’s see now !
Example1. Find the right hand and the left hand limits of a function defined as
 x4
, x4
follows: f  x    x  4
 0, x4

Now, when x  4, x  4  x  4
x4 x4
 lim f  x   lim  lim  lim 1  1
x40 x 4  0 x  4 x40 x  4 x40

Again when x  4, x  4    x  4 
  x  4
 lim f  x   lim  lim  1  1
x 4 0 x 40 x4 x 40

so that
lim f  x   lim f  x 
x 4  0 x  4 0

Hence lim f  x  does not exist.

x 4

Example2. Evaluate:
(i). lim
 x  2  3x  1
x 1 x 2  3x  2
4 x 2
(ii). lim
x0 x
sin x
(iii). lim
x 0  x

 x  2  3x  1  xlim  x  2   xlim  3x  1
(i) lim 1 1
x 1 x 2  3x  2 
lim x 2  3 x  2
x 1

1   4 
1
4
4 x 2 4 x 2 4 x 2
(ii) lim  lim 
x 0 x x  0 x 4 x 2
1 1
 lim 
x 0 4 x 2 4
(iii) lim
x 0
sin x 
  lim
sin x 

  lim x  1 0  0
x  x 0  x  x  0 

x2 1
Example3. Evaluate lim .
x 1 x 1
Let us evaluate the left hand and the right hand limits.
When x  1  0 , put x  1  h, h  0
Hence h  0  as x  1  0 , so that

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 1  h   1  lim h  2  h   lim 2  h  2
2
x2 1
lim
x 10 x  1
 lim  
h 0  h h 0  h h 0 

Again when x  1  0 , put x  1  h, h  0 .

1  h   1  lim 2  h  2
2
x2 1
 lim
x 1 0 x  1
 lim  
h 0  h h 0 

So that both, the left hand and right hand limits exist and are equal. Hence limit
of the given function exists and equals 2.

Note: Since x  1 , division by  x  1 is permissible.

x2 1
lim  lim  x  1  2
x 1 x  1 x 1

e1 x 1
Example4. Evaluate lim  lim 1
x 0  e1 x
 1 x  0  1  e 1 x
and
e1 x 0
lim  0
x  0 e1 x  1 1
so that the left hand limit is not equal to the right hand limit.
e1 x
Hence lim does not exist.
x  0 e1 x  1

Example5. Find lim e x sgn  x   x  , where the signum function is defined as

x 0

 1, if x  0

sgn  x    1, if x  0
1, if x  0

and  x  means the greatest integer  x .
L.H.L. = hlim e0h sgn 0  h   0  h    lim  e h   1
0  h 0 

R.H.L. = hlim e0 h sgn 0  h   0  h    lim eh  1

0  h 0 

 lim e x sgn  x   x  does not exist.

x 0

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Chapter-1 Limit, Continuity and Differentiability of a function at some
given point, Indeterminate forms

Definition (Continuity at a point c). A function f is said to be continuous at a

point c, if
lim f  x   f  c 
x c

Note- A function f is said to be continuous from the left at c if

lim f  x   f  c 
x c  0

Also f is continuous from the right at c if

lim f  x   f  c 
x c  0

Clearly a function is continuous at c if and only if it is continuous from the left

as well as from the right.

Continuity in an Interval
A function f is said to be continuous in an interval  a, b  if it is continuous at
every point of the interval (a, b) and continuous from right at point a and from
left at b.

Discontinuous Functions
A function is said to be discontinuous at a point c of its domain if it is not
continuous there at c. The point c is then called a point of discontinuity of the
function.

Types of discontinuities
(i). A function f is said to have a removable discontinuity at xc if lim f  x
x c

exists but is not equal to the value f  c  (which may or may not exist) of
the function. Such a discontinuity can be removed by assuming a suitable
value to the function at x  c .

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

(ii). f is said to have a discontinuity of the first kind at xc if lim f  x  and
x c  0

lim f  x  both exist but are not equal.

x c  0

(iii). f is said to have a discontinuity of the first kind from the left at xc if
lim f  x  exists but is not equal to f  c  .
x c  0

Differentiability

Derivative of a function at a point:

y  f  x

y Q
 c  h, f  c  h  
 c, f  c   
P
 H

 

T O S M N x

PM and QN perpendicular to the x-axis and PH perpendicular to QN.

f c  h  f c 
tan   ....(1)
h
Now as h  0 , the point Q moving along the curve approaches the point P, the
chord PQ approaches the tangent line TP as its limiting position and the angle 
approaches the angle .
f c  h  f c 
 lim  tan  f '  c 
h 0 h

Definition:
Geometrically if there exist unique tangent to the curve at that point.

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Let f be a function defined on an open interval I, and let c  I . Then f is said to
be differentiable or derivable at c, if
f  x  f c
lim
x c xc
f c  h  f c 
or, equivalently, lim exists finitely.
h0 h

Progressive Derivative (RHD):

f c  h  f c
Rf '  c   lim , h0
h 0 h
Regressive Derivative (LHD):
f c  h  f c
Lf '  c   lim , h0
h0 h
 f is differentiable at x  c if and only if Rf '  c  and Lf '  c  both exists finitely
and are equal.

Differentiability Vs Continuity:

derivability at a point  continuity at that point

Theorem. A function which is derivable at a point is necessarily continuous at
that point.
Let a function f be derivable at x  c .
f  x  f c
Hence, f '  c   lim exists.
x c xc
f  x  f c
Now f  x   f  c    x  c,  x  c
 x  c
Taking limits as x  c , we have
 f  x  f c   f  x  f c 
lim  f  x   f  c   lim   x  c    lim    lim  x  c
xc x c
 xc 
xc
 xc 
x c

 f 'c   0  0
so that lim f  x   f  c  , and therefore, f is continuous at x  c .
xc

Note- It is to be clearly understood that while continuity is a necessary

condition for derivability at a point, it is not a sufficient condition. We come
across functions which are continuous at a point without being derivable
there at, and still many more functions may be constructed.

Consider the function f defined by

f  x   x , x  R

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 f  x  is continuous at x  0 , for
lim f  x   lim f  x   0  f  0 
x 0  x0

But f '  0  does not exist. Thus, the function is continuous but not derivable
at the origin.

Interesting Point- It was the genius of German mathematician Weierstrass,

who gave a function which is continuous everywhere but not derivable
anywhere, viz.,

1
f  x  
2 n  
cos 3n x , x  R
n 1

Some Counter Examples

1. f  x   x  x  1 , x  R
Continuous but not derivable at x  0 and x  1 .
2. f  x  x 
Continuous but not derivable at x   .
3. f  x   x sin1 x if x  0
 0 if x  0
Continuous but not derivable at the origin.
4. f  x   0 if x  0
 x if x  0
Continuous but not derivable at x  0 .

Some theoretical points- understanding and able to write mathematical

language for these points will make you capable enough to deal with
questions in exam which are bit theoretical in nature. So just have a look
how these three points are being expressed.
1-The existence of the derivative of a function at a point depends on the
f  x  f c 
existence of a limit, viz., lim . Therefore, keeping in view the
xc xc
corresponding theorems on limits, one can easily establish the following
fundamental theorem on derivatives.
If the functions f, g are derivable at c, then the function f  g , f  g , f  g and
f g  g  c   0  are also derivable at c, and
 f  g  'c  f 'c  g 'c
 f  g  'c   f 'c  g c   f c  g 'c
 f g  '  c    f '  c  g  c   f  c  g '  c   g  c   if g  c   0
2

To illustrate the procedure, we prove the following theorem.

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 2-If f is derivable at c and f  c   0 then the function 1 f is also derivable
there at, and
1 f  '  c    f '  c   f  c 
2

Since f is derivable at c, it is also continuous there at. Again since f  c   0 ,

there exists a neighborhood N of c wherein f does not vanish.
Now
1 f  x 1 f c f  x  f c 1
  , x N
xc xc f  x f c
Proceeding to limits when x  c , we get
1 1 f  x 1 f c
  '  c   lim
 f  x c xc
1 f 'c 
  f 'c   
f c  f c   f  c 
2

Thus, the limit exists and equals,  f '  c   f  c 

2
.

Note:
If f and g be two functions having the same domain D and f  g or f  g be
derivable at c  D , then f and g are not necessarily derivable at c. Consider,
for instance
1 x x0

(i) f  x   and g  x   f  x
 0 x0

f  g is derivable at the origin but f and g are not.
 x sin 1 x  x0

(ii) f  x    and g  x  x
 0 x0

Hence fg is derivable at the origin, whereas f is not.
(iii) f  x   x and g  x    x
f  x   g  x    x 2 , so that f  g is derivable at the origin but the functions f and
g are not derivable.
Similarly many more functions may be constructed.

3- Let f : I   and g : J   , where f  I   J and c  I . If f is differentiable at

c and g is differentiable at c, and
 gof  '  c   g '  f  c    f '  c 
Proof:  f is differentiable at c, we have
f  x  f c 
lim  f c
xc xc
Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052
or
f  x   f  c    x  c   f '  c     x  ....(1)
where   x   0 as x  c
Further  g is differentiable at f  c  , we have
g  y   g  f c 
lim  g ' f c 
y f c y  f c
or g  y   g  f  c     y  f  c    g '  f  c    h  y  ....(2)
where h  y   0 as y  f  c 
Now
 gof  x    gof  c   g  f  x    g  f  c  
  f  x   f  c  g ' f  c   h  f  x  

 
  x  c   f '  c     x  g '  c   h  f  x  

Thus, if x  c , we have
 gof  x    gof  c   g ' f c  h f x f ' c   x
 x  c
             ....(3)

Further, since f is differentiable at c, it is continuous there. So,

x  c  f  x   f  c   h  f  x   0
Taking limit as x  c in (3), we get
 gof  '  c   g '  f  c    f '  c 

INDETERMINATE FORMS

We shall now discuss the evaluation of limits of functions generally known as

Indeterminate forms. They are not indeterminate but have acquired this name by
usage of the word.

In general, the limit of   x    x  when x  a , in case the limits of both the

functions exist, is equal to the limit of the numerator divided by the limit of the
denominator. But what happens when both these limits are zero? The division
 0 0  then becomes meaningless. A case like this is known as Indeterminate
form. Other such forms are   ,0  ,   , 00 ,1 , and  0 . Ordinary methods of
evaluating the limits are of little help. Particular methods are required to
evaluate these peculiar limits. We shall now discuss these particular methods,
generally called L' Hospital rule, due to the French mathematician L' Hospital.

It should, however, be clearly understood, that in what follows, we do not find

the value of 0/0 or of any of the other indeterminate forms. We only find the
Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052
limits of combinations of functions which assume these forms when the limits
of functions are taken separately.

Indeterminate Form 0/0

We shall now discuss some theorems concerning the indeterminate form 0/0.

Theorem 1. If f, g be two functions such that

(i) lim f  x   lim g  x   0 and
xa x a

(ii) f '  a  , g '  a  exist and g '  a   0 then

f  x f 'a
lim 
xa g  x g 'a
Since the functions f and g are derivable at x  a , therefore, they are continuous
there at, i.e.,
lim f  x   f  a  and lim g  x   g  a 
xa xa

Thus from condition (i), f  a   0  g  a  .

Also
f  x  f a f  x
f '  a   lim  lim
xa xa xa xa
and
g  x  g a g  x
g '  a   lim  lim
x a xa xa xa
f 'a  f  x
  lim
g 'a xa g  x
Note: Condition (i) can be replaced by f  a   g  a   0 .

L'Hospital's Rule for 0/0 form. If f, g are two functions such that
(i) lim f  x   lim g  x   0 ,
xa x a

(ii) f '  x  , g '  x  exist and g '  x   0, x  a   , a    ,   0 except possibly at a,

and
f ' x
(iii) lim exists.
xa g ' x
then
f  x f ' x
lim  lim
xa g  x x a g ' x

Generalised L'Hospital's Rule for 0/0 form. If f, g be two functions such that
(i) f n  x  , g n  x  exist, and g '  x   0  r  0,1, 2,....., n  for any x in a   , a   
except possibly at x  a ,

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 lim f  x   lim f '  x   ...  lim f n 1  x   0
(ii) when x  a , 
 lim g  x   lim g '  x   ...  lim g  x  0
n 1

f n  x
and (iii) lim exists, then
xa g n  x
f  x f n  x
lim  lim
xa g  x xa gn  x

Exam Point
The rule in the form of above theorem is more useful than the other forms
because we may cancel out common factors or affect any other simplification in
the quotient f '  x  g '  x  before proceeding to the limits. Also repeated
application of the rule is possible in this form.

L'Hospital's rule holds even in the case when each f  x  and g  x  tends to 
when x  a or when x   . Next theorems will show how these cases can be
handled in an exactly similar fashion.

L'Hospital's rule for infinite limits. If f, g be two functions such that

(i) lim f  x   lim g  x   0
x  x 

(ii) f '  x  , g '  x  exist, and g '  x   0 , x  0 except possibly at  , and (iii)
f ' x
lim exists, then
x  g ' x 
f  x f ' x
lim  lim
x  g  x x  g ' x

(a) Form 0  
When f  x   0 and g  x    as x  a, f  x   g  x  takes 0   form.
However f  x   g  x  may be expressed as
f  x g  x
or
1 g  x 1 f  x
which has respectively 0/0 and   forms.

(b) Form   
This can be reduced to the form 0/0 or   . Dividing numerator and
denominator by f  x  g  x  ,

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 1 1

g  x f  x 0 
f  x  g  x   form 
1  0 
f  x g  x
(c) Form 0,1 ,  0
g  x
These forms will occur in lim  f  x   and can be made to depend upon one of
g  x
the previous forms by putting k   f  x  , so that
log k  g  x   log f  x 
 lim log k  lim  g  x  log f  x 
Also lim k  lim elog k  elim log k
Thus the limit may be evaluated by one of the previous methods.

 Let us now evaluate some limits which take up these forms, we shall not
hesitate to make use of certain known limits, such as
x
sin x tan x  1
lim , lim , lim  1   etc. or expansions of functions such as
x 0 x x  0 x x 
 x
log 1  x  , sin x , etc. either in the beginning or at some intermediate state
because it simplifies and shortens the process of evaluation of a limit to a
considerable extent.

Example1. Examine the following function for continuity at the origin:

 xe1 x
 if x  0
f  x   1  e1 x
 0 if x  0

Now
xe1 x
lim f  x   lim
x 0 x  0  1  e1 x
 0  e   0  
and
x
lim f  x   lim 1 x
 0 (Multiplying both number and denominator of f  x  by
x0 x0 e 1
1
1
)

e x

Thus,
lim f  x   lim f  x   lim f  x   0
x 0 x 0  x 0

Also
lim f  x   f  0 
x 0

Thus, the function is continuous at the origin.

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Example2. Show that the function defined as:
 sin 2 x
 when x0
f  x   x
 0 when x0
has removable discontinuity at the origin.
Now
sin 2 x
lim f  x   lim 2  2
x0 x 0 2x
so that
lim f  x   f  0 
x 0

Hence the limit exists, but is not equal to the value of the function at the origin.
Thus the function has a removable discontinuity at the origin.
Note: The discontinuity can be removed by redefining the function at the origin
such as f  0   2
Example3. Show that the function defined by
 x sin1 x, when x0
f  x  
 0, when x0
is continuous at x  0 .
Now
 1
lim f  x   lim  x sin   0 . (A finite real number belonging to  1,1 )
x 0 x 0
 x
so that
lim f  x   f  0  . Hence, f is continuous at x  0 .
x 0

Example3. A function f is defined on R by

  x2 if x0

 5x  4 if 0  x  1
f  x   2
4 x  3x if 1  x  2
 3 x  4 if x2
Examine f for continuity at x  0,1, 2 . Also discuss the kind of discontinuity, if
any.
Now
 
lim f  x   lim  x 2  0  f  0 
x 0  x 0 

lim f  x   lim  5 x  4   4
x 0  x 0 

so that
lim f  x   f  0   lim f  x 
x 0  x 0

Thus the function has a discontinuity of the first kind from the right at the
origin.
Again

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 lim f  x   lim  5 x  4   1
x 1 x 1


lim f  x   lim 4 x 2  3x  1
x 1 x 1

so that
lim f  x   lim f  x   1  f 1
x 1 x 1

 lim f  x   f 1
x 1

Thus the function is continuous at x  1

Again

lim f  x   lim 4 x 2  3x  10
x 2  x2

lim f  x   lim  3x  4   10
x 2  x 2 

Also
f  2   10  lim f  x   f  2 
x2

Thus, the function is continuous at x  2 .

x x
Example4. Is the function f, where f  x   continuous?
x
xx
For x  0 , f  x    2 , continuous.
2
xx
For x  0 , f  x    0 , continuous.
x
The function is not defined at x  0
Thus f  x  is continuous for all x expect at zero.

Example5. Discuss the kind of discontinuity, if any of the function is defined as

follows:
x x
 when x0
f  x   x
 2 when x0

The function is continuous at all points expect possibly the origin.
Let us test at x  0 .
Now
xx xx
lim f  x   lim  2 ; lim f  x   lim 0
x 0 x0 x x  0  x  0  x
Thus the function has discontinuity of the first kind from the right at x  0 .

Examples for Differentiability-

Example 1. Show that the function f  x   x 2 is derivable on  0, 1 .

Let x0 be any point of 0, 1 , then

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 x 2  x02
f '  x0   lim  lim  x  x0   2 x0
x  x0 x  x0 x x0
At the end points, we have
f  x   f 0 x2
f '  0   lim  lim  lim x  0
x 0  0 x0 x 0  x x 0 

f  x   f 1 x 1
2
f ' 1  lim  lim  lim  x  1  2
x 1 0 x 1 x  1 x  1 x1
Thus, the function is derivable in the closed interval  0, 1 .

Example 2. A function f is defined on R by

f  x   x if 0  x  1
 1 if x  1
Consider the derivability at x  1 .
f  x   f 1 x 1
Lf ' 1  lim  lim 1
x 1 x 1 x 1
x 1

f  x   f 1 1 1
Rf ' 1  lim  lim 0
x 1 x 1 x  1 x 1
f  x   f 1
 Lf ' 1  Rf ' 1 . Thus, lim does not exist, i.e., f ' 1 does not
x 1 x 1
exist.

Example 3. Consider the derivability of the function f  x   x at the origin.

f  x   f  0
 Left hand derivative = lim
x0
x 0 

x x
 lim  lim  1
x 0  x x0 x

f  x   f 0
Right hand derivative  lim
x 0 x0
x x
 lim  lim  1
x 0 x x 0  x

Thus,
Hence, the function is not derivable at x  0 .

Example 4-a:
 1
 x sin   , x  0
(1) Check continuity and differentiability of f  x    x
 0, x0


Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 so, f  x  is continuous but not differential

1
f  x   x sin
x


Similarly Lf '  0  does not exist

It is continuous at x  0
Now
1
h sin  
f 0  h  f 0  h   lim sin  1 
Rf '  0   lim  lim  
h 0 h h0 h h 0
h
which does not exist.
Similarly, Lf '  0  does not exist.
Now,
 1 1
2 x sin  cos ; x  0
 f ' x   x x
 0; x0
Extra- Now checking continuity of f '  x  at x  0
 1 1
f '  0  h   lim f '  0  h   lim  2h sin  cos 
h 0 h 0
 h h
1
 0  lim cos  
h 0
h
which does not exist.
Similarly we can show f '  0  h  does not exist.

Example 4-b: A function f is defined as follows

 p 1
 x cos   , x  0
f  x    x
 0, x0

What conditions should be imposed on p so that f may be
(i) Continuous at x  0 (ii) Differentiable at x  0
Solution:
(i) f  0  0   lim h p cos 1 h 
h0

f  0  0    1 lim h p cos 1 h 

p

h 0

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

To make f  0  0   f  0  0   f  0  , condition required is p  0
(ii) Rf '  0   lim h p 1 cos 1 h 
h 0

Lf '  0    1 lim h p 1 cos 1 h 

p 1

h 0

So for differentiability condition required is p  1

 
Example 5: Show that the function f  x   x tan 1 1 x for x  0 and f  0   0 is
continuous but not differentiable at x  0 . Do by self.

Example 6: Discuss the continuity and differentiability of the function f defined

by
 2x 1 ; if x is rational
f  x   2
 x  2 x  5 ; if x is irrational

Solution:  x 2  2 x  5  2 x  1  x 2  4 x  4  0  x  2
We have x 2  2 x  5  2 x  1 except when x  2 that means we have to check
continuity at x  2 only (except x  2 ; they are unequal; (since rational  =
irrational).
Hence f is continuous at x  2 only.
Further, it follows that x  2 is the only point at which f may be differentiable.
In this regard, we see that
  2 x  1  5
2; when x is rational
f  x   f  2   x2
 2
x2 
 x  2x  5  5 
 x ; when x is irrational
 x2
Therefore, in either case, we have
f  x   f  2
lim 2
x2 x2
Hence f is differentiable at x  2 and f '  2   2 .

Example 7: Is the function

 x ; x0

f  x   x ; 2
0  x 1
 x3  x  1 ; x 1

differentiable at x  0 and x  1 ?
Solution: Do by self
Not differentiable at x  0
Differentiable at x  1

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 x
Example 8: Determine the set of all points where the function f  x   is
1 x
differentiable.
Solution:
 x
1  x ; x  0

f  x   0 ; x0
 x
 ; x0
1  x
(i)  x and 1  x are differentiable (polynomial functions) and 1  x  0 when
x0
x
 is differentiable ; x  0
1 x
f
We know that ; g  0 ; Also differential if f and g are differential.
g
x
(ii) Similarly, is also differential for x  0
1 x
i.e. f  x  is differentiable for all values of x   except possibly at x  0 .

For x  0 ; Rf '  0   1 ; Lf '  0   1

Hence f is differentiable for all x   .

Example 9: Draw the graph of the function y  x  1  x  2 in the interval  0, 3

and discuss the continuity and differentiability of the function in this interval.
Solution:
y  1  x    2  x   2 x  3 ; 0  x  1
y   x  1   2  x   1, 1  x  2
y   x  1   x  2   2 x  3, 2  x  3
 2 x  3 ; 0  x  1

y 1, 1 x  2
 2x  3 ; 2  x  3


Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 y 3

y 1  

x 1 x2 x3

Graph of y consists of the segments of 3 straight lines.

y  2 x  3 in  0,1
y  1 in 1, 2
y  2 x  3 in  2, 3
 there is no break in the graph so it is continuous in  0, 3
Further, we observe f is differential for all x   0,3 except possibly at x  1 and
x  2.
Rf ' 1  0 , Lf ' 1  2
Rf '  2   2 , Lf '  2   0
 not differential at x  1 and x  2
Also we can observe that x=1; There does not exist unique tangent to the curve
y=f(x) so not differentiable at x=1. Similarly not diff. at x=2. Exam point- If
there is a V shape then at bottom point, there cannot be unique tangent to the
curve V.

  e1 x  e 1 x 
x ; x0
Example 10: If f  x     e1 x  e1 x 
 0; x0

Show that f is continuous but not differentiable at x  0 .
Solution:
(i) f  0  0   0, f  0  0   0 , f  0   0
(ii) Rf '  0   1 , Lf '  0   1

e 1 x sin 1 x  , x  0
2

Example-11: Let f  x   
 0; x0
Test differentiability of the function at x  0 .
Solution:
e1 h sin 1 h  sin 1 h 
2

Rf '  0   lim  lim 2

h 0 h h0
h  e1 h
Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052
 sin 1 h  some finite quantity
 lim 
h 0 1 1 3 
h   h  ....
h 2
0
and Lf '  0   0 (as above)
 Rf '  0   Lf '  0  f is differentiable at x  0

Example 12: Show that the function f defined by

  1 2 
 
 x 1  sin log x  , x  0
f  x    3 
0 , x0

is continuous everywhere but has no differential coefficient at x  0
Hint: f is continuous & differential everywhere except possibly at x  0 .
 1   1
  
f  0  0   lim h 1  sin log h 2   lim h  h sin log h 2
h 0
 3  h 0  3
  0   0  a finite quantity   0
 
 sin log h is a finite quantity oscillating between
2
-1 and 1 as h  0 .
f 0  0  0
 f  0  0  f 0  0  f  0
1
Further Rf '  0   1  lim sin  log h 2 
3 h 0
The limit does not exist lim sin  log h2  oscillating between -1 and +1
h 0

Hence f has no differential coefficient at the origin. Not differentiable.

 1 ; 2  x  0
Example13: Let f  x   
 x 1 ; 0  x  2
and g  x   f  x   f  x 
Test the differentiability of g  x  in  2, 2 
Solution:
 x   x for 2  x  0 and x  x for 0  x  2 , we have
 x  1 ; 2  x  0
f  x
 x 1 ; 0  x  2
 1; 2  x  0

and f  x    x  1 ; 0  x  1
 x 1 ; 1  x  2

 x ; 2  x  0

so g  x   f  x   f  x    0 ; 1 x 1
2 x  2 ; 1  x  2

Answer: Differentiable for all x except at x  0 and x  1 .

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Example 14-a: Let f  x  y   f  x   f  y  , x and y
If f '  0   1 , Show that f '  x   f  x  , for all x.
Solution:
Putting y  x in f  x  y   f  x   f  y 
f  2 x    f  x 
2

Differentiating w.r.t x, it gives

2 f '2x   2 f  x  f ' x 
i.e. f '  2 x   f  x   f '  x 
Putting x  0 , we get
f ' 0  f 0  f '0
 f  0   1  f '  0   1 (Given)
Now
f  x  h  f  x f  x  f h  f  x
f '  x   lim  lim
h 0 h h 0 h
f  h 1
 f  x   lim
h0 h
f  h  f 0
 f  x   lim
h 0 h
 f  x   f ' 0  f  x 
 f ' 0  1
Thus f '  x   f  x  for all x.

Example 14-b: Let f  x  y   f  x   f  y  for all x and y. Suppose f  5   2 and

f '  0   3 . Find f '  5  .
Hint: Put x  5 , y  0 to get f  0   1
Then
f  5  h   f  5
f '  5   lim
h 0 h
f  5  f  h   f  5
 lim
h0 h

x b b
x b
Example 15: 1  a x b ,  2 
a x
a a x
d
(a) 1   2
dx

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 d
(b) 1  3 2
dx
d
(c) 1  0
dx
d d
(d)  1   2  0
dx dx
Then
d d d
 x b b  x b b
x b b
dx dx dx
d d d d
1  a x b  a  x b  a x b
dx dx dx dx
a a x d d d
a a x a a x
dx dx dx
  
 1 x 2  ab  x 2  ab  x 2  ab 
 3x  ab  3 2
2

Question: Let each aij  t  be differentiable function of t. Show that

a11  t  ...........a1n  t 
d a21  t  ..........a2 n  t 
dt ............................
an1  t  ..............ann  t 
d
a11  t  ....
aij  t  ....a1n  t 
dt
d
n
a21  t  .... a2 j  t  ....a2 n  t 
 dt
j 1
........................................
d
an1  t  ....
anj  t  ....ann  t 
dt
d
and evaluate I  tA when t  0 (intersecting) Answer tr A
dt
Note: There are some special matrices & determinants for which we do this type
of activities not for just like that.

Question: Let us consider a square matrix for which entries are coming from
the field of rational numbers.
x 2 x 3x 5 6
 2 
 a1 a2 a3 x x3 
A0 0  ; x

b1 0 0
 
 d1 d2 0 0 0
e e2 0 0 0  55
 1
d
Then find
dx
 A  ; A ; determinant of A.

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Hint: The block sub matrix is too big. A  0
 Answer is 0.

1 1 1
Question: x 2x 3x
2
x 4 x2 9x2
Show that (the Vander monde determinant)
1 1.................1
a1 a2 ..............an
a12 a22 ..............an2   a
1 i  j  n
j  ai 
...........................
a1n 1 a2n 1........ann 1

Exam point: Continuity and Differentiability of derivative of a differentiable

function:
Let’s consider this question
 2 1
 x sin   ; x  0
f  x   x
 0; x0

Then show that f  x  is differentiable everywhere, and that f '  0   0 .
Also show that the function f ' is discontinuous at x  0 .

It will be interesting to notice here If a function f is differential everywhere in

 and f '  0   0 then lim f '  x    ? For this to understand, let’s have an example
x 0

here-
function f defined as:
 x 2 sin 1 x  if x  0
f  x  
 0 if x  0
is derivable at x  0 but lim f '  x   f '  0  .
x0

f  x   f  0 x 2 sin1 x
f '  0   lim  lim
x 0 x0 x 0 x
 lim  x sin1 x   0
x 0

From elementary calculus we know that for x  0 ,

f '  x   2 x sin 1 x   cos 1 x 
 1 
lim f '  x  does not exist  lim cos does not exist  and therefore, there is no
x0
 x 0 x 
possibility of lim f '  x  being equal to f '  0  .
x0

Thus, f '  x  is not continuous at x  0 but f '  0  exists.

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Examples of Indeterminate Forms
x  tan x
Example 1. Evaluate lim
x 0 x3
x  tan x f  x 
 Let  , where f  x   x  tan x and g  x   x3 .
x 3
g  x
Now
lim f  x   lim  x  tan x   0
x0 x0

lim g  x   lim x 3  0
x0 x0

f  x 0
Hence, lim is of form, so that L'Hospital'r rule is applicable, i.e.,
x 0 g  x 0
f  x f ' x
lim  lim
x 0 g  x x 0 g ' x
x  tan x 1  sec 2 x
 lim  lim
x 0 x3 x 0 3x2
2
1  tan x  1
  lim   
3 x 0  x  3

xe x  log 1  x 
Example 2. Evaluate lim .
x 0 x2
 It is a 0/0 form and therefore
1
xe x  log 1  x  xe x  e x 
1 x 0 
lim 2
 lim  form 
x 0 x x 0 2x  0 
1
xe x  2e x 
1  x 
2
3
 lim 
x 0 2 2

1  x 
1x
e
Example 3. Find lim .
x 0 x
 Since lim 1  x   e , therefore it is a 0/0 form
1x

x 0

d
1  x 
1x
1  x 
1x
e
 lim  lim dx
x 0 x x 0 1
1  x   x  1  x  log 1  x 
1x

 lim
x0 x 2 1  x 
x  1  x  log 1  x  0 
 e  lim  form 
x 0 x 1  x 
2
0 

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

  log 1  x  0 
 e  lim  form 
x 02 x  3x 2
0 
1 e
 e  lim 
x  0  2  6 x 1  x  2

Alter. Let us first find an algebraic expansion for 1  x  .

1x

Let y  1  x 
1x

1
 log y  log 1  x 
x
1 x 2 x3 x 4 
  x     ...  , if x  1
x 2 3 4 
2
x x
 1    ...
2 3

 x2
x 
 y  exp 1    ... 
 2
3 
 x x 2

 e  exp     ... 
 2 3 
  x x2  1  x x2 
2

 e 1      ...       ...   ...
  2 3  2!  2 3  
 x 11 2 
 e 1   x  ...
 2 24 
 x 11 2 
e 1   x  ...   e
1 x  e
1x
2 24 e
 lim  lim   
x x  0 x 2

log 1  x 
Example 4. Find lim .
x 10 cot  x 
 It is a   form and therefore
1
log 1  x  1 x
lim  lim
x 1 0 cot  x  x 1 0  cosec 2  x 

sin 2  x  0 
 lim  form 
x 1 0  1  x  0 
 sin  2 x 
 lim 0
x 1 0 

Example 5. Evaluate lim  2  2  .

1 1
x 0 x sin x 


Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 It is a      form, we therefore write as
 1 1  sin 2 x  x 2 0 
lim  2  2   lim 2 2  form 
x 0 x
 sin x  x 0 x sin x  0 
sin 2 x  2 x 0 
 lim  form 
x 0 2 x sin 2 x  x 2 sin 2 x
0 
cos 2 x  1 0 
 lim  form 

x  0 sin 2 x  2 x sin 2 x  x 2 cos 2 x
 0 
2sin 2 x 0 
 lim  form 
x 03sin 2 x  6 x cos 2 x  2 x 2 sin 2 x 0 
 cos 2 x 1
 lim 
x  0 3cos 2 x  4 x sin 4 x  x 2 cos 2 x 3

Alter:
 1 1  sin 2 x  x 2
lim  2  2   lim 2 2
x 0 x sin x  x0 x sin x

2
sin 2 x  x 2  x 
 lim  
x 0 x4  sin x 
  x  
 Using lim 
x  0 sin x
  1
   
sin 2 x  x 2  0 
 lim 4  form 
x 0 x 0 
sin 2 x  2 x  0 
 lim 3  form 
x 0 4x 0 
cos 2 x  1
 lim
x 0 6 x2
 1  sin x  2  1
 lim     
x 0
 3  x   3

Note: It should be noted that when a given function can be put as a product of
two or more factors, the limit of each of which can be easily found, then limit of
the entire function can be determined by evaluating the limit of each factor
separately, provided that the product of these limits is not an indeterminate
form.

Example 6. Evaluate lim  sin x log x  .

x 0  0

 It is a  0    form. Let us write

log x  
lim  sin x log x   lim  form 
x 0  0 x 0  0 cosec x  

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 1x  sin x 
  lim   lim   tan x  0
x 0  0 cosec x cot x x 0  0
 x 

1 x2

Example 12. Evaluate lim 

tan x 

x0
 x 
1 x2

 It is a 1 form. Therefore, let K  

tan x 
 


 x 
 , so that
1  tan x 
log K  2 log  
x  x 
 tan x  sec 2 x 1
log   
 x  tan x x 0 
 lim log K  lim  lim  form 
x 0 x 0 x2 x 0 2x 0 
x sec 2 x  tan x sec 2 x tan x 0 
 lim  lim  form 
2 x 2 tan x x  0 2 tan x  x sec 2 x
x 0
0 
tan x sec2 x 1
 lim  lim 
x 0 sin 2 x  x x 0 2cos 2 x  1 3
1 x2

i.e., lim log K   lim K  e1 3  lim K  lim 

1 tan x 
  e1 3
x 0 3 x  0 x  0 x  0
 x 

1  log1 x  
Example 7. Evaluate xlim
10
1  x 2  .
1  log 1 x  
 It is a  0  form. Therefore, let K  1  x 2  , so that

log K 

log 1  x 2  lim log K  lim

log 1  x 2   
 form 
log 1  x  x 1 0 x 1 0 log 1  x    
2 x 1  x  2x
 lim  lim  1  lim log K  1  lim K  e
x 1 0 1 x 2 x 1 0 1 x x 1 0 x 1 0

Assignment-1

1. Find the limit, derivatives of the following functions at the indicated points:
(i). f  x   K , a constant, at x  c
(ii). f  x   x at x  0
(iii). f  x   x at x  4
(iv). f  x   e x at x  x0
2. Show that the function
f  x  x  x 1
is continuous at all real points and derivable at all points except 0 and 1.

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

  x3 sin1 x , x  0
3. f  x   
 0, x0
Prove that f  x  has a derivative at x  0 and that f  x  and f '  x  are continuous
at x  0 .

1
4. f  x    x  a  sin , xa
xa
 0, xa
Show that f  x  is continuous but not derivable at x  a .

5. Discuss the derivability of the following functions:

2, x  1
(i). f  x    at x  1
 x, x  1
1, 0  x  1
(ii). f  x   at x  1
 x, x 1
 2 x  3, 0  x  2
(iii). f  x   2 at x  2, 4
 x  3, 2  x  4

6. Show that the function f  x   x x is derivable at the origin.

7. Find the derivative of f at x  0 , where f  x   x 2 x .
8. f  x   x and g  x   3 x x  R , show that f.g is not derivable at the origin but
lim  f  x  g  x   exists and is equal to lim  f '  x  g '  x   , when x  0 .
9. Find Lf '  0  and Rf '  0  for the following functions:
 x tan 1 1 x, x  0
(i) f  x   
 0, x0

 x e1 x  1
 , x0

(ii) f  x    e1 x  1
 

 0, x0


 x e1 x  e 1 x
 , x0

10. If f  x    e1 x  e1 x
 

 0, x0
Show that f is continuous but not derivable at x  0 and Lf '  0   1, Rf '  0   1 .
 x m sin1 x , x  
11. Examine the function f, where f  x    for derivability at the
 0, x0
origin. Also determine m where f' is continuous at the origin.
12. If functions f and g are defined on  0,   by

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 x
xn 1
f  x   lim n and g  x    f  t  dt ;
n  x  1
0

then prove that g is continuous but not drainable at x  1 .

ANSWERS
5. (i) Not derivable (ii) Not derivable, Lf ' 1  0, Rf ' 1  1
(iii) Not derivable; at x  2, f '  4   8
7. 0 9. (i)  2 ,  2 (ii) –1, 1
11. Derivable if m  1 ; m  2

Q13.Evaluate the following limits:

(1) lim
x  sin x
, (2) lim
x  log 1  x 
, (3) lim

log 1  x3
,

(4) lim
x3
x 0 x3 x 0 1  cos x x 0 sin 3 x x  e x

 
log  x  
, (6) lim x tan , (7) lim  cot 2 x  2 
 2 1 1
(5) lim
x  2 0 tan x x  x x 0
 x 
(8) lim  sec x  tan x  , (9) xlim  cot x  , (11) lim  sin x 
sin x tan x

x  2 0  0 x  2

1
1  x 
1x
 e  ex 1x

(12) lim 2 , (13) lim  sin x 

 
x 0 x2 x 0
 x 
PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS YEAR 2009 ONWARDS

LIMIT, CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY,

INDETERMINATE FORMS
CSE 2022 Q1. Evaluate lim  tan x  .
tan 2 x

x
4

IFoS 2021 Q2. Given that f  x  y   f  x  f  y  , f  0   0 , for all real x, y and

f '  0   2 . Show that for all real x, f '  x   2 f  x  . Hence find f  x  .
x
IFoS 2020Q3. Evaluate lim  x  1 tan
x 1 2

CSE 2019 Q4. Let f : 0,    be a continuous function such that
 2
cos 2 x 
f  x  , 0x
4x  
2 2
2

Find the value of f   .
2

CSE 2019 Q5. Is f  x   cos x  sin x differentiable at x  ? If yes, then find its
2

derivative at x  . If no, then give a proof of it.
2

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 z
CSE 2018Q6. Determine if lim 1  z  tan exists or not. If the limit exists, then
z 1 2
find its value.
CSE 2015Q7. Evaluate the following limit:
 x 
tan  
 x  2a 
Lt  2  
x a
 a
IFoS 2015 Q8. Let f  x  be a real-valued function defined on the interval
x
 5, 5 such that e x f  x   2   t 4  1dt for all x   5,5  . Let f 1  x  be the
0

inverse function of f  x  . Find  f 1  '  2  .

d2y
IFoS 2015 Q9. If x  y  y  x  c , find
dx 2
2  cos x 3 
IFoS 2015 Q10. Evaluate lim  3  4
x 0
 x sin x x 
IFoS 2014 Q11. Show that the function given by

 x e1 x  1 
 , x0

f  x    e1 x  1 

 0, x0
is continuous but not differentiable at x  0 .
IFoS 2013 Q12. Evaluate:
 e ax  bbx  tan x 
lim  
x0
 x 
IFoS 2012 Q13. Show that the function defined as
 sin 2 x
 when x  0
f  x   x
 1 when x  0
has removable discontinuity at the origin.
CSE 2011Q14. Evaluate:
 x2  4
 , x2
(i) lim f  x  , where f  x    x  2
x2
 , x2

IFoS 2011Q15. Let the function f be defined by
 0, for t  0

f  t   t , for 0  t  1
 4, for t  1

x
(i) Determine the function F  x    f  t  dt
0

(ii) Where is F non-differentiable? Justify your answer.

CSE 2010 Q16. Let f be a function defined on  such that

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

f  x  y   f  x   f  y  , x, y  
If f is differentiable at one point of  , then prove that f is differentiable on  .
CSE 2009Q17. Let
 x
  1 if x  1
 2
x
f  x     1 if 1  x  2
2
 x
   1 if 2  x
 2
What are the points of discontinuity of f, if any? What are the points where f is
not differentiable if any? Justify yours answers.
IFoS 2008 Q18. Obtain the values of the constants, a, b and c for which the
function defined by
 sin  a  1 x  sin x
 , x0
 x
f  x  
 
12
 x  bx  x1 2
2

 , x0
 bx 3 2
is continuous at x  0 .
CSE 2008 Q19. Prove that function
 x e 1x  1

f  x  

, x0

erx 1

 0, x0
is continuous but not differentiable at x  0

SOLUTIONS(HINTS)
Ans1. lim  tan x  ; 1 form.
tan 2 x

x
4

Let A   tan x 
tan 2 x

log e A  log e  tan x 

tan 2 x

log e A  tan 2 x log e  tan x 

lim log e A  lim tan 2 x  log e  tan x  ;   0 form
 
x x
4 4

log e  tan x 
 lim
x
 1 tan 2 x
4
d
 log e tan x 
 lim dx ; L'Hospital Rule
 d
x
4  1 tan 2 x 
dx

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 1
 sec 2 x
tan x 1 sin 2 2 x
 lim  lim   sec x
 1 2  2 sin x
4   sec 2 x
x 2 x
4
tan 2 2 x
1 1
 2  1  lim A  e1  lim  tan x  1
tan 2 x
lim log e A   
x
 2 1 x

x
 e
4
2 4 4

Ans2. Given f  x  y   f  x   f  y  ....(1)

f 0  0 ....(2)
for all real x, y and
f ' 0  2 . ....(3)
From (1); taking x  y , we have
f  x  x  f  x  f  x
f  2 x    f  x 
2

Differentiating w.r.t x, we get

2 f '  2 x   2 f  x   f '  x   2 f ' 0  2 f 0   f '  0
 2  2  2  f 0  2  f 0  1 ....(4)
Now, by the definition of derivative of f  x  ,
f  x  h  f  x f  x   f  h  f  x f  x   f  h   1
f '  x   lim  lim [using (1)]  lim
h 0 h h 0 h h0 h
f  x   f  h   f  0 
 lim [using (4); 1  f  0  ]
h0 h
f  h   f 0
 f  x  lim
h 0 h
f '  x   f  x   f '  0  . So f '  x   2 f  x  [using (3)]. Proved.

x
Ans3. Evaluate lim  x  1 tan
x 1 2
x
Solution: lim  x  1 tan ; 0   form
x 1 2
x d  x  x
tan  tan  sec 2
2  lim dx  2 
 lim ; applying L'Hospital Rule  lim 2 2 ;
x 1 1 x 1 d   x 1 1
 x  1 1
dx   x  1 

 x  1
2

complicated??

Let's try another method:

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 x x 1 x 1 0
lim  x  1 tan  lim  lim ;
x 1 2 x 1 1 x 1 x 0
x cot
tan 2
2
1 2 2
 lim   1   .
x 1  x  
 cosec 2
2 2


Ans4. Let f : 0,    be a continuous function such that
 2
cos 2 x 
f  x  , 0 x
4x  
2 2
2

Find the value of f  
2
  0 cos 2 x
 f    form (undefined). So let's try to find lim f  x   lim 2
x 4 x  
2
2 0 x
 
2 2

1  cos 2 x 1
  sin 2 x  2
 lim 2  lim 2
 4x2   2  8x
x x
2 2
 sin 
lim f  x   lim 0
  
x
2
x
2 8
2
 Given that f  x  is continuous in  0,  2
 lim f  x   f  2 

x
2

0  f  2 


Ans5. If f  x   cos x  sin x differentiable at x  ? If yes then find its
2

derivative at x  . If no, then give a proof of it.
2
Solution:
We know that
 x ; x 
f  x  x   
  x    , x  
 
 cos x  sin x, x  2
 f  x   cos x  sin x   ....(1)
 cos x  sin x, x  
 2

Now, Derivative of f  x  at x  is given by
2

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

    
f   h  f 
  2 2
Rf '    lim  
 2  h0 h
   
 cos   h   sin   h   1
2  2  sinh  cosh  1 0 cosh  sinh
 lim  lim ; form  lim 1
h0 h h  0 h 0 h 0 1
....(2)
   
f   h  f 
  2 2
Lf '    lim  
2 h  0 h
   
cos   h   sin   h   1
2  2  sinh  cosh  1 0 cosh  sinh
 lim  lim ; form  lim  1
h0 h h  0 h 0 h 0 1
 Lf '  2   Rf '  2 
So given function f  x  is not differentiable at x   2 .

z
Ans6. Determine lim 1  z  tan
z 1 2
Solution:
z 1 z 0
lim 1  z  tan  lim ; form
z 1 2 z 1 z 0
cot
2
1
 lim ; applying L'Hospital Rule
z 1  
 cosec 2 z
2 2
2 1 z
 lim  . So lim 1  z  tan 2 
z 1  cosec 2  z 1 2
z
2

Ans7. Evaluate the following limit

x
tan  
 x  2a 
lim  2   ;1 form
xa
 a
Solution:
x
tan
x  2 a 
Let A   2  
 a
x   x
log e A  tan   log e  2  
 2a   a
 x
log e  2  
 x  x   a
 lim log e A  lim  tan   log e  2    ;   0 form  lim  x
xa xa
  2a   a  x  a
cot
2a

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

  1 1
 
 x  a
2 a 
lim log e A  lim   ; applying L'Hospital Rule
xa xa  x
 cosec 2  
2a  2a 
1
2
 x
2  2 1
 a
 lim 
xa   1
cosec 2  x
 2a 
lim log e A  2  lim A  e 2
xa x a

Ans8. Let f  x  be a real valued function defined on an interval  5,5  such that
x
e x f  x   2   t 4  1dt for all x   5,5  . Let f 1  x  be the inverse function of
0

f  x  . Find  f  2 .
1

Solution:
x
Given e x f  x   2  0 t 4  1dt ....(i)
Differentiating w.r.t. x by Leibnitz rule of differentiation under the sign of
integration
e  x  f '  x   e  x f  x   0   0  dt   x 4  1 1  0
x

0
....(ii)
Leibnitz Rule is
h x  d h x   h   
  f  x, t dt then  f  x, t  dt  f  x, h  x     x   f  x, g  x  g  x  
g  x dx g   t
x x  x 
 from (ii), we have
e x  f '  x   f  x    x 4  1

f '  x   f  x   ex  x4 1
I.F.  e x
 f  x   e  x   e  x  e x  x 4  1 dx   x 4  1 dx

d2y
Ans9. If  x  y    y  x   C , find .
dx 2
Solution:
 x  y   y  x  C ....(1)
Differentiating (1) w.r.t. x,
1  dy  2  dy 
 1      1  0
2 y  x  dx  2 y  x  dx 

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 1  dy  2  dy 
 1    1  
2  y  x   dx  2  y  x   dx 
1 1  1 dy 1 dy 
    
yx yx   y  x  dx  y  x  dx 

1 1  1 1  dy
   

  ....(2)
yx yx  yx y  x  dx
Differentiating (2) w.r.t. x, we get
1 1  dy  1 1  dy 
  1    32 
 1
2  y  x 3 2  dx  2  y  x   dx 
 
1  dy  1  dy  dy  1 1  d2y
   3 
 1     1     2
 2  y  x  2  dx  2  y  x  3 2  dx   dx  y  x y  x  dx
 
1 1  dy   dy  1 3  dy   dy   1 1  d2y
 1    1   y  x  2
  1  1        2
2  y  x 32  dx   dx  2  dx   dx   yx y  x  dx

2  cos x 3 
Ans10. Evaluate lim  3
 4
x 0
 x sin x x 
Solution:
 2  cos x 3  2  cos x 3
lim  3  4   lim 3  lim 4    form
x 0
 x sin x x  x  0 x sin x x  0 x
2 x  x cos x  3 x sin x
4 4 3
 lim
x 0 x 7 sin x
2 x  x cos x  3sin x 0
 lim ;
x 0 x 4 sin x 0
2  cos x  x sin x  3cos x 0
 lim ;
x 0 4 x 3 sin x  x 4 cos x 0
2sin x  x cos x  sin x
 lim
x  0 12 x 2 sin x  4 x 3 cos x  4 x 3 cos x  x 4 sin x

sin x  x cos x 0
 lim ;
x 0 12 x sin x  x sin x
2 4
0
x sin x
 lim
x 0 24 x sin x  12 x 2 cos x  4 x 3 sin x  x 4 cos x

cos x
 lim
x 0 24 cos x  12 cos x  12 x sin x  8 x sin x  4 x 2 cos x  3 x 2 cos x  x 3 sin x

1
36

Ans11. Show that the function given by

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 
 x e 1x  1
 
, x0
 

f  x    e 1x  1

 0, x0

is continuous but not differentiable at x  0 .
Solution:

(i) lim f  0  h   lim

h e  1
h
1   lim h 1  e 1 h
 
0  1  0 
0
h 0 h 0
e
1
h
1 h 0
1  e 1 h
 1  0 

lim f  0  h   lim
h e  1
h
1   0 0 1  0
h 0 h 0
e 1
h
1   0  1
Clear lim f  0  h   lim f  0  h   f  0 
h 0 h 0

So, f  x  is continuous at x  0 .
(ii) For differentiability at x  0

Rf '  0   lim
f  0  h   f  0
 lim
   lim 1  e
1
h e h 1 1 h
 
20
1
h  e  1 1  e  1 0
1 1 h
h 0 h h 0 h h 0


 h e 1 h  1  0
Lf '  0   lim
f 0  h  f 0 0 1
 lim
e
 1
1 h
1  lim
h0 h h0 h h0 0  1

Rf '  0   Lf '  0   f  x  is not differentiable at x  0 .

 e ax  ebx  tan x 
Ans12. Evaluate lim  
x 0
 x 
Solution:
 e ax  ebx  tan x  ae ax  bebx  sec 2 x a  e0  b  e0  sec2 0 a  b  1
lim   lim
 x 0    a  b 1
x 0
 x  1 1 1

Ans13. Show that the function defined as

 sin 2 x
 when x  0
f  x   x
 1 when x  0
has removable discontinuity at x  0 .
Solution:
sin 2h sin 2h
lim f  0  h   lim  lim 2   2 1  2
h 0 h 0 h h  0 2h

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 sin  2h   sin 2h
lim f  0  h   lim  lim 2
h 0 h0h h
h0

 lim f  0  h   lim f  0  h   f  0 
h 0 h0

 f  x  has a removable discontinuity at x  0 .

Ans14. Evaluate
 x2  4
 , x2
lim f  x  , where f  x    x  2
x2
 , x2

Solution:
2  h  4  0 2  2  h 
2

lim f  x   lim f  2  h   lim  lim 4

x  2 h 0 h 0  2  h   2 0 h0 1
2  h  4 ; 0
2

lim f  x   lim f  2  h   lim

x  2 h 0 h0 2h2 0
22  h
 lim 4
h0 1
 lim f  x   4
x 2

Ans15. Let the function f defined by

 0, for t  0

f  t    t , for 0  t  1
 4, for t  1

x
(i) Determine the function F  x   0 f  t  dt
(ii) Where is F non-differentiable? Justify your answer.
Solution:
x
(i) F  x   0 f  t  dt ....(1)
Differentiating (1) w.r.t. x under the sign of integration by Leibnitz Rule
x        
F '  x     f  t   dt    x  f  x     0  f  0 
0 t
   x   x 
x
F '  x    f '  t  dt  f  x   0
0

F '  x   f  x   f 0  f  x 
F ' x    f 0
F '  x   0  F  x  = constant
(ii)  F  x  is a constant function. So it is differentiable for all real values of x
in the given domain.

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Ans16. Let f be a function defined on  such that f  x  y   f  x   f  y  ,
x, y   . If f is differentiable at one point of  , then prove that f is differentiable
on  .
Solution:
Let if f  x  is differentiable at x  0 and f '  0   1 . (Note: Here may take any
other point x   and can take f '     )
 given f  x  y   f  x   f   y  for x  y ; f  2 x   2 f  x 
Not working like the question f  x  y   f  x   f  y  Question.

Method (II): Let f  x  is differentiable at x   and value of f '  x  at x   is n.

i.e. f '    n ....(1)
 Given f  x  y   f  x   f  y  ; x, y  
Now let's check differentiability of f  x  at some arbitrary real number C.
f  x  f c
f '  c   lim
x c xc
f c  h  f c 
Rf '  c   lim
h0 h
f c  f h  f c 
 lim [using (2)]
h 0 h
f h
 lim
h 0 h
f c  h  f c
Lf '  c   lim
h 0 h
f  c   h    f  c 
 lim
h0 h
f  c   f  h   f  c 
 lim
h 0 h
f  h 
 lim
h 0 h
Now if we are able to show f   h    f  h  ; then Rf '  c  and Lf '  c  will be
equal.
given f  x  y   f  x   f  y 
 for x  y ; f  2 x   2 f  x 

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

  x
 1 if x  1
 2
Asn17. Let f  x     1 if 1  x  2
x
 2
 x
  1 if 2  x
 2
What are the points of discontinuity of f, if any? What are the points where f is
not differentiable if any? Justify your answers.
Solution:
Probable points of discontinuity of f  x  are x  0, x  1 and x  2 .
At x  0
0h h
lim f  0  h   lim  1  lim  1  1
h 0 h 0 2 h 0 2

h
lim f  0  h   lim   1  lim1  1
h 0 h 0 2 h 0

0
f  0   1  1
2
 f  0  h   f  0  h   f  0   f  x  is continuous at x  0 .
At x  1
1 h 1
lim f 1  h   lim  1  lim  1  3 2
h 0 h 0 2 h  0 2
1 h 1 h
lim f 1  h   lim  1  lim 1  3 2
h 0 h 0 2 h  0 2
1
f 1   1  3 2
2
 f 1  h   f 1  h   f 1  f  x  is continuous at x  1
at x  2 :
 2h
lim  2  h   lim  1  1  1  0
h 0 h 0 2
lim  2  h   lim
 2  h 1  1 1  2
h 0 h0 2
 lim f  2  h   lim f  2  h 
h 0 h0

 f  x  is not continuous at x  2
For differentiability:
 at x  2 ; function is not continuous so it is not differentiable at x  2 .
At x  1 :
 1 h 
  1  3 2
f 1  h   f 1 2
Rf ' 1  lim  lim   1 2
h0 h h  0 h

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

  1 h 
  1  3 2
f 1  h   f 1 2
Lf ' 1  lim  lim  
h 0 h h 0 h
1 h 
  1  3 2
 2 
 lim 1 2
h0 h
Clearly Rf ' 1  Lf ' 1
 f  x  is differentiable at x  1 .

Ans18. Obtain the values of the constants a, b and c for which the function
defined by

 sin  a  1 x  sin x
 ; x0
 x
f  x   c; x0

 
1 1
 x  bx 2 2  x 2
 3
; x0
 bx 2
is continuous at x  0 .
Solution:
 sin  a  1 h    sinh  sin  a  1 h  sinh
lim f  0  h   lim  lim
h 0 h 0 h h 0 h
sin  a  1 h sinh sin  a  1 h
 lim  lim   a  1  lim 1
h 0 h h 0 h h  0  a  1 h
  a  1 1  1  a  2

 h  bh 
1 1 1
2 2
h 2
1  bh  2
1
lim f  0  h   lim  lim
h 0 h0
bh 2
3
h 0 bh
1 11 
1  bh    1 b 2 h 2  ....  1
2 2 2  1
 lim   0  0...  1 2
h0 bh 2
 Given that f  x  is continuous at x  0
1
 f  0  h   f  0  h   f  0  for h  0   a  2  C  a  3 2 , C  1 2 and b is
2
arbitrary.
Chapter-2 Rolle's and Mean Value Theorems

Introduction

Rolle's theorem and MVTs are some of the most useful developments in
calculus.

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Lagrange's MVT provoked many mathematicians of eighteenth century to work
on it.
Cauchy's MVT and Taylor's theorem are some of the important results of efforts
made in this direction.
The present chapter is devoted to these theorems.

Rolle's Theorem
Statement: If f  x  is a function defined in [a,b] such that
(i) f  x  is continuous in the closed interval  a, b  .
(ii) f  x  is differentiable in the open interval  a, b 
(iii) f  a   f  b 
Then there exists at least one point c   a, b  such that f '  c   0 . Note here c is
between a and b.
Exam Point- Basically Rolle’s theorem talks about a point where value of the
derivative of the function is zero. In other words, it gives root of derivative of
the function in between of some fixed points.
Note- The discussion below as proof or interpretation helps you in refining your
understanding about definitions. No need to remember the proof but atleast you
must have an analytical look over it.
Proof: If f  x  = constant, then
f '  x   0 for all x   a, b 
So let us assume that f  x  is not a constant function.
 f  a   f  b  , f  x  should either increase or decrease when x takes values
slightly greater than a.
For definiteness, suppose it increases.
 It again takes the value f  b   f  a  , it must cease to increase and begin to
decrease at some point c   a, b  . Evidently 'c' cannot be equal to a or b.
 c   a, b 
Further, the value of f  x  is maximum at x  c , and so
f c  h  f c
f c  h  f  c  0  0 ....(1)
h
and
f c  h  f c
f c  h  f c  0  0 ....(2)
h
Where h is any positive number such that c  h, c  h   a, b  .

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 y  x y

f  a   f b  

 
a ch ch b x x

From (1) and (2)

Rf '  c   0 and Lf '  c   0
 f '  c   0 and f '  c   0
 f '  c   Rf '  c   Lf '  c  as f is differentiable at c  f '  c   0

Geometrical interpretation of Rolle's theorem

Geometrical interpretation of the result f '  c   0 of Rolle's theorem is that under
the given conditions there is at least one point c   a, b  such that the tangent at
the point  c, f  c   is parallel to the x-axis.

a b x

It is clear from the above figure that f '  x  may vanish at more than one point.

Note

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 

i  ii   iii 
f  a   f b  f  a   f b f  a   f b
but f is not continuous f is continuous but f is
at c   a, b  not differential at c   a, b 

All of the above figures demonstrate that the result f '  c   0 of Rolle's theorem
may not be holded if any one of three conditions is not satisfied.

Lagrange's MVT

Introduction: Lagrange's MVT is one of the most powerful tools in Differential

calculus.
This theorem also known as the "Mean Value theorem of the first order" or
simply MVT.

Statement:
If f  x  is a function defined in [a, b] s.t
(i) f is continuous in  a, b 
(ii) f is differential in  a, b 
then there exists at least one point c   a, b  s.t
f b   f  a 
f 'c 
ba
Proof: Consider the function  defined by   x   f  x   kx , x   a, b  where k is
any constant.
 f is differential and continuous in  a, b  and  a, b  respectively
 is too.
Also,
 a  f a  k a
 b   f b   k b 
k ba
If we choose k such that   a     b 

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

then  satisfies all conditions of Rolle's theorem.
Hence  at least one c   a, b  s.t  '  c   0 i.e. f '  c   k  0  f '  c    k
f b   f  a 
f 'c 
ba

Another form of MVT:

If f is continuous in  a, a  h  and differentiable in  a, a  h  , then  at least one
point c  a  Qh , 0  Q  1   a, a  h  s.t
f a  h  f a
 f '  a  Qh 
h

Geometrical interpretation of MVT:

f b   f  a 
 is the slope of the chord AB, Geometrical interpretation of
ba
Lagrange’s MVT is that under the given condition there is at least one point
c   a, b  such that the tangent at the point  c, f  c   is parallel to the chord AB.

In particular if f  a   f  b  , then
f 'c   0
B

y AB || PT
A

 P

a c b x

Cauchy's Mean Value Theorem

Cauchy generalized Lagrange's MVT with two functions defined on the same
interval as below:
Statement
If two functions f  x  and g  x  are defined in [a,b] s.t
(i) Continuous in the closed interval  a, b 
(ii) Differentiable in  a, b 
(iii) g '  x   0 x   a, b 
Then there exists at least one point c   a, b  such that

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 f b  f  a  f 'c

g b  g a  g 'c

Proof: Obviously, g  a   g  b  , for otherwise g would satisfy all condition of

Rolle's theorem and so g '  p   0 for some p   a, b  , thus contracting the (iii).

Now consider the function   x  defined by

  x   f  x   kg  x  , x   a, b 
where k is any constant.

In view of (i) and (ii),   x  is continuous in  a, b  and differentiable in  a, b  .

Let us choose k such that   a     b 
i.e. f  a   kg  a   f  b   kg  b 
 f b   f  a  
 k  
 g  b   g  a  
 
Now   x  satisfies all the condition of Rolle's theorem. Hence there exists at
least one point
c   a, b  s.t.  '  c   0
i.e. f '  c   kg '  c   0
f 'c  f b   f  a 
i.e.  k 
g 'c g b   g  a 
Note: Lagrange's MVT follows by taking g  x   x in the above theorem.
Another Form of Cauchy's MVT
If f and g continuous in  a, a  b and differentiable in  a, a  b  and g '  x   0 for
all x   a, a  b  , then there exists at least one point c  a  Qh , where 0  Q  1 , s.t
f  a  b  f a  f '  a  Qh 

g  a  b  g  a  g '  a  Qh 

Generalized Mean Value Theorem

Statement
Let f , g , h be three functions defined on  a, b  such that all of them are
(i) Continuous in  a, b 
(ii) Differentiable in  a, b 
Then there exists at least one point c   a, b  such that

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 f 'c  g 'c h 'c
f a g a h a  0
f b g b h b
Proof: Consider the function   x  defined by
f  x g  x h  x
  x   f  a  g  a  h  a  , x   a, b 
f b g b h b
i.e.   x  is of the form k , f  x   k2 g  x   k3h  x 
so continuous in  a, b  and differential in  a, b 
Further   a     b   0
Thus  satisfies all condition of Rolle's theorem
  'c  0
Note:
(1) Cauchy's M.V.T. is a particular case of above theorem h  x   1 .
(2) Lagrange's MVT is a particular case of the above theorem g  x   x and
h  x  1

Now we’ll learn about different outcomes from Lagrange’s MVT which are
very important for exam.

Corollary 1: If a function f is continuous in  a, b  and differentiable in  a, b  and

if f '  x   0 for all x   a, b  , then f is a constant function on  a, b  .
Proof: Let  be any point in  a, b  . Then f is continuous in  a, p  and differential
in  a, p  . Therefore by MVT there exists at least one point c   a, p  s.t
f  p   f  a    p  a  f 'c 
and so f  p   f  a   0
Thus f  p   f  a 

Corollary 2: If two functions f and g are continuous in  a, b  such that

f '  x   g '  x  for all x   a, b  , then f  x  and g  x  differential by a constant
only.
Proof: Consider the function  defined by
  x   f  x   g  x  , x   a, b 
 f , g continuous and differential. So is 
 '  x   f '  x   g '  x   0 , x   a, b 
Hence from corollary (1),   x  is constant.

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Corollary 3: If f is continuous in  a, b  and differential in  a, b  , then f is
increasing or decreasing according as f '  x   0 or f '  x   0 for all x   a, b 
Proof: Let x1 and x2 be any two distinct points in  a, b  such that x1  x2 and so
 x1 , x2    a, b  . Then f is continuous in  x1 , x2  and differential in  x1 , x2  .
So by Lagrange's MVT there is a point
c   x1 , x2  s.t
f  x2   f  x1    x2  x1  f '  c 
Now  x2  x1  0 , it follows that f  x2   f  x1  if f '  c   0 .
Hence f is increasing or decreasing according as f '  x   0 or f '  x   0 ,
x   a, b 

Monotonic property and Concavity

Topics: Increasing, decreasing, monotone, concave up, concave down.

Definition (1): A real valued function f defined on an interval J is increasing on

J if f  a   f  b  whenever a, b  J and a  b . It is strictly increasing on J if
f  a   f  b  whenever a, b  J and a  b . The function f is decreasing on J if
f  a   f  b  whenever a, b  J and a  b . It is strictly decreasing on J if
f  a   f  b  whenever a, b  J and a  b .

Definition (2): f : A   where A   . The function f has a local (or

RELATIVE) MAXIMUM at a point a  A if there exists r  0 such that
f  a   f  x  whenever x  a  r and x  domf .

It has a LOCAL (or RELATIVE) MINIMUM at a point a  A if there exists

r  0 such that f  a   f  x  whenever x  a  r and x  domf . The point a is
relative extremism of f if it is either a relative maximum or relative minimum.

Note:
The function f : A   is said to attain a maximum at a if f  a   f  x  for all
x  domf .
This is often called a GLOBAL (or ABASOLUTE) MAXIMUM.
It is clear that every global maximum is also a local maximum but not vice
versa.

Definition (3):

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

A real valued function f defined on an interval J is concave up on J if the chord
line connecting any two points  a, f  a   and  b, f  b   on the curve (where
a, b  J ) always lies on or above the curve. It is concave down if the chord line
always lies on or below the curve.

Note:
A point on the curve where the concavity changes is a POINT OF
INFLECTION when f is twice differentiable.
It is concave up on J if and only if f "  c   0 for all c  J and is concave down
on J if and only if f "  c   0 for all c  J .

Tracing of graphs

Facts and definitions:

(1) If the first derivative f' is positive, then the function is increasing ()
(2) If f' is negative, then function is decreasing ()
(3) If f" is +ve, then the function is concave up   
(4) If f" is -ve then the function is concave down   

Taylor's Theorem

(i) Taylor's theorem with Lagrange's form of remainder.

Statement:
If f is a function defined in  a, a  b  such that all the derivatives up to  n  1 th
are continuous in  a, a  h  and f  n 1 is differentiable in  a, a  h  , then
h2 nn 1 nn  n
f  a  h   f  a   hf '  a   f "  a   ......  f  n 1  a   f  a  Qh  , where
2!  n  1! n!
0  Q 1
Proof: Consider the function  defined on  a, a  h  by
a  h  x
2

  x  f  x  a  h  x f ' x  f "  x   ....

2!
a  h  x a  h  x
n 1 n

 f  n 1
 x  k ....(1)
 n  1 ! n!
where k is a constant to be determined such that   a  h     a 
Subjecting (1) to their condition
h2 h n 1 nn
f  a  h   f  a   hf '  a   f "  a   ....  f  n 1  a   k ....(2)
2!  n  1! n

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Now, by hypothesis, all f ', f ",...., f n 1 are continuous in  a, a  h  and differential
in  a, a  h  .
Also  a  h  x  ,  a  h  x  ,......  a  h  x  , all being polynomials, are continuous
2 n

in  a, a  h  and differential in  a, a  h  .
Therefore by algebra of functions   x  is continuous in  a, a  h  and differential
in  a, a  h  by Rolle's theorem.
 at least one point   a, a  h  such that  '  c   0 . This gives c  a  Qh ; 0  Q  1
.
Now differentiating (1) w.r.t. x, we get
 '  x   f '  x    a  h  x  f "  x   f '  x 
  a  h  x 2 
 f "'  x    a  h  x  f "  x    .....
2!
 
  a  h  x n 1  n   a  h  x   a  h  x
n2 n 1
 n 1 
 f  n  f x  k 
 
n  1 !  n  2 !   n  1!
a  h  x
n 1

 ' x 
 n  1!
 f    x   k
n

 other terms cancel in pairs.

when  '  a  Qh   0 gives
k  f  0  a  Qh 
Using this value of k in (2), we get the desired expansion of f  a  h  .

Note:
hn  n
The last term, f  a  Qh  is called Lagrange's form of remainder after n
n!
terms in Taylor's expansion of f  a  h  in ascending powers of h.
By taking h  x  a , we obtain another useful form of the above theorem. Thus
 x  a  x  a
2 n 1

f  x  f  a    x  a f ' a  f "  a   ....  f a

2!  n  1!
 x  a
n


n!
f
n
 a  Q  x  a  0Qi

 Lagrange's MVT is a particular case of the above theorem with n  1 .

 Taking n  2 , we obtain the following result which is known as the Mean
Value Theorem of the Second Order.

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Corollary 1: If f is a function defined on  a, a  h  such that f , f ' are continuous
in  a, a  h  and f ' is differentiable in  a, a  h  , then
h2
f  a  h   f  a   hf '  a  
f "  a  Qh  , 0  Q  1
2!
 Taking a  0 and h  x in the above theorem, we obtain the following result
which is known as Maclaurin's Theorem with Lagrange's form of
Remainder.

Corollary 2: If f is a function defined on  0, x  such that all the derivatives upto

 n  1 are continuous in  0, x  and f  n 1 is differentiable in  0, x  , then
th

x2 x n 1 xn  n
f  x   f  0   xf '  0   f "  0   .... ....  f  n1  0   f  Qx 
2!  n  1! n!
where 0  Q  1

The following theorem is known as Taylor's Theorem with Cauchy's form of

Remainder.

Theorem: If f is a function defined on  a, a  h  such that all the derivatives upto

 n  1 th are continuous in  a, a  h and f  n1 is differentiable in  a, a  h  , then
h2 h n1
f  a  h   f  a   hf '  a   f "  a   ....  f  n 1  a 
2!  n  1!
hn
1  Q  f  n   a  Qh 
n 1

 n  1!
where 0  Q  1

Proof: Consider the function  defined on  a, a  h  by

a  h  x
2

  x  f  x  a  h  x f ' x  f "  x   ....

2!
a  h  x
n 1

 f  n 1  x    a  h  x   k ....(1)
 n  1!
where k is a constant to be determined such that   a  h     a 
Subjecting (1) to this condition
h2 hn 1
f  a  h   f  a   hf '  a   f "  a   .....  f  n 1  a   h  k ....(2)
2!  n  1 !
All conditions of Rolle's theorem satisfied.
 at least one point c  a  Qh , where 0  Q  1 , such that  '  a  Qh   0
  '  x   f '  x    a  h  x  f "  x   f '  x 
..............  k

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 a  h  x
n 1

 f  n  x   k
 n  1!
[ other terms cancel in pairs]
  '  a  Qh   0 gives
 a  h  a  Qh 
n 1

f  n   a  Qh   k  0
 n  1!
h n 1
1  Q  f  n  a  Qh 
n 1
 k
 n  1!
Using this value of k in (2), we obtain the desired expansion of f  a  h  .

nn
1  Q  f  n  a  Qh  is called Cauchy's form of
n 1
Note: The last term
 n  1!
remainder after n terms in Taylor's expansion of f  a  h  is ascending powers of
h.

[Question they directly ask; Remainder after n terms]

 By taking h  x  a , we obtain
 x  a  x  a
2 n 1

f  x  f a    x  a f 'a  f "  a   ....  f  n 1  a 

2!  n  1!
 x  a  1  Q n1  f  n a  Q, k  a where
n

     0  Q 1
 n  1!
 Taking a  0 and h  x in the above theorem we obtain Maclaurin's theorem
with Cauchy's form of remainder.

Corollary: If f is a function defined on  0, x  such that all the derivatives upto

 n  1 th are continuous in  0, x  and f  n1 is differentiable in  0, x  , then
x2 x n 1 xn
f  x   f  0   xf '  0   f "  0   ....  f  n 1  0   1  Q  f  n  Qx 
n 1

2!  n  1!  n  1 !
where 0  Q  1

Note: The above two theorems provide the so called Taylor's development of a
function in finite form.

The following theorem gives a necessary and sufficient condition under which a
function can be expanded as an infinite series known as Taylor's series.

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Theorem 3:
The series in
 x  a  x  a
2 n 1

f  x  f  a   x  a f 'a  f "  a   ...  f  n1  a   ....

2!  n  1!
represents f  x  for those values of x, and those only, for which the remainder
after n terms in Taylor's theorem with Lagrange's form of remainder
 x  a
n

Rn  x   f n  a  Q  x  a  , 0  Q  1
 n  1!
approaches zero as n tends to infinity.

Proof: From Taylor's theorem with Lagrange's form of remainder, we have

f  x   S n  x   Rn  x  ....(1)
where Sn  x  is the sum of the first n terms and Rn  x  is the remainder after n
terms.

Let x0 be a value of x such that lim Rn  x0   0 . Then from (1), we have

n 

f  x0   lim S n  x0   lim Rn  x0   lim S n  x0 

n  n  n 

Conversely,
if f  x0   lim Sn  x0  , then it follows that
n 

lim Rn  x0   0 . Hence, the theorem.

n 

Putting a  0 , we have following result.

Corollary:
x2 x n 1
f  x   f  0   xf '  0   f "  0   ....  f  n 1  0   .....
2!  n  1!
represents f  x  for those values of x, and those only, for which the remainder
after n terms in Maclaurin's theorem with Lagrange's form of remainder
x n  n
Rn  x   f  Qx  ; 0  Q  1
n!
approaches zero as n tends to infinity.
The infinite series in this result called Maclaurin's series.

Power Series:
The series


a x
n0
n
n
 a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  .....

where a0 , a1 , a2 ,..... are constants, is called a power series.

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Some Standard Power Series
Recall
Remainder after n terms:
 xn  n
 f  Qx  ; Lagrange's form
 n!
Rn  x    n
 x 1  Q   f    Qx  Cauchy's form
n 1 n

  n  1 !
1. Exponential Series
Let f  x   e x ; x   so that f  0   e0  1 . Then f  n   x   e x , x  
Also Lagrange's form of remainder is
x n n xn
Rn  x   f  Qx   eQx ....(1)
n! n!
To find lim Rn  x  , we first set
n 

x n
x n 1
un  , un 1 
n!  n  1!
u x
and therefore n  ,
un 1  n  1
 D'Alembert's ratio test
un
lim  0 , x  
x  un1
which shows that the series u n is convergent and so lim
n 
un  0 .
It follows from (1) that lim Rn  x   0
n 

 f  n   0   1 , n  
Using Maclaurins theorem, we have
x 2 x3
ex  1 x    .....
2! 3!

(2) The sine series

f  x   sin x , x  
f 0  0
 n 
f  n   x   sin  x   , x  
 2 
 Lagrange's form of Remainder
x n  n xn  n 
Rn  x   f  Qx   sin   Qx 
h! n!  2 
= 0  quantity oscillating between -1 and +1
=0
n
Now f  n   0   sin
2

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

f  0   1 , f "  0   0 , f "'  0   1 , f 
4
 0  0 , f  5  0   1,....
Using these values in Maclaurin's theorem,
We have
x3 x 5 x 2 n 1
  .......   1 
n 1
sin x  x   ........
3! 5!  2n  1!
3. The cosine series
4. Natural logarithm series
f  x   log 1  x 
f
n
 x    1  n  1!/ 1  x 
n 1 n

1  x  1

EXTREME VALUES (DEFINITIONS)

Let c be an interior point of the domain  a, b  of a function f.

Definition 1. The point c is said to be the stationary point and f  c  , the

stationary value of the function f if f '  c   0 .

Definition 2. The function f is said to have a maximum value (a maxima or a

maximum) at c if f  c  is the greatest value of the function in a small
neighbourhood c   , c    ,   0 of c.

1.1 A Necessary Condition for Extreme Values

Theorem 1. If f  c  is an extreme value of a function f then f '  c  , in case it
exists, is zero.

1.2 Investigation of the Points of Maximum and Minimum Values

c is a point of maximum value if the function changes from an increasing to a

decreasing function as x passes through c. Therefore, in case f is derivable, the
derivative changes sign from positive to negative as x passes through c.

Theorem 2. If c is an interior point of the domain of a function f and f '  c   0 ,

then the function has a maxima or a minima at c according as f "  c  is negative
or positive.

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Examples of Rolle’s theorem
Example 1: Verify Rolle's theorem for the following functions:
(i) f  x   2 x 3  x 2  4 x  2
(ii) f  x   x  x  3 e  x 2 in  3, 0
(iii) f  x    x  a   x  b  , where x   a, b  and m, n are positive integers.
m n

Solution:
(i) f  x  is a polynomial
 is continuous
 is differential
also f  x   0 gives
1
x 2

 2  2 x  1  0 i.e. x   2, 
2
Thus f  2   0  f   2   f  1 2 

Consider the interval   2, 2  .

 All the conditions of Rolle's theorem are satisfied in this interval.
 at least one c    2, 2  for which f '  c   0
 
Now f '  x   6 x 2  2 x  4
 6 x 2  2c  4  0
3c 2  c  2  0
c  1, 2
3
 both these points c  1, 2
3
belongs to   2, 2  , Rolle's theorem is verified.

Note: The interval   2, 2  can be broken up into two parts   2,   and

1
 2
 1 
  2 , 2  in each of which Rolle's theorem can be verified seperately.

(ii) f  x   x  x  3 e  x 2
1 2
f ' x  
2

x  x  6 e x 2
f' exists for all x   3, 0

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 f is differential in  3, 0
 f is continuous in  3, 0
Also, f  3  0  f  0 
 All condition of Rolle's theorem satisfied
 at least one x   3, 0  for which f '  c   0
Now
1 2
f ' x  0  
2
 
x  x  6 e x 2  0

 x  x  6  0  x  2,3
2

 c  2   3, 0 . Hence Rolle's theorem is verified.

(iii)  m and n are positive integers, on being expanded by Binomial theorem,

 x  a  and  x  b  are polynomials in x.
m n

So f  x  is differential and continuous in  a, b  further f  a   f  b   0

 All conditions of Rolle's theorem satisfied.
 at least one c   a, b  s.t f '  c   0
f ' x  0
  x  a  x  b  n  x  a   m  x  b   0
m 1 n 1

  x  a   x  b   m  n  x   na  mb   0
m 1 n 1

na  mb
 x  a, b,
mn
na  mb
Out of these values of x, is the only point which lies in the  a, b  .
mn
 In fact, it divides the interval  a, b  internally in the ratio m : n . Hence Rolle's
theorem is verified.

C1 C2 C
Example. If C0    ....  n  0 .Then C0  C1 x  C2 x 2  ...  Cn x n  0 has at
2 3 n 1
least one real root between 0 and 1.
Solution.
Exam Point -Try; intuition comes from Rolle’s theorem. But on which
function?? To solve such questions we need to consider a function by ourselves
which can give desired result. Considering such functions becomes easy game
once you practice enough number of questions. These examples in Rolle’s,

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

MVTs, Taylor’s will help you in commanding over such important category of
questions.
Let’s consider a function
C1 x 2 C2 x 3 C x n 1
f  x   C0 x    ...  n
2 3 n 1

 f  x  is polynomial  continuous in  0,1 and differentiable in  0,1

Also f  0   C0 x 0  C1 x02  ...  Cn x0n 1  0

C1 C2 C
f 1  C0  C1  12  C2  13  ...  Cn  1n 1  C0    ... n  0 in (1)
2 3 n 1
i.e. f  0   f 1  0

 f  x  satisfies all three conditions of Rolle’s theorem

 at least one point (real number) C   0,1 s.t

f ' C   0

 C0  C1C  C2C 2  ...  Cn C n  0

 f '  x   C0  C1 x  C2 x 2  ...  Cn x n

C is a real root of the equation C0  C1 x  C2 x 2  ...  Cn x n =0 between 0 and 1.

Example. Determine whether the function f  x   sec hx satisfies condition of

Rolle’s theorem for the interval  1,1 . If so then find all numbers C in  1,1
which satisfy the conclusion of Rolle’s theorem
Solution.
ei  e i ei  e i
sin   , cos  
2i 2

e  e  e  e 
cosh   , sinh  
2 2
2
 f  x   sec hx 
e  e x
x

Clearly f  x  is continuous in  1,1

 e x  e x  0 in  1,1

f  x  is differentiable in  1,1

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 2 2
f  1  1
, f 1  1 1  f  1  f 1
e e1
e e
All conditions of Rolle’s theorem are satisfied (yes)
2
C 
 at least one C   1,1 s.t f '  C   0   eC  e  C   0
 C
e  e 
2
 In  1,1 ; eC  e  C  0  0
 e  eC 
C

 eC  e C  0 [must be] eC  eC Possible only for C  0

 Required C  0
Example. Show that under suitable condition there exits at least one real
number where a    b
f a f b f a f '  
 b  a 
g a g b  g a g ' x

Solution.
Applying Rolle’s theorem on a function   x  s.t  '  x  can give required answer.

So let’s try to construct   x 

Let
f 'a f  x
 x  a f a f b 
  x  
g  a  g  x  b  a  g  a  g b

Now if (i) f  x  and g  x  are continuous in  a, b  then   x  will also be

continuous.
(ii) if f  x  and g  x  are differentiable in  a, b  then   x  will also be

differentiable in  a, b 

f a f  x
b  a  f  a  f a
  a    00  0
g  x g  x b  a g  x g  x

Similarly   b   0

i.e.   a     b 

   x  is continuous in [a, b]

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

  x  is differentiable in  a, b 

  a    b 

 All condition of Rolle’s theorem are satisfied in  a, b  by   x 

 at least one real number    a, b  s.t  '    0

1 f a f b  f a f b

 0
b  a  g  a  g b g  x g b 

Rough Work to construct 

1 f a f b  f a f 'a


b  a  g  a  g b g a g 'b 

and   a     b 
1 xa
To get , took x and to get   a     b  took
ba ba

Example. Let f :  be twice differentiable function with

f  0   1  f '  0   0

Then prove or disprove that f "  x   0 for some x   0,1

Solution.
 f  x  is twice differentiable

 f  x  is differentiable and f '  x  is also differentiable in 

Let’s think in  0,1 for f  x 

 f  x  is differentiable in (0,1) so also continuous in  0,1

Also given f  0   f 1

All conditions of Rolle’s theorem are satisfied
So there exists at least one point C   0,1 s.t
f ' C   0

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 Now let’s think in  0, C  for the function f '  x 

 f '  x  is differentiable in (0, C )

 f '  x  is continuous in  0, C 
Also f '  0   0  f '  C 

 All 3 conditions of Rolle’s are satisfied by f '  x  in [0, C ]  at least one

point are C1   0, C  s.t f "  C   0  f "  x   0 for some x   0,1

Examples of MVTs
Example: Discuss the applicability of Lagrange's MVT to the following
functions:
(i) f  x   1 x in  1,1
(ii) f  x   x 2 3 in  1,1

(i)

1
f  x 
x

f is not defined at x  0   1,1

 Lagrange's MVT not applicable.

(ii) The progressive derivative for f  x   x1 3 at x  0 ; does not exist finitely in

 1,1
(2) Hence Lagrange's MVT not applicable.
Example:
Let
 1
 x sin   ; x  0
f  x   x
 0; x0

Now find a point c in  1,1 if possible by Lagrange's MVT for g  x  where
g  x  f ' x
Solution:

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

g  x  is not continuous at x  0
 Lagrange's theorem not applicable.

11
Question: Find 'c' of the MVT if a  c  b , f  x   x 2  3 x  1 , where a   ,
7
13
b .
7
 f is a polynomial

so differential and continuous in   , 

1 13
 7 7
 by Lagrange MVT;  at least one c   a, b  s.t.
3  11 
f   f  
f b   f  a  7  7
f 'c    
ba 17  11 
 
7  7
 f ' x  2x  3
2c  3
1 1  11 13 
c  clearly    , 
7 7  7 7

1
Example: Find 'c' of Lagrange's MVT if f  x   x  x  1 x  2  ; a  0, b 
2
Solution:
Hint: On solving we get
1
c 21
6
1  1
But only c  1  21   0, 
6  2

Examples of Cauchy’s MVT

Example 1: Find c in Cauchy MVT if f  x   x  x  1 x  2  , g  x   x  x  2  x  3

defined in 0,  .
 2
Solution:
f, g are polynomials
1 3
f    f  0 0
f 'c f b  f  a   2 p
   
g 'c  g b  g  a  1 15
g    g 0 0
2 8
3c 2  6c  2 1 5  13
i.e. 2  i.e. c 
3c  10c  6 5 6

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 5  13
out of these two c  is valid.
6
Example2.Let us consider two functions. If in Cauchy's MVT we write.
1
(i) f  x   and g  x   x , then c is the geometric mean between a and b.
x
1 1
(ii) If f  x   and g  x   2 , the c is the harmonic mean between a and b.
x x
Solution.
Here if we considered that f  x  and g  x  are well defined in  a, b  then we may
proceed like:
At x  0, f  x  , g  x  will be tending to 
So a and b must be non-zero
(i)  f  x  and g  x  continuous in  a, b  , differentiable in (a, b)

 Cauchy’s MVT,  at least one C   a, b  s.t

1 3
f ' C   C 2
f b  f  a  a b
  2 
1

1 1
   b a 
g ' C  g b  g  a  1 32
2
C b a C  b a 
1 1
   C  ab  C g.m. of a, b .
C ab

Example3. The function f  x  is differentiable on the interval  a, b  , where

ab  0 . Show that the following equality

1 a b
 f  C   Cf '  C  holds for this function where C   a, b 
a  b f a f b 

Solution.
Let’s think:
Constructing some function   x  with the help of f  x  . But f  x  itself is not
given.
 Not by Rolle’s or Lagrange’s MVT
But we need to go other than those i.e. Cauchy’s MVT
 We need to construct two functions.

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 f  x 1
Let’s consider two functions; F  x   , G  x 
x x
Now let’s apply Cauchy’s MVT for F  x  and G  x  in  a, b 
 given ab  0  a  0, b  0

 F  x  , G  x  are well defined  x  0 

Also F  x  , G  x  are differentiable in  a, b   f  x  is differentiable [given]

 at least one point C   a, b  s.t

1 1
F ' C  F b   F  a  f 'C   2 f C  f b b  f a a
 C C 
   
G 'C  G b   G  a   1 1  1
C2 b a

Examples of Monotonic functions, properties, applications

Example:
f  x   x 3  3x 2
 f '  x   3x  x  2 
 f '  x   0 for x  0 and x  2
f '0 f '0
ve ve ve

x0 x2
f  0  0 f  2   4

 Now determine a sign chart for f"

 f "  6 x  6  6  x  1

 
f"
x 1
f 1  2

Now summarize the information from each of the sign chart from f'.
f is  for x  0 and x  2
f is  for 0  x  2
f has a relative maximum at x  0
f has a relative minimum at x  2
From f"
f is  for x  1
f is  for x  1

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Example: f  x   5
Example: f  x   x 2
f ' x  2x
 f "  x   2  0 so always concave up.
Example:
f  x   sin x  f '  x   cos x f "  x    sin x

For 0  x  for  2  x  
2
f '  x   0  f  x  is increasing f ' x  0
f " x   0  f  x  is decreases
 f  x  is concave down
 f " x   0
f  x  concave down
At x  0
 f  x  cos x & cos x is negative in second quadrant & 4th quadrant.
3
Now at   x  , f '  x   0 decrease
2
f "  x   0 , f  x  concave down ,  cos x is positive in 1st & 3rd quadrant

At xx
2
f '  x   0 increase f "  x   0 , f  x  concave down.

Trace:
f  x   sin x  sin 2 x
f '  x   cos x  2 cos 2 x
f "  x    sin x  4sin x

x 2x f  x
0 x  0  2x   +ve
4 2
  x    x 
4 2 2
  x  3
2 4   2x 
2

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 1
1
2

1
1
2
    3 
3  4
4 2 4 4 2

 1 
 0,  1  1, 0
 2 
1
1 
2

To trace the above graph we have to observe two things -

1st value of f  x  at some particular value of x.
2nd sign of f '  x  (  f' contains a term 2  cos 2x which will be dominating over
the other term cos x .
So we just observe if < x in first and fourth quadrant then f' will be positive
mean f  x  is increasing whereas if 2x is in 2nd & 3rd quadrant, f' is negative so f
is decreasing.
 The given function is periodic with the period 2 so we need to observe
above behaviour only in 0 to 2 and next it will be repeated.

Draw the graph of

1
(1) f  x   sin x  cos x (2) f  x   sin x  sin 2 x
2

f  x   sin x  cos x

3
9 4  5
7 4
4 4 4 2 x
2 3 3     3  3 7 9
2 4 4 2 4 2 4 4
2

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 A sin  2 T0 f 
Draw the graph of the function Hf  , where f  0,
f
A sin 0 0
H  f   H  0   form
0 0
sin x A sin  2 T0 f 
 lim  1 , lim  2T0  A2T0
x 0 x f  0 2 T0 f
1  1  1  1 
At f  , H    A  sin  2TT0  
8T0  8T0  
1  8 
8T0
8T 1
 0
 2

 0, 2AT0 

1
f 
2T0

f 0 1
f 
8T0
1
f 
4T0

Observation:
1. The sin x function take the fixed value between -1 and +1 and f is present in
the denominator so on increasing the value of f, the value of H will be
decreasing.
2. The function H will take positive & negative value both because it contain
sin x . sin function is positive for the angle in the 1st & 2nd quadrant but
negative in the 3rd & 4th quadrant.

H f

 0, 4AT0 
1 4T0

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 H f
 0,  T0 

1 6T0

Category 2 exponential graph:

ex  0,1
 0,1
e x


h  e  x h '  x   2 xe  t h '  x   4 x 2  e x  2  e x
2 2


 0,1 2
ex

x   x


1. Trace R  f   where ,  are non-negative
   2 f 
2 2


when f  0 f  x   2 , f  

at f   , f  x   0 , f  x   0

To trace R  f 
1
R at  &  is zero  0
2

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 the denominator of R  f  contains the term at square of f. So on taking the
minimum value of denominator (which will be for f  0 ), we will get the max
value of R.
R max at f  0 , R  f    

 R ' f     2   2  f
  2   2 f  
2 2

Clearly R '  f   0 if f  0
 R  f  is decreasing for f  0
R '  f   0 if f  0
 R  f  is increasing for f  0
2 f 

   2 f 
2 2

f  0, I  0
f   , I  
f , I 
To trace the graph of I  f  we just take the help of simple observations
I  0  0
I   0
I     0
I is positive for (-ve) values of f & I is (-ve) for (+ve) value of f. On
summarizing the above observation we can stretch the graph of I.
I

f 0 

1
Question: sin x  sin 2 x
2

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 1
1 1 

2 2 
1
 2
 1 1
  
3 2 2 2
2 9 4 5 4 3 4  2  4  4  2 3 4 5 7 2
4 4
1 1
 ,
2 2

1
2

1 1
 
2 2

Critical Points and Inflection Points

Example:
 x 2  2 x, x  2
 2
 x  2 x, 2  x  0
f  x   2
 x  2 x, 0  x  2
 2 x  4, x2

Before discussing critical points/inflection points; we need to check continuity

of f  x  at Junction points x  2 , x  0 , x  2
At x  2 ; lim f  x   lim f  x   f  2  it is ok f  x  is continuous.
x 2  x  2

Similarly we can see it - at x  0 , at x  2 .

Now

 2x  2 ; x  2
 2 x  2 ; 2  x  0

f ' x  
 2x  2 ; 0  x  2
 2 ; x2
Note:
Check for x  2 ;
lim f  x   2
x 2

lim f  x   2 , f' is discontinuous at x  2

x 2

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

(ii) Similarly we can check for x  2 get f '  x  is continuous.
(iii) Also at x  0 ; f '  x  is continuous

Now Critical Points:

[Stationary Points & Non-differentiable points]
2 x  2  0  x  1 But outside the domain
 Reject x  1
 2 x  2  0  x  1
2x  2  0  x  1
Critical points are x  1,1, 2
Point of maxima / minima where derivativef  x  changes its sign.
2; x  2
2 ; 2  x  0

f " x   
 2; 0 x2
 0 ; x2
Inflection points x  0 is an inflection point ( f " changes sign) but x  2 is
not an inflection point (at x  2 tangent non-existence or not differentiable)

f  x

 0,9

x2

 0, 1

.
Example. The equation x3  x  1  0 has exactly one real root. Prove or
disprove.
Solution.
Let f  x   x 3  x  1

 f '  x   3 x 2  1  0 for all real x

 f  x  is strictly increasing

Also;  f  0   03  0  1  1 Negative

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 f  2   23  2  1  9 Positive

and f  x  is a polynomial so it is continuous

 By Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT); f  x  will take all values between

negative to positive
f  x   0 also will be taken for some real x .

 f  x  is strictly increasing so f  x   0 will hold for exactly one real x

[Proved]

Example. The equation x19  x13  2 x7  3x3  2 x  5  0 has exactly one real root
prove or disprove?
f  x   x19  x13  2 x 7  3 x 3  2 x  5

 f '  x   19 x18  13 x12  14 x 6 9 x 2  2

 power of x in each term are even: each term  0  f '  x   0  f  x  is

strictly increasing
 f  x  is one-one ….(1)

 f  x  is continuous also f  0  is negative f  x  is positive for some values of x

 By IVT; f  x  will also take the value zero for at least one x ….(2)

On combining (1) and (2) we conclude

f  x   0 is possible for exactly one value of x

x x

Example. Let P  x         1 for all x   . Then prove or disprove that

5 12
 13   15 

P  x  is strictly decreasing for all x  

Solution.
x x
 5   12 
P  x       1
 13   13 

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 x x
5  5   12   12 
P '  x     log e      log e   ….(1)
 13   13   13   13 
d x

dx
 a   a x log e a

log e  is negative if 0    1

5
x

    0; x   
 13  
x 
 12  
   0 ' x    ….(2)
13
  
5 12 
 log e  0, log e  0
13 13 

Using (2) in (1), we get

P '  x   0 for all x  

P  x  is strictly decreasing for all x   [Proved]

Example . Show that log 1  x  lies between

x2 x2
x and x  , x  0
2 2 1  x 
 x2 
Solution- Consider f  x   log 1  x    x  
 2 
2
1 x
 f ' x   1  x    0, x  0
1 x 1 x
Hence, f  x  is an increasing function for all x  0 .
Also
f 0  0
Hence for x  0, f  x   f  0   0
Thus
x2
log 1  x   x  , for x  0
2
Similarly by considering the function
x2
F  x  x   log 1  x 
2 1  x 
it can be shown that

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 x2
log 1  x   x  , x  0
2 1  x 

Example. For n  2 let f n :    be a function given by f n  x   x 2 sin x . Then at

x  0 , f n has (i) local minima if n is odd. prove or disprove

(ii) local maxima if n is even. prove or disprove

Solution.
f  x   x n sin x

For local maxima / minima ; We need to observe sign of f '  x 

 f '  x   x n cos x  n  x n 1  sin x ….(ii)

Now  we want to check local maxima / minima at x  0
 So let’s observe the sign of f '  x  in

Left nbd of x  0 ; i.e. x  0

Right nbd of x  0 ; i.e. x  0
If n is even sign of f '  x  If n is odd

(+ve)(+ve) = _ve Sign of f '  x 

+ve (-ve) (-ve) =- ve
For x  0 +ve
f '  x  is positive for x  0 and positive f '  x  is –ve to +ve  x  0 is a local

for x  0 minima
No sign change in f '  x 

Example. By using the differentiation, show that tan x  x  sin x , x   0,  2 

Solution
Consider a function f  x   tan x  x ….(1)

 f '  x   sec 2 x  1  0 for x   0,  2   f  x  is increasing strictly

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 f  x   f  0  for x  0  tan x  x  tan 0  0 for x  0  tan x  x  0

 tan x  x for x  0 in  0,  2 

Now let’s consider another function g  x   x  sin x for x  0,  2

 g  x   1  cos x  0  g  x  is strictly increasing

 By definition g  x   g  0  for x  0

x  sin x  0  sin 0 for x  0

x  sin x for x  0 in  0,  2  ….(3)

 On combining (2) and (3) we get

tan x  x  sin x for x   0,  2

Example. Prove or disprove in  0,  2 

(i) cos x  cos  sin x 

1  x2
(ii)  log  2  x 
2
Solution.
We have used some fundamentals too
Let’s consider a function
f  x   x  sin x

 f '  x   1  cos x  0 for x   0,  2 

 f  x  is strictly increasing in the interval  0,  2

 By definition f  x   f  0  for x  0

x  sin x  0  sin 0 in  0,  2 

x  sin x  0 in  0,  2 

x  sin x in  0,  2 

 cos  x   cos  sin x  Hence Proved

Inequality reversed: On increasing x ; cos x decreases in  0,  2 

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

cos  , cos 
 
x   sin x

If get some relation between  and  then it will be easy to get relation
because cos  and cos 
   ?

   ?    
   ? 

Example. Prove or disprove in  0,  2 

(i) cos x  cos  sin x 

1  x2
(ii)  log  2  x 
2
Solution (ii):
1
If we consider f  x   log 1  x  then f '  x   which is not in inequality 
1  2x
so of no use
Let’s try other way

Can we show : log  2  x  

1  x   0? So let’s try
2

Consider f  x   log  2  x  
1  x  2

in  0, x 
2
1
 f ' x   x  0  x   0,  2  f  x  is strictly increasing in  0,  2 
2 x

 By definition f  x   f  0  for x  0

log  2  x 
1  x   log
2
1
  2  0 
2 2

 log  2  x  
1  x   0.69  0.5  0
2

Example. Let f :  1,1   be the function defined by f  x   x 2  e  

2
1 x

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Then show that
(i) f is decreasing in  1, 0 

(ii) f is increasing  0,1

(iii) f  x   1 has two solutions in  1,1

Solution.
1

f  x  x  e
2 1 x  2

1 1
1 x  2
2x 1 x  2

 f ' x   x2  e   2x  e
1  x  2 2

1 1
1 x  2
2x 1 x 2

f ' x  x  e
2
  2x  e
1  x  2 2

1
 
f '  x   2 xe
1 x  
2
x2 
 1

 1  x 
2 2


 f '  x   0 for x  0

(i)
 f  x  is decreasing in  1,0 

 f '  x   0 for x  0

(ii)  f  x  is increasing in  0,1

(iii)

f  x

 0,1

x  1 x2 0 x1 x
x 1

 f 0  0

f 1  

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 f  1  

Clearly x2 , x1 are two solution of f  x   1  f  x  is continuous.

Combined problems through considering a function

Example-1 Show that between any two roots of e x cos x  1 , there exists at least
one root e x sin x  1  0 .

2-If  and  be two functions derivable in  a, b  and   x  '  x    x   '  x   0

for any x in this interval, then show that between two consecutive roots of
  x   0 in  a, b  , there lies exactly one root of   x   0 .

3-If f :  a, b   R be continuous in  a, b  and derivable in  a, b  , where 0  a  b ,

show that for c   a, b  f  b   f  a   cf '  c  log  b a  .

Hints

Let f  x   e x cos x  1  0 , g  x   e x sin x  1  0

Method 1:- Let  and  one two real roots of f  x   0
 f    0 , f     0
Also f  x  is continuous in  ,   and differentiable in  ,  
 By Rolle’s theorem, there exists at least one real c   ,   such that
f 'c  0
 ec .sin c  e c cos c  0 . But it doesn’t fulfil the demand of question. So let’s
try another way.
Method 2:- Let a and b are two roots of e x cos x  1  0 . So
e a cos a  1  0  cos a  e a 0  0andeb cos b  1  0  cos b  e b  0 …(i)
Let’s consider a function f(x) which may give the desired function e x sin x  1
after differentiation. f ( x)  e  x  cos x
f (a )  e a  cos a, f (b)  e  b  cos b. both are equal (using i)
Clearly this function satisfies all conditions of Rolle’s theorem.
 f '( x)  e  x  sin x
c  (a, b) s.t. f '(c)  0  e  c  sin c  0  1  ec sin c  0
e x sin x  1  0
Therefore we have proved that between two roots of e x cos x  1  0 there is a root
of e x sin x  1  0 .

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Method 3:- f  x  and g  x  are two linearly independent functions, so by
sturm’s separation theorem ( f  x , g  x are differentiable linearly
independent so their Wronskian is non zero by the definition of linear
dependence)
 Between two consecutive roots of f  x  , there exists a exactly one roots
of f  x  .
Proof of sturm’s seperation theorem:
Let W  f , g  x   W  x  without loss of generality, we can suppose that
W  x  0 , W  x  0 .
Let x0 and x1 are two roots of f  x  i.e. f  x0   0 , f  x1   0
f  x g  x
 From W  x  
f ' x g ' x
f  x0  g  x0 
 W  x0  
f '  x0  g '  x0 
0 g  x0 

f '  x0  g '  x0 
 W  x0    f '  x0  . g  x0  and W  x1    f '  x1  . g  x1 
 x  x0 and x  x1 are two consecutive zeros of f  x  it caused f '  x1   0 .
Thus to keep W  x   0 we must have g  x1   0 .
We see this by observing that f '  x   0  x  x0 , x1  then f  x  would be
increasing (away from the x-axis) which would never lead to zero at
x  x1 , so for a zero to occur at x  x1 at most f '  x1   0 and it turns out
from then Wronskian that f '  x1   0 so somewhere in the interval  x0 , x1 
the sign of g  x  changed. By the intermediate value theorem them exists
x*   x0 , x1  such that g  x*   0 .
On the other hand, there can be only one zero in  x0 , x1  because
otherwise g  x  would have two zeros and there would be no zeros of
f  x  in between, and it was just proved that this is impossible.

2-Give  and  are differentiable in  a, b  .

Also given   x   '  x    x   '  x   0
  x   x
 0
 ' x  ' x

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

  Wronskian of  and   0 so   x  and   x  are linearly
independent function i.e.   x   k .   x  for constant k .
Let  and  are two roots of   x  in  a, b  i.e.     0 ,     such
that    .

Inequality type problems

x
Example- Show that  log 1  x   x for x  0
1  x 
Solution- consider a function f ( x)  log(1  x) over the interval [0,x]. So why we
have choosen such function ! interesting to notice . See basically we want to use
different outcomes learnt above in MVTs and at the same time the inequality
asked in the question is also directing us to consider such function.
Evidently this function is continuous in [0,x] and differentiable in (0,x). So on
applying Lagrange’s MVT on this function we get
f ( x)  log(1  x)
c  (0, x) s.t.
[ f ( x)  f (0)] / ( x  0)  f '(c)
 log(1  x)  log1 / x  1 / (1  c)
 log(1  x)  x / (1  c)
 0  c  x  x / (1  x)  x / (1  c)  x
 0  x / (log(1  x))  1  x
 1  x / (log(1  x))  (1  x)
 log(1  x)  x, x / (1  x)  log(1  x)

Q. 1. Show that
x3  6 x 2  15 x  3  0, x  0

Q.2. Show that

x
(i)  log 1  x   x, x  0
1 x
x
(ii)  tan 1 x  x, x  0
1 x 2

Q. 3. Show that
(i) tan x  x, 0  x   2
2 sin x
(ii)   1, 0  x   2
 x

Q. 4. Show that

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 1 x  x2 
2 x  log  2 x 1  , 0  x 1
1 x  3 1  x2
   


Q.5. Show that

2  2 x  1  log 1  1 x   1 x  x  1 , x  0

Example- Find Taylor’s Series expansion for the function

f  x   log 1  x  ,  1  x   about x  2 with Lagrange’s form of remainder after

3 terms.
Solution.
 Expansion around x  2  power of  x  2 

 a  2 and h  x  2

 x  2  x  2
2 3

 f  x   f  2   x  2  f ' 2 f " 2  f "'  2    x  2  


   2! 3!
  
Ist Term IInd Term
IIIrd Term Remainder term after 3terms where 0  1

 f  x   log 1  x   f  2   log 1  2   log 3

1 1
f ' x   f '  2 
1 x 1 2
1 1
f " x     f " 2  
1  x 
2
9

2 2
f "'  x     f " 2 
1  x  1  2 
3 3

Use all values in (1).

Examples of Maxima Minima
Example . Examine the function sin x  cos x for extreme values.
Solution- Let
f  x   sin x  cos x
f '  x   cos x  sin x
f "  x    sin x  cos x
f '  x   0 when tan x  1 , so that

x  n 
4
where n is zero or any integer.

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

  1    1   1 
f "  n      sin  n     cos  n    
 4    4   4 
n 1   
  1  sin  cos    1
n 1
2
 4 4
 sin  n      1n sin  and cos  n      1n cos  
 
Also f  n     sin  n     cos  n      1 2
1 1 1 n

 4   4   4 
When n is zero or an even integer, f "  n   4  is negative and therefore
1
x  n   makes f  x  a maxima with the maximum value 2.
4

When n is an odd integer, f "  n    is positive and therefore x  n  

1 1
 4  4
makes f  x  a minima with the minimum value 2 .

Examples on basic maxima minima but very important category of

questions for UPSC
Example 1. Find the shortest distance from the point 1, 0  to the problem

y2  4x

Example 2. Show that the maximum rectangle inscribed n a circle is square.

Example 3. A conical tent is of given capacity. For the least amount of canvas
required for it find out ratio of its height to the radius of its bare.
Solution 1. Let’s take some arbitrary point on given parabola as (at 2 , 2at ) and
finding distance between this arbitrary point and given point (1,0)

t  1   2t  0   p  t 4  2t 2  1  4t 2  p  t 4  2t 2  1   t 2  1
2 2 2
p 2

p   t 2  1  f  t 
2

For minimum p; dp / dt must be zero.   t 2  1  2t  0  t 2  1  0  t  i [Not

real]
 Minimum value of p   0  1  1 as t  0 [Possible]
2

Solution 2.  r 2  x 2  y 2  y 2  r 2  x 2  y  r 2  x 2 ….(1)

 Area of rectangle = 2 x  2 y  A  2 x  2 r 2  x 2  r constant

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 dA
For maximum Area ;  0  r  2 x ,  y  x from (1)  ABCD is a square.
dx

 s2   2r 2  r 2  h2 
 9V 2 
s 2   2 r 2   2 r 2  2 4  using h in V
 r 
2
9V
 s 2   2r 4  2
r
Let s 2  z
9V 2
 z   2r 4  2
r
dz 18V 2
  4 2r 3  3
dr r
2
d z 54V 2
 2
 12 2 r 2  4
dr r
Clearly z is maximum or minimum according as s is maximum or
minimum.
dz 18V 2
 Stationary point of z are given by  0  4 2r 3  3  0
dr r
 2  2r 6   2 r 4h 2
 h  2r
d2z 59V 2
  12  2 2
r   0 for all V and r .
dr 2 r4
h
 Required ration  2 /1
r
Assignment

1. Examine the validity of the hypothesis and the conclusion of Rolle's

Theorem.
(i). f  x   x3  4 x on  2, 2  .
(ii). f  x    x  a   x  b  , where m and n are positive integers on  a, b  ,
m n

f  x   1   x  1 on  0, 2 ,
23
(iii).
(iv). f  x   x on  1,1 ,
(v). f  x   1  x  1 on  0, 2

2. Examine the validity of the hypothesis and the conclusion of Lagrange's

Mean Value Theorem:
(i). f  x   x on  1,1

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 (ii). f  x   log x on  , 2
1
2 
 1
(iii). f  x   x  x  1 x  2  on 0,  ,
 2
(iv). f  x   x on  1,1 ,
13

(v). f  x   2 x 2  7 x  10 on  2,5 .

Assignment -

1. Expand, if possible, sin x in ascending powers of x.

2. Assuming the validity of expansion, show that

2 x 3 22 x 4 2 2 x 5
(i). e x cos x  1  x     ....
3! 4! 5!
1 1
(ii). log sec x  x 2  x 4  ....
2 12
  x   4
2
 x  4
(iii). tan 1 x  tan 1    ....
4 1   2 16 4 1   2 16 2  
 1   2
 3

(iv). sin      1      .... 
4  2 2! 3! 
 x  a  x  a   x  a 3  x  a   x  a v  x  a 
5

(v). f  x   f  a   2  f '   f "'    f    ....
 2  2  8   3 !  2  32  5  !  2  

3. Use Taylor's theorem to show that

x2
(i). cos x  1  , for all real x.
2
x3
(ii). x   sin x  x , for x  0
6
x3 x3 x 5
(iii). x   sin x  x   , x  0
6 6 120
x2 x2
(iv). 1  x   e x  1  x  e x , x  0
2 2

4. If 0  x  2 , then prove that

 x  1  x  1  x  1
2 3 4

log x   x  1     ....
2 3 4
Assignment

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 2 3
1) Show that the maximum value of the function  x  1 x  2  x  3 is at
9
1
x  2 .
3
2) Show that x5  5 x 4  5 x3  1 has a maxima at x  1 and a minima at x  3 and
neither at x  0 .
3) Find the maximum and the minimum as well as the greatest and the least
value of x3  12 x 2  45 x in the interval  0, 7  .
[Hint: For greatest and least values, find f  3 , f  5  , f  0  and f  7  ]
4) Find the maximum or minimum of
x4
 x  1 x  3
3

Show that the maximum value of 1 x  is e1 e .

x
5)
6) Show that the maximum value of  log x  x in 0  x   is 1 e .
7) Show that sin x 1  cos x  is maximum at x   3 .
If  x  a   x  b  , where m and n are positive integers, is the derivatives
2n 2 m 1
8)
of a function f, then show that x  b gives a minimum but x  a gives
neither a maximum nor a minimum.
9) Show that the semi-vertical angle of a cone of maximum volume and of
given slant height is tan 1 2 .
10) Show that the volume of the greatest cylinder which can be inscribed in a
cone of height h and semi-vertical angle  is  4 27   h3 tan 2  .
11) Show that the height of the cylinder of maximum volume that can be
inscribed in a sphere of radius a is 2a 3 .

ANSWERS

3. Max 54, min 50, greatest 70, least 0

6
4. Max at , min at x  0
5

PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS UPSC CSE/IFoS

(Years 2010 onwards)

ROLL'S, LAGRANGE'S, CAUCHY'S AND TAYLOR'S THEOREM

Q1 Edited(d) Show that between any two roots of e x cos x  1 , there exists at
least one root e x sin x  1  0 .
[UPSC CSE 2021]

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 1 1 
Q2 Edited(a) Does f  x   x  in  ,3 satisfy the conditions of the mean
x 2 
value theorem? If yes, then justify your answer and find c   a, b  such that
f b  f a   1 
f 'c    a  , b  3  . [IFoS 2021]
ba  2 

IFoS 2020 Q1. Find the Taylor's series expansion for the function
f  x   log 1  x  , 1  x   , about x  2 with Lagrange's form of remainder after
3-terms.
IFoS 2019 Q2. Justify by using Rolle's theorem or mean value theorem that
there is no number k for which the equation x3  3x  k  0 has two distinct
solutions in the interval  1,1 .
IFoS 2018Q3. If f :  a, b   R be continuous in  a, b  and derivable in  a, b  ,
where 0  a  b , show that for c   a, b  f  b   f  a   cf '  c  log  b a  .
IFoS 2018 Q4. If  and  be two functions derivable in  a, b  and
  x  '  x    x   '  x   0 for any x in this interval, then show that between two
consecutive roots of   x   0 in  a, b  , there lies exactly one root of   x   0 .
IFoS 2017 Q5. Using the Mean Value Theorem, show that
(i) f  x  is constant in  a, b  , if f '  x   0 in  a, b 
(ii) f  x  is a decreasing function in  a, b  , if f '  x  exists and is  0 everywhere
in  a, b  .
x
IFoS 2016 Q6. Show that  log 1  x   x for x  0
1  x 
IFoS 2016 Q7. Using mean value theorem, find a point on the curve y  x  2 ,
defined on  2, 3 , where the tangent is parallel to the chord joining the end points
of the curve.
CSE 2014 Q8. Prove that between two real roots of e x cos x  1  0 , a real root of
e x sin x  1  0 lies.
IFoS 2013Q9. Find C of the Mean value theorem, if
1
f  x   x  x  1 x  2  , a  0, b 
and C has usual meaning.
2
IFoS 2013 Q10. Prove that if a0 , a1 , a2 ,...., aa are the real numbers such that
a0 a a a
 1  2  ......  n1  an  0 then there exists at least one real number x
n  1 n n 1 2
between 0 and 1 such that a0 x n  a1 x n1  a2 x n 2  ....  an1 x  an  0 .
CSE 2011 Q11. Let f be a function on  such that  f  0   3 and f '  x   5 for
all values of x in  . How large can f  2  possibly be?

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

CSE 2010 Q12. A twice-differentiable function f  x  is such that
f  a   0  f  b  and f  c   0 for a  c  b . Prove that there is at least one point
 , a    b , for which f "    0 .
IFoS 2010Q13. Prove that between any two real roots of e x sin x  1 , there is at
least one real root of e x cos x  1  0 .
CSE 2009Q14. Suppose that f " is continuous on 1, 2 and that f has three zeros
in the interval 1, 2  . Show that f " has at least one zero in the interval 1, 2  .
h2
IFoS 2009 Q15. If f  h   f  0   hf '  0   f "  h  0    1
2!
Find  , when h  1 and f  x   1  x  .
52

2. MAXIMA- MINIMA
CSE 2020 Q1. Consider the function f  x   0  t 2  5t  4  t 2  5t  6  dt
x

(i) Find the critical points of the function f  x 

(ii) Find the points at which local minimum occurs
(iii) Find the points at which local maximum occurs
(iv) Find the number of zeros of the function f  x  in  0,5
CSE 2019 Q2. Find the maximum and the minimum value of the function
f  x   2 x 3  9 x 2  12 x  6 on the interval  2,3 .
CSE 2018 Q3. Find the shortest distance from the point 1,0  to the parabola
y2  4x .
IFoS 2018 Q4. Show that the maximum rectangle inscribed in a circle is a
square.
CSE 2015Q5. A conical tent is of given capacity. For the least amount of
Canvas required, for it, find the ratio of its height to the radius of its base.
CSE 2014 Q6. Find the height of the cylinder of maximum volume that can be
inscribed in a sphere of radius a.
IFoS 2009Q7. Find the difference between the maximum and the minimum of
the function  a   x   4  3x 2  where a is a constant and greater than zero.
1
 a 
IFoS 2008 Q8. A wire of length b is cut into two parts which are bent in the
form of a square and a circle respectively. Find the minimum value of the sum
of the areas so formed.

Solutions(hints)

1. Model to solve PYQ1 Edited, PYQ8 PYQ13, PYQ4

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Let f  x   e x cos x  1  0 , g  x   e x sin x  1  0
Method 1:- Let  and  one two real roots of f  x   0
 f    0 , f     0
Also f  x  is continuous in  ,   and differentiable in  ,  
 By Rolle’s theorem, there exists at least one real c   ,   such that
f 'c  0
 ec .sin c  e c cos c  0 . But it doesn’t fulfil the demand of question. So let’s
try another way.
Method 2:- Let a and b are two roots of e x cos x  1  0 . So
e a cos a  1  0  cos a  e a 0  0andeb cos b  1  0  cos b  e b  0 …(i)
Let’s consider a function f(x) which may give the desired function e x sin x  1
after differentiation. f ( x)  e  x  cos x
f (a )  e a  cos a, f (b)  e  b  cos b. both are equal (using i)
Clearly this function satisfies all conditions of Rolle’s theorem.
 f '( x)  e  x  sin x
c  (a, b) s.t. f '(c)  0  e  c  sin c  0  1  ec sin c  0
e x sin x  1  0
Therefore we have proved that between two roots of e x cos x  1  0 there is a root
of e x sin x  1  0 .

Method 3:- f  x  and g  x  are two linearly independent functions, so by

sturm’s separation theorem ( f  x , g  x are differentiable linearly
independent so their Wronskian is non zero by the definition of linear
dependence)
 Between two consecutive roots of f  x  , there exists a exactly one roots
of f  x  .
Proof of sturm’s seperation theorem:
Let W  f , g  x   W  x  without loss of generality, we can suppose that
W  x  0 , W  x  0 .
Let x0 and x1 are two roots of f  x  i.e. f  x0   0 , f  x1   0
f  x g  x
 From W  x  
f ' x g ' x
f  x0  g  x0 
 W  x0  
f '  x0  g '  x0 
0 g  x0 

f '  x0  g '  x0 
 W  x0    f '  x0  . g  x0  and W  x1    f '  x1  . g  x1 

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 x  x0 and x  x1 are two consecutive zeros of f  x  it caused f '  x1   0 .
Thus to keep W  x   0 we must have g  x1   0 .
We see this by observing that f '  x   0  x  x0 , x1  then f  x  would be
increasing (away from the x-axis) which would never lead to zero at
x  x1 , so for a zero to occur at x  x1 at most f '  x1   0 and it turns out
from then Wronskian that f '  x1   0 so somewhere in the interval  x0 , x1 
the sign of g  x  changed. By the intermediate value theorem them exists
x*   x0 , x1  such that g  x*   0 .
On the other hand, there can be only one zero in  x0 , x1  because
otherwise g  x  would have two zeros and there would be no zeros of
f  x  in between, and it was just proved that this is impossible.

Hint edited pyq2

Yes f(x) satisfies Lagrange’s MVT. So on finding by solving the equation
f '(c)  ( f (3)  f (1/ 2)) / (3  1/ 2)

Ans1. Find Taylor’s Series expansion for the function

f  x   log 1  x  ,  1  x   about x  2 with Lagrange’s form of remainder after

3 terms.
Solution.
 Expansion around x  2  power of  x  2 

 a  2 and h  x  2

 x  2  f " 2   x  2  f "' 2   x  2
2 3

 f  x   f  2   x  2  f ' 2 
   2!
 
3!
  
Ist Term IInd Term   
IIIrd Term Remainder term after 3terms where 0  1

 f  x   log 1  x   f  2   log 1  2   log 3

1 1
f ' x   f '  2 
1 x 1 2
1 1
f " x     f " 2  
1  x 
2
9

2 2
f "'  x     f " 2 
1  x  1  2 
3 3

Use all values in (1).

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Ans2. Justify by using Rolles Theorem or mean value theorem that there is no
number k for which the equation x3  3x  k  0 has two district solution in
the interval  1,1
Sol:-   x   x 3  3 x  k
   x  is polynomial in x and so it is continuous and differential in  1,1
and  1,1 respectively.
Now let   x  has two roots (district) as  ,  in  1,1 i.e.     0 ,
    0
   x  is continuous in  ,     1,1
  x  is differentiable in  ,     1,1
Also        
 Rolle’s theorem is application for   x  in  ,   , so there exists at least
one root c   ,   such that  '  c   0
 3x 2  3  0  c 2  1
 c   1   ,     ,     1,1
This contradicts above explanation, so we can say that there exists no
such k for which   x  has two distinct roots in  1,1 .
* roots solutions

f  x

 0,9

x2

 0, 1

Ans3:- If f :  a, b   R be continuous in  a, b  and derivable in  a, b  , where

0  a  b show that for c   a, b 
f  b   f  a   c . f '  c  log  b / a 

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Sol:- Here the desired result indicates that   x   log  f  x  
 f  x  is continuous in  a, b  and so log  f  x   provided that log  f  x   is
well defined in  a, b  . Similarly if f  x  is derivable in  a, b  , so log  f  x  
.
 By Lagrange’s mean value theorem on   x  . There exist at least one
 b     a 
c   a, b  such that  '  c  
ba
f '  c  log  f  b    log  f  a  

f c b  a 
f b
log
f 'c f a

f c b  a 

Ans4:- Give  and  are differentiable in  a, b  .

Also given   x   '  x    x   '  x   0
  x   x
 0
 ' x  ' x
 Wronskian of  and   0 so   x  and   x  are linearly
independent function i.e.   x   k .   x  for constant k .
Let  and  are two roots of   x  in  a, b  i.e.     0 ,     such
that    .
Ans5 IFoS 2017Q5. Already we learnt in conceptual part Lagrange’s MVT
Hint. Corollary 1: If a function f is continuous in  a, b  and differentiable in
 a, b  and if f '  x   0 for all x   a, b  , then f is a constant function on  a, b  .
Proof: Let  be any point in  a, b  . Then f is continuous in  a, p  and differential
in  a, p  . Therefore by MVT there exists at least one point c   a, p  s.t.
f  p   f  a    p  a  f 'c 
and so f  p   f  a   0
Thus f  p   f  a 

Corollary 2: If two functions f and g are continuous in  a, b  such that

f '  x   g '  x  for all x   a, b  , then f  x  and g  x  differential by a constant
only.
Proof: Consider the function  defined by
  x   f  x   g  x  , x   a, b 
 f , g continuous and differential. So is 

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 '  x   f '  x   g '  x   0 , x   a, b 
Hence from corollary (1),   x  is constant.

Corollary 3: If f is continuous in  a, b  and differential in  a, b  , then f is

increasing or decreasing according as f '  x   0 or f '  x   0 for all x   a, b 
Proof: Let x1 and x2 be any two distinct points in  a, b  such that x1  x2 and so
 x1 , x2    a, b  . Then f is continuous in  x1 , x2  and differential in  x1 , x2  .
So by Lagrange's MVT there is a point
c   x1 , x2  s.t.
f  x2   f  x1    x2  x1  f '  c 
Now  x2  x1  0 , it follows that f  x2   f  x1  if f '  c   0 .
Hence f is increasing or decreasing according as f '  x   0 or f '  x   0 ,
x   a, b 

Ans6:- consider a function f ( x)  log(1  x) over the interval [0,x]. So why we

have choosen such function ! interesting to notice . See basically we want to use
different outcomes learnt above in MVTs and at the same time the inequality
asked in the question is also directing us to consider such function.
Evidently this function is continuous in [0,x] and differentiable in (0,x). So on
applying Lagrange’s MVT on this function we get
f ( x)  log(1  x)
c  (0, x) s.t.
[ f ( x)  f (0)] / ( x  0)  f '(c)
 log(1  x)  log1 / x  1 / (1  c)
 log(1  x)  x / (1  c)
 0  c  x  x / (1  x)  x / (1  c)  x
 0  x / (log(1  x))  1  x
 1  x / (log(1  x))  (1  x)
 log(1  x)  x, x / (1  x)  log(1  x)

Ans7:- y  x  2 defined on  2,3

 y is continuous in  2,3
y is differentiable in  2, 3
 by Lagrange’s MVT, there exist at least one c  2,3 such that
y  3  y  2 
y 'c 
3 2
1 0
y 'c 
1

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Also f  0   C0 x 0  C1 x02  ...  Cn x0n 1  0
C1 C2 C
f 1  C0  C1  12  C2  13  ...  Cn  1n 1  C0    ... n  0 in (1)
2 3 n 1
i.e. f  0   f 1  0

 f  x  satisfies all three conditions of Rolle’s theorem

 at least one point (real number) C   0,1 s.t

f ' C   0

 C0  C1C  C2C 2  ...  Cn C n  0

 f '  x   C0  C1 x  C2 x 2  ...  Cn x n

C is a real root of the equation C0  C1 x  C2 x 2  ...  Cn x n =0 between 0 and 1.

Ans11:- Given f  0   3 and f  x   5 for all x  .

If we take f '  x   5
 f  x   5 x  c where c is integration constant.
Using f  0   3 , we have from (1);
f  0   5  c
3  c (2)
Using (2) in (1), we have f  x   5 x   ,  x   where   3
 f  2   5 2  
f  2   10  
Now   can take any value greater than -3. Suppose if    then
f 2  
 Possible largest value for f  2  is 

Ans12:- Given f  x  is twice differentiable and f  a   0 , f  b   0 and f  c   0

for a  c  b . Prove that there is at least one point  , a    b for which
f "    0 .
 f  x  is differentiable and continuous in  a, b  also f  a   0  f  b 
 Rolle’s theorem is application for f  x  in  a, b 
 There exists at least one point    a, b  such that f '    0
(1)

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 Now let’s consider f '  x  in  , c 
 f ;  x  is continuous and differentiable in  , c 
 By Lagrange’s MVT, there exists a real number    , c  such that
f '  c   f '  
f "   
c 
f 'c
f "    (2)
c 
Notice that f  a   0 , f 1  0 and f  b   0 . It show s that f  x  has at least
for some   , c  is increasing function i.e.

Ans14:- f " is continuous on 1, 2

 f  x  is continuous in 1, 2
 & f  x  is differentiable in 1, 2
Also given f  x  has three zeros in 1, 2 
Let x0 , x1 , x2  1, 2  such that f  x0   0 , f  x1   0 , f  x2   0 such that
x0  x1  x2
 Applying Rolle’s theorem on f  x  in  x0 , x1   at least one point
c1   x0 , x1  such that f '  c1   0
(1)
 Applying Rolle’s theorem on f  x  in  x1 , x2   at least one point
c2  x1 , x2  such that f '  c2   0
(2)
 f ' is also continuous in 1, 2
f ' is also differentiable in 1, 2  and f '  c1   f '  c2  from (1) & (2)
  Applying Rolle’s theorem on f '  x  in  c1 , c2   at least one point
c  c1 , c2   1, 2  such that  f '  '  c   0
 f " c   0
 f "  x  but at least one zero in 1, 2 
x2
Ans15IFoS 2009 Q. If f  x   f  0   xf '  0   f  x 
2!

Find the value of  as x  1 , given f  x   1  x 

5
2

Solution.
f  x   1  x  2  f  0   1
5

5
f ' x  1  x  2  f '  0   5 2
3

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 5 3 15
f "  x    1  x  2  f "  x   1   x  2
1 1

2 2 4

By Taylor’s theorem: [Maclaurin’s, Lagrange’s form of remainder]

x2
f  x   f  0   xf '  0   f "  x 
2!
2
 5  x 15
1  x   1  x      1   x  x
5 1
2

 2 2 4

 5  15 x 2
 lim 1  x  2  lim 1  lim 1   x   lim 1 x 2
1 1

x 1 x 1 x 1
 2  x 1 
5 15  1
1    2
1
0  1 
2 
3 15
 1    2
1

2 
4 16
 1    2  1      9
1

5 25 25

MAXIMA MINIMA
Critical point : points (value of x ) for which derivative f '  x  becomes zero

then that value point is known as critical points for f  x  ; Stationary Point

Q. Consider the function f  x   0  t 2  5t  4  t 2  5t  6  dt

x

(i) Find critical point of f  x 

(ii) Find the points at which local minimum occurs
(iii) Find the points at which local maxima occurs
(iv) Find the number of zeros of f  x  in  0,5
Solution.
 We need to check sign of f '  x 

 f  x     t 2  5t  4  t 2  5t  6  dt
x

Differentiating w.r.t x by the Leibnitz of differentiation under the sign of

integration.

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

  2 
 t  5t  4  t 2  5t  8  dt   x 2  5t  4  x 2  5 x  6    x   0
x
f ' x  
0 x 

f '  x   0   x 2  5 x  4  x 2  5 x  6   0

 f '  x    x  1 x  4  x  3  x  2 

f '  x    x  1 x  2  x  3  x  4 

f '0 f '0 f '0 f '0

ve ve  ve ve ve
   

Sign chart of f '  x 

(i) x  1, 2, 3, 4 are critical point
(ii) x  1 is a point of local maxima
(iii) x  2 is a point of local minima
x  3 is a point of local maxima

x  4 is a point of local minima

(iv) Child like

Roots of f  x  i.e. valuer of x in  0,5 at when f  x   0
Possible only at x  0

HINT: PYQ 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12

Example 1. Find the shortest distance from the point 1, 0  to the problem

y2  4x

Example 2. Show that the maximum rectangle inscribed in a circle is square.

Example 3. A conical tent is of given capacity. For the least amount of canvas
required for it find out ratio of its height to the radius of its bare.
Solution 1. Let’s take some arbitrary point on given parabola as (at 2 , 2at ) and
finding distance between this arbitrary point and given point (1,0)

t  1   2t  0   p  t 4  2t 2  1  4t 2  p  t 4  2t 2  1   t 2  1
2 2 2
p 2

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

p   t 2  1  f  t 
2

For minimum p; dp / dt must be zero.   t 2  1  2t  0  t 2  1  0  t  i [Not

real]
 Minimum value of p   0  1  1 as t  0 [Possible]
2

Solution 2.  r 2  x 2  y 2  y 2  r 2  x 2  y  r 2  x 2 ….(1)

 Area of rectangle = 2 x  2 y  A  2 x  2 r 2  x 2  r constant

dA
For maximum Area ;  0  r  2 x ,  y  x from (1)  ABCD is a square.
dx

 s2   2r 2  r 2  h2 
 9V 2 
s 2   2 r 2   2 r 2  2 4  using h in V
 r 
9V 2
 s2   2r 4  2
r
Let s 2  z
9V 2
 z   2r 4  2
r
dz 18V 2
  4 2r 3  3
dr r
2
d z 54V 2
  12  2 2
r 
dr 2 r4
Clearly z is maximum or minimum according as s is maximum or
minimum.
dz 18V 2
 Stationary point of z are given by  0  4  2r 3  3  0
dr r
 2  2r 6   2 r 4h 2
 h  2r
d2z 59V 2
  12  2 2
r   0 for all V and r .
dr 2 r4
h
 Required ration  2 /1
r

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 2
 x  bx
A       
 4 4  2 
 2 r 4  b  x
bx
 r
2
dA d2A
Put  0 then sign.
dx dx 2

Differential Calculus Booklet Part-2

Chapter-1: Limit, Continuity, Differentiability, Partial Derivatives

Chapter-2: Total Differentials in Multiple Coordinate Systems, Euler’s
equation for homogeneous functions
Chapter-3: Taylor’s, Maxima/Minima, Lagrange’s Method of
Undetermined Multipliers
Chapter-4: Jacobians
Chapter-5: Curvature, Tangents and normal, Asymptotes and Curve
Tracing

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 Chapter-1
Functions of Several Variables

The Neighbourhood of a Point

The set of values xi , yi other than a, b that satisfy the conditions

x1  a   , y1  b  
where  is an arbitrarily small positive number, is said to form a neighbourhood
of the point  a, b  .
Thus a neighbourhood is the square
a  , a   ;b   ,b   
where x takes any value from a   to a   except a, and y from b   to b  
except b.
This is not the only way of specifying a neighbourhood of a point. There can be
many other, though equivalent ways; for example the points inside the circle
x 2  y 2   2 may be taken as a neighbourhood of the point  0,0  .

The Limit of a Function

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

A function f is said to tend to a limit l as a point  x, y  tends to the point  a, b  if
for every arbitrarily small positive number , there corresponds a positive
number , such that
f  x, y   l   ,
for every point  x, y  , [different from  a, b  ] which satisfies
xa , y b 
In other words, a function f tends to a limit l, when  x, y  tends to  a, b  if for
every positive number , there corresponds a neighbourhood N of  a, b  such
that
f  x, y   l   ,
for every point  x, y  other than  a, b  of the neighbourhood N.
Symbolically we then write
lim f  x, y   l
 x , y    a ,b 
l is the limit (the double limit or the simultaneous limit) of f when x, y tend to a
& b simultaneously.

Note: The above definition implies that there must be no assumption of any
relation between the independent variables as they tend to their respective
limits.
For instance take f  x, y  where
xy
f  x, y  
x  y2
2

and find the limit when  x, y    0, 0  .

m1
If we put y  m1 x and let x  0 , we get the limit to be equal to , while
1  m12
m2
putting y  m2 x leads to a limit . Similarly letting x  0 , while y remains
1  m22
constant or vice-versa leads to zero limit. Thus, we are led to erroneous results.
Geometrically speaking when we approach the point  0, 0  along different paths,
first along lines with slopes m1 and m2 and then along lines parallel to the
coordinate axes, the function reaches different limits. The simultaneous limit
postulates that by whatever path the point is approached, the function f attains
the same limit. In general, the determination whether a simultaneous limit
exists or not is a difficult matter but very often a simple consideration
enables us to show that the limit does not exist. [Exam Point]

It may however be noted that

lim f  x, y   l  lim f  x, b   l  lim f  a, y 
 x , y  a ,b  xa y b

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Non-existence of limit. The above note makes it clear that if lim f  x, y   l
 x , y    a ,b 
and if y    x  is any function such that   x   b , when x  a , then
lim f  x,   x   must exist and should be equal to l.
xa

Thus, if we can find two functions 1  x  and 2  x  such that the limits of
f  x, 1  x   and f  x, 2  x   are different, then the simultaneous limit in question
does not exist.

Algebra of Limits

If f and g are two functions with a domain N, we define four functions,

f  g , fg , f g on N by setting
f  g  x, y   f  x, y   g  x, y 
f  g  x, y   f  x, y   g  x, y 
f  g  x , y   f  x, y   g  x, y 
f g  x, y   f  x, y  g  x, y  , if g  x, y   0 , for  x, y   N

Theorem 1. If f, g be two functions defined on some neighbourhood of a point

 a, b  such that lim f  x, y   l , lim g  x, y   m , when  x, y    a, b  , then
(i) lim  f  g   lim f  lim g  l  m
(ii) lim  f  g   lim f  lim g  l  m
(iii) lim  f  g   lim f  lim g  l  m
f lim f l
(iv) lim   , provided m  0 , when  x, y    a , b 
g lim g m
The proofs are exactly similar to those of the corresponding theorems for a
single variable.
Repeated Limits

If a function f is defined in some neighbourhood of  a, b  , then the limit

lim f  x, y  ,
y b

if it exists, is a function of x, say   x  . If then the limit lim   x  exists and is

xa

equal to , we write
lim lim f  x, y   
x  a x b

and say that  is a repeated limit of f as y  b, x  a .

If we change the order of taking the limits, we get the other repeated limit

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 lim lim f  x, y    ' (say)
y b x  a

when first x  a , and then y  b .

These two limits may or may not be equal.

Note: In case the simultaneous limit exists, these two repeated limits if they
exist are necessarily equal but the converse is not true. However if the repeated
limits are not equal, the simultaneous limit cannot exist.

CONTINUITY

A function f is said to be continuous at a point  a, b  of its domain of definition,

if
lim f  x , y   f  a, b 
 x , y    a ,b 
In other words, a function f is said to be continuous at a point  a, b  of its
domain of definition if for   0 , there exists a neighbourhood N of  a, b  such
that
f  x, y   f  a, b    , for all  x, y   N

Note: The definition of continuity of a function f at a point  a, b  requires that

besides  a, b  , f is defined in a certain neighbourhood of  a, b  and moreover the
limit of f when  x, y    a, b  exists and equals to the value f  a, b  .
A function which is not continuous at a point is said to be discontinuous there
at.

Exam Point: A point to be particularly noticed is that if a function of more

than one variable is continuous at a point, it is continuous at that point when
considered as a function of a single variable. To be more specific if a function
f of two variables x, y is continuous at  a, b  then f  x, b  is a continuous
function of x at x  a and f  a, y  that of y at y  b .
The converse however is not true, i.e., a function may be a continuous
function of one variable when the others remain constant and yet not be a
continuous function of all the variables.

For instance, consider a function f, where

 2 xy
 2 ,  x, y    0, 0 
f  x, y    x  y
 0, at  0, 0 


Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

The function is not continuous at  0,0  for lim f  x, y  does not exist. But
 x , y  0,0 
lim f  x, 0   0  f  0, 0  , and lim f  0, y   0  f  0, 0 
x 0 y 0

so that f is continuous at  0,0  , when considered as a function of a single

variable x or that of y.
A function is said to be continuous in a region if it is continuous at every point
of the same.

As in limits, it can be easily proved that the sum, difference, product and
quotient (provided the denominator does not vanish) of two continuous
functions are also continuous.

The theorems on continuity for functions of a single variable can be easily

extended to functions of several variables; the proofs for some of them, except
for verbal changes, are the same while for others the method is not quite the
same.

PARTIAL DERIVATIVES

The ordinary derivative of a function of several variables with respect to one of

the independent variables, keeping all other independent variables constant is
called the partial derivative of the function with respect to the variable. partial
derivative of f  x, y  with respect to x is generally denoted by f x or f x or
f x  x, y  , while those with respect to y are denoted by f y or f y or f y  x, y  .
f f  x   x , y   f  x, y 
  lim
x  x0 x
and
f f  x, y   y   f  x , y 
 lim
y  y  0 y
when these limits exist.

The partial derivatives at a particular point  a, b  are often denoted by

 f  f  a, b 
 x  , or f x  a, b 
   a ,b  x
and
 f  f  a, b 
 y  , or f y  a, b 
   a ,b  y
f  a  h, b   f  a, b 
 f x  a, b   lim
h 0 h
f  a, b  k   f  a , b 
f y  a, b   lim
k 0 k

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

in case the limit exists.

Mean Value Theorem

If f x exists throughout a neighbourhood of a point  a, b  and f y  a, b  exists, then

for any point  a  h, b  k  of this neighbourhood,
f  a  h, b  k   f  a, b   hf x  a   h, b  k   k  f y  a, b    
where 0    1 , and  is a function of k, tending to zero with k.
Now
f  a  h, b  k   f  a , b   f  a  h, b  k   f  a , b  k   f  a , b  k   f  a , b 
....(1)
Since f x exists in a neighbourhood of  a, b  , therefore by Lagrange's mean value
theorem,
f  a  h, b  k   f  a, b  k   hf x  a   h, b  k  , 0    1
Also f y  a, b  exists, so that
f  a, b  k   f  a , b 
lim  f y  a, b 
k 0 k
 f  a, b  k   f  a, b   k  f y  a, b    
where  is a function of k and tends to zero as k  0 .
From equation (1), (2) and (3) we get the required result.

A Sufficient Condition for Continuity

A sufficient condition that a function f be continuous at  a, b  is that one of the

partial derivatives exists and is bounded in a neighbourhood of  a, b  and that
the other exist at  a, b  .
Let f x exist and be bounded in a neighbourhood of  a, b  and let f y  a, b  exist,
then for any point  a  h, b  k  of this neibhbourhood we have
f  a  h, b  k   f  a, b   hf x  a   h, b  k   k  f y  a, b    
where 0    1 , and   1 as k  0 .
Proceeding to limits as  h, k    0, 0  , since f x  a   h, b  k  is bounded, we have
lim f  a  h, b  k   f  a, b 
 h , k  0,0

 f is continuous at  a, b  .

Note: A sufficient condition that a function be continuous in a closed region is

that both the partial derivatives exist and are bounded throughout the region.

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

DIFFERENTIABILITY

Let  x, y  ,  x   x, y   y  be two neighbouring points in the domain of definition

of a function f. The change  f in the function as the point changes from  x, y 
to  x   x, y   y  is given by
 f  f  x   x , y   y   f  x, y  . ....(1)
The function f is said to be differentiable at  x, y  if the change  f can be
expressed in the form
 f  A x  B y   x  x,  y    y  x,  y  ....(2)
where A and B are constants independent of  x,  y and  , are function of
 x,  y tending to zero as  x,  y tend to zero simultaneously.
Also, A x  B y is then called the differential of f at  x, y  and is denoted by df .
Thus
df  A x  B y
From (1) and (2), when  x,  y    0,0  , we get
f  x   x, y   y   f  x, y   0
or
f  x   x , y   y   f  x, y 
 The function f is continuous at  x, y 
Thus every differentiable function is continuous.
Again from (2), when  y  0 (i.e., y remains constant)
 f  A x   x  x, 0 
Dividing by  x and proceeding to limits as  x  0 , we get
f
A
x
Similarly,
f
B
y
Thus, the constants A and B are respectively the partial derivatives of f with
respect to x and y.

Hence, a function which is differentiable at a point possesses the first order

partial derivatives threat.

Converse, of course is not true, so that functions exist which are continuous and
may even possess partial derivatives at a point but are not differentiable there at.

Again the differential of f is given by

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052
 f f
df  A x  B y  x y
x y
f f
Taking f  x , we get df  dx,  1,  0 and hence dx   x
x y
Similarly taking f  y , we obtain dy   y .
Thus, the differentials dx, dy of x, y are respectively  x and  y , and
f f
df dx  dy  f x dx  f y dy ....(3)
x y
is the differential of f at  x, y  .

Notes:
1. If we replace  x,  y , by h, k in equations (1) and (2), we say that the function
is differentiable at a point  a, b  of the domain of definition if df can be
expressed as
df  f  a  h, b  k   f  a, b 
 Ah  Bk  h  h, k   k  h, k  ....(4)
where A  f x , B  f y and  , are function of h, k tending to zero as h, k tend to
zero simultaneously.

2. We have that a function differentiable at a point is necessarily continuous and

possesses partial derivatives there at. Not only that, we talk of differentiability
at a point of a function only when it is continuous and has partial derivatives
there at, for it is only then that it can be expressed in the form of equation (1).
Let a function f and its partial derivatives f x , f y be continuous at a point  x, y  of
its domain of definition, and let
 f  f  x   x , y   y   f  x, y 
  f  x   x, y   y   f  x, y   y    f  x, y   y   f  x, y 
Using Lagrange's mean value theorem of one variable, we get
 f   xf x  x  1 x, y   y    yf y  x, y   2 y 
where 0  1  1, 0   2  1 .
Since f x , f y are continuous at  x, y  , therefore when  x,  y    0, 0  , we get
 f   f x     x   f y    y
when  and  tend to zero as  x,  y    0, 0 
  f  f x x  f y y   x     y 
We now give an example to show that a function may be continuous and
possesses partial derivatives at a point and still may not be differentiable threat.

Algebra of Differential Functions

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052
If f and g are two functions differentiable at  a, b  , then f  g , fg are
differentiable at  a, b  ; f g is differentiable at  a, b  , if g  a, b   0 , and
d  f  g   df  dg
d  fg   gdf  fdg
d  f g    gdf  fdg  g 2

PARTIAL DERIVATIVES OF HIGHER ORDER

If a function f has partial derivatives of the first order at each point  x, y  of a

certain region, then f x , f y are themselves functions of x, y and may also possess
partial derivatives. These are called second order partial derivatives of f and are
denoted by
  f   2 f
   f xx  f x2
x  x  x 2
  f   2 f
   f yy  f y 2
y  y  y 2
  f   2 f
   f xy
x  y  xy
  f   2 f
   f yx
y  x  yx

In a similar manner higher order partial derivatives are defined. For example
3 f
 f xxy and so on.
xxy
The second order partial derivatives at a particular point  a, b  are often denoted
by
 2 f   2 f  a, b 
 2 , , f xx  a, b  or f x2  a, b 
 x   a ,b  x 2
 2 f   2 f  a, b 
  , or f xy  a, b 
  xy   a ,b  xy
and so on.

Thus
f x  a  h, b   f x  a , b 
f xx  a, b   lim
h 0 h

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 f y  a  h, b   f y  a, b 
f xy  a, b   lim
h0 h
f x  a, b  k   f x  a, b 
f yx  a, b   lim
k 0 k
f y  a , b  k   f y  a, b 
f yy  a, b   lim
k 0 k
in case the limits exist.
Theorem. If  a, b  be a point of the domain of definition of a function f such that
(i) f x is continuous at  a, b  ,
(ii) f y exists at  a, b  ,
then f is differentiable at  a, b  .

Change in the Order of Partial Derivation

In most of the cases that occur in practice, a partial derivative has the same
value in whatever order the different operations are performed. Thus, for
example, it is usually found that

f xy  f yx , f xyx  f xxy , f xyxy  f xxyy

and one is often tempted to believe that it is always so. But it is not the case and
there is no a priori reason why they should be equal. Let us now see why f xy
may be different from f yx at some point  a, b  of the region.

Now
f y  a  h, b   f y  a, b 
f xy  a, b   lim
h 0 h
1 f  a  h, b  k   f  a  h, b  f  a , b  k   f  a, b  
 lim  lim  lim 
h0 h k 0 k k 0 k
 
f  a  h, b  k   f  a  h, b   f  a, b  k   f  a, b    h, k 
 lim lim  lim lim
h0 k 0 hk h  0 k  0 hk
where   h, k   f  a  h, b  k   f  a  h, b   f  a, b  k   f  a, b  .

Similarly,
  h, k 
f yx  a, b   lim lim
k  0 h 0 hk
Thus we see that f xy  a, b  and f yx  a, b  are the repeated limits of the same
expression taken in different orders. There is therefore no a priori reason why
they should always be equal.

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Theorem. Young's theorem. If f x and f y are both differentiable at a point
 a, b  of the domain of definition of a function f, then
f xy  a, b   f yx  a, b 

Theorem. Schwarz's theorem. If f y exists in a certain neighbourhood of a

point  a, b  of the domain of definition of a function f, and f yx is continuous at
 a, b  , then f xy  a, b  exists and is equal to f yx  a, b  .

UPSC special topic

Euler’s theorem on homogenous functions:-
Statement:- If it is a homogenous function of degree n in two independent
u u
variable x and y , then x y  nu
x y

Proof:-  u  xn .   y / x 
u  y 
  n x n 1 .   y / x   x n .  2   '  y / x 
xx 2
x 
u
 x.  n x n   y / x   x n 1 y  '  y / x  (1)
x
u
Similarly y  x n 1 . y  '  y / x  (2)
y
u u
On adding (1) & (2), we get x  y  n x n .  y / x 
x y
u u
x y  nu
x y

Note:- (1) The converse of Euler’s theorem is also correct i.e. if u is a function
u u
of two independent variable x and y such that x y  n u , for all values of
x y
x and y then u must be a homogenous function of degree n .

Note:- (2) If u is a homogenous function of m variables

u u u
x1 .  x2  ....  xm  nu
x1  x2 xm

Type-1
Example 1(a). Let
 x2 y
 , if x4  y 2  0
f  x, y    x 4  y 2
 0, if x y 0


Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

If we approach the origin along any axis, f  x, y   0 .
If we approach  0, 0  along any line y  mx , then

mx 3 mx
f  x, y   f  x, mx    2  0 , as x  0
x m x
4 2 2
x  m2

So any straight line approach gives,

lim f  x, y   0
 x , y  0,0 
By putting y  mx 2 ,
m
lim
 x , y  0,0 
f  x, y   lim f x, mx 2 
x 0
  1  m2
which is different for the different m selected.

Hence, lim f  x, y  does not exist.

 x , y  0,0 
Thus, the function possesses no limit at the origin, but a straight line approach
gives the limit zero.

Example 1(b). Show that

2 xy 2
lim does not exist.
 x , y   0,0  x 2  y 4

 If we put x  my 2 and let y  0 , we get

2my 4 2m
lim 
y 0
 m 1 y
2 4

1  m2
which is different for different values of m.
Hence, the limit does not exist.

Note: It is pointed out earlier also that the determination of a simultaneous limit
is a difficult matter but a simple consideration, as shown above, very often,
enables us to show that the limit does not exist. We now show that sometimes it
is possible to determine the simultaneous limit by changing to polars.

Example 2(a). Show that

x2  y2
lim xy 0
 x , y  0,0  x2  y 2
 Put x  r cos  , y  r sin 
x2  y2
xy  r 2 sin  cos  cos 2
x2  y 2
r2 r 2 x2  y2
 sin 4    ,
4 4 4

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 if
x2  y2 
 , 
4 2 4 2
or if
x  2   , y  2  

Thus for   0 ,   0 such that

x2  y2
xy  0   , when x   , y  
x2  y 2
x2  y2
 lim xy 0
 x , y  0,0  x2  y 2

Example 2(b). Show that

x2 y 2  1  1
lim 0
 x , y  0,0  x2  y 2
 Since x, y are small
1 2 2
 
12
x2 y 2  1 1 1  x y
2 2
1 2 x y
  2
x2  y2 x2  y 2 x  y2
Now changing to polars, we can show, as in the above example, that
1 2 2
x y
lim 22 0
 x , y  0,0  x  y 2

Hence the required result.

Ex.1. Show that

1 1 xy 2
(i) lim      , (ii) lim 0,
    x
x , y  0,0 y  x , y  0,0  x 2  y 2

(iii) lim  x  y   0 ,
 x , y  0,0
(iv) lim
 x , y  0,0 
1 xy  sin  x 2 y  xy 2   0
Ex.2. Show that the limit, when  x, y    0, 0  does not exist in each case
2 xy xy 3
(i) lim , (ii) lim ,
x  y2
2
x2  y6
x2 y 2 x3  y 3
(iii) lim , (iv) lim
  x y
2
x2 y 2  x2  y 2

[Hint: (iv) Put y  x  mx 3 ]

Ex. 3. Show that the limit, when  x, y    0, 0  exist in each case.

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 xy x3 y 3
(i) lim , (ii) lim ,
x2  y 2 x2  y2
x3  y 3 x4  y4
(iii) lim , (iv) lim
x2  y2 x2  y2

Example 3(a). Prove that

lim
 x , y 1,2 
x 2
 2y  5 
 Method 1. (Using definition of limit). We have to show that for any   0 ,
we can find   0 . such that
x 2  2 y  5   , when x  1   , y  2  
If x  1   , and y  2   , then
1    x  1   and 2    y  2   , excluding x  1, y  2
Thus squaring
1  2   2  x 2  1  2   2
and multiplying by 2,
4  2  2 y  4  2
Adding
5  4   2  x 2  2 y  5  4   2
or
4   2  x 2  2 y  5  4   2
Now if   1 , it follows that
5  x 2  2 y  5  5
i.e., x 2  2 y  5  5  
so that    5 (or   1 whichever is smaller).
 x 2  2 y  5   when x  1   , y  2  
 lim
 x , y 1,2 
x 2
 2y  5 

Method 2. Using above theorem on algebra of limits,

lim
 x , y 1,2 
x 2
 2y   lim
 x , y  1,2 
x2  lim
 x , y 1,2 
2y  1 4  5

Example 3(b). Show that

(i) lim

x sin x 2  y 2   0, (ii) lim
sin 1  xy  2 

1
 x , y  0,0  x y
2 2  x , y  2,1 tan 1
 3xy  6  3

 (i) lim

x sin x  y 2 2
 lim x lim

sin x  y 2
2
  0 1  0
 x , y  0,0  x y
2 2  x , y  0,0   x , y   0,0  x y
2 2

(ii) lim
sin 1
 xy  2   lim sin 1 t , where t   xy  2   lim
1 1 t2

1
 x , y  2,1 tan 1  3 xy  6  t  0 tan 1 3t t 0

3 1  9t 
2
3

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 (L'Hospital Rule)

Ex.1. Show that lim tan 1  y x  , does not exist.

 x , y  0,1
 
[Hint: Limit from the left is  and that from the right ].
2 2

Ex. 2. Show, by using the definition that

lim 3xy  6
 x , y 1,2 

Ex. 3. Prove that

y 2
 y 12
(i) lim x 2 sin 8 2, (ii) lim e 1 x  0,
 x , y  4,  8  x , y  0,1
x  y 1
(iii) lim  0, x  0, y  1 .
 x , y  0,1 x  1 y
Example 4. Let
xy
f  x, y   , then
x  y22

lim lim f  x, y   lim  0   0 ,

y  0 x 0 y 0

lim lim f  x, y   0
x  0 y 0

Thus, the repeated limits exist and are equal. But the simultaneous limit does
not exist which may be seen by putting y  mx .

(ii) Let
y  x 1 x
f  x, y    , then
y  x 1 y
 1 x 
lim lim f  x, y   lim     1 ,
x  0 y 0 x 0
 1 
 1 
lim lim f  x, y   lim   1
y  0 x 0 y 0 1  y
 
Thus, the two repeated limits exist but are unequal, consequently the
simultaneous limit cannot exist, which may be verified by putting y  mx .

Example 5. Show that the limit exists at the origin but the repeated limits do
not, where
 1 1
 x sin    y sin   , xy  0
f  x, y     y x
 0, xy  0

 Here lim f  x, y  , lim f  x, y  do not exist and therefore lim lim f  x, y  ;
y 0 x 0 x 0 y  0

lim lim f  x, y  do not exist.

y 0 x 0

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Again
1 1 1 1
x sin  y sin  x sin  y sin  x  y  
y x y x
if
 
x , y  
2 2
Thus for   0 ,   0 such that
1 1
x sin  y sin   , when x   , y  
y x
 1 1
 lim  x sin  y sin   0
 x , y  0,0  y x


Example 6: Show that the repeated limits exist at the origin and are equal but
the simultaneous limit does not exist, where
 1, if xy  0
f  x, y   
0, if xy  0
 Here
1, if x0
lim f  x, y   
y 0
0, if x0
 lim lim f  x, y   1
x 0 y  0

Similarly,
lim lim f  x, y   1
y  0 x 0

Hence, the repeated limits exist and are equal.

Again, since there are points arbitrarily near  0, 0  at which f is equal to 0 and
points arbitrarily near  0,0  at which f is equal to 1, therefore, there is an   0 ,
such that
f  x, y   f  0, 0   f  x, y    ,
for all points in any neighbourhood of  0,0  .
Hence, lim f  x, y  does not exist.
 x , y  0,0 

Example 7. Investigate the continuity at  0,0  of

 x2  y 2
 ,  x, y    0, 0 
f  x, y    x 2  y 2
 0,  x, y    0,0 

 Since lim f  x, y  does not exist (put y  mx ), therefore the function is not
 x , y  0,0 
continuous at  0,0  .

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Example 8. Investigate for continuity at 1, 2 
 x 2  2 y,
f  x, y   
 x, y   1, 2 
 0,  x, y   1, 2
 Here
lim f  x, y   5  f 1, 2  . (By Example 3(a))
 x , y 1,2 
Hence, the function is not continuous at 1, 2  .
The point 1, 2  is a point of discontinuity of the function.
However, if the function has the value 5 at 1, 2  , it was then continuous at
the point.

Note: If, as in the above example, it is possible to so redefine the value of the
function at a point of discontinuity that the new function is continuous, we say
that the point is a removable discontinuity of the original function.

Example 9. Show that the function

 xy
 ,  x, y    0, 0 
f  x, y    x 2  y 2
 0,  x, y    0, 0 

is continuous at the origin.
 Let x  r cos  , y  r sin 
xy
  r cos  sin   r  x 2  y 2   ,
x y
2 2

if
2 2
x2  , y2 
2 2
or, if
 
x , y 
2 2
Thus
xy  
 0   , when x  , y 
x2  y2 2 2
xy
 lim 0
 x , y  0,0  x2  y2
 lim f  x, y   f  0, 0 
 x , y  0,0 
Hence, f is continuous at  0, 0  .

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Examples on partial derivatives
Example 1. If f  x, y   2 x 2  xy  2 y 2 , then find f x and f y at the point
1, 2  .
 Now
f
 4 x  y  2 , at 1, 2 
x
f
  x  4 y  7 , at 1, 2 
y

Note: f x 1, 2  and f y 1, 2  have been respectively obtained from f x  x, y  and
f y  x, y  by replacing  x, y  by 1, 2  . The procedure, though simple, is not
always possible. The reader has to be on his guard.

Example 2. If
 xy
 2 ,  x, y    0, 0 
f  x, y    x  y
2

 0,
 x, y    0, 0 

show that both the partial derivatives exist at  0,0  but the function is not
continuous there at.
 Putting y  mx , we see that
m
lim f  x, y  
x 0 1  m2
so that the limit depends on the value of m, i.e., on the path of approach and
is different for the different paths followed and therefore does not exist.
Hence the function f  x, y  is not continuous at  0,0  .

Again
f  0  h, 0   f  0, 0  0
f x  0, 0   lim  lim 0
h 0 h h 0 h

f  0  0  k   f  0, 0  0
f y  0, 0   lim  lim 0
k 0 k k 0 k

Notes:
1. Unlike the situation for functions of one variable, the existence of the first
partial derivatives at a point does not imply continuity at the point. The
explanation lies in the fact that the information given by the existence of
the two first partial derivatives at a point is limited. The values of f x and
f y at a point  a, b  depend only on the values of f along two lines through

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

  a, b  respectively parallel to the coordinate axes. This information is
incomplete and tells us nothing at all about the behaviour of the function f
as the point  a, b  is approached along lines not parallel to the axes. On
the other hand, the continuity of f at  a, b  requires the function to tend to
its value f  a, b  by whatever path the point  a, b  is approached.
Therefore, there is nothing surprising in the fact that the parallel
derivatives may exist at a point at which the function is not even
continuous.

2. In the above example, if x  y ,

y3  x2 y
fx  ,
x 
2
2
 y2
x3  xy 2
fy  ,
 
2
x2  y 2
and f x  0, 0  , f y  0, 0  cannot be computed from them by letting x  0, y  0 .

Examples on Differentiability
Example 1. Let
 x3  y 3
 ,  x, y    0, 0 
f  x, y    x 2  y 2
 0,  x, y    0, 0 

Solution- Put x  r cos  , y  r sin  .
x3  y 3

x y
2 2  3
 3
 r cos3   sin 3   r cos   r sin   2 r  2 x 2  y 2   ,

if
2 2
x2  , y2 
8 8
or, if
 
x , y 
2 2 2 2
x y
3 3
 
  0   , when x  , y 
x y
2 2
2 2 2 2
x3  y3
 lim 0
 x , y  0,0  x 2  y 2

 lim f  x, y   f  0, 0 
 x , y  0,0 
Hence the function is continuous at  0, 0  .
Again

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 f  h, 0   f  0, 0  h0
f x  0, 0   lim  lim 1
h 0 h h
h 0

f  0, k   f  0, 0  k
f y  0, 0   lim  lim  1
k 0 k k 0 k

Thus, the function possesses partial derivatives at  0,0  .

If the function is differentiable at  0, 0  , then by definition
df  f  h, k   f  0,0   Ah  Bk  h  k ....(1)
when A and B are constants  A  f x  0,0   1, B  f y  0,0   1 and  , tend to zero
as  h, k    0, 0  .
Putting h   cos , k   sin  , and dividing by , we get
cos 3   sin 3   cos   sin    cos    sin  ....(2)
For arbitrary   tan  h k  ,   0 implies that  h, k    0, 0  . Thus we get the
1

limit,
cos3   sin 3   cos   sin 
or  cos   sin    cos2   sin 2   cos   sin    cos   sin 
or cos  sin   cos   sin    0
which is plainly impossible for arbitrary  .
Thus, the function is not differentiable at the origin.

Note: The method used to show that the function is not differentiable, can also
be used to show that the function is not continuous at  0, 0  ; for example,
The function f, where
 xy
 2 , x2  y2  0
f  x, y    x  y 2

 0, if x y0

is not differentiable at the origin because it is discontinuous threat.
Example 2. Show that the function f, where
 xy
 ,if x2  y 2  0
f  x, y    x 2  y 2
 0, if x y0

is continuous, possess partial derivatives but is not differentiable at the origin.
 As was shown in Example 9, f is continuous at the origin. Also it may be
easily shown that
f x  0, 0   0  f y  0, 0 
If the function is differentiable at the origin, then by definition
df  f  h, k   f  0,0   Ah  Bk  h  k ....(1)
where A  f x  0, 0   0, B  f y  0, 0   0 , and  , tend to zero as  h, k    0, 0  .

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 hk
  h  k ....(2)
h  k2
2

Putting k  mh and letting h  0 , we get

m
 lim   m   0
1  m 2 h 0
which is impossible for arbitrary m.
Hence, the function is not differentiable at  0,0  .

Note: If we put h  r cos  , k  r sin  in (2) we get

cos  sin    cos   sin 
For arbitrary  , r  0 implies  h, k    0, 0  .
Thus when r  0 , we get
cos   sin   0
which is impossible for arbitrary . So f is not differentiable at the origin.

Q1. Show that the function f, where

 x sin1 x  y sin1 y , xy  0
 x sin1 x , y  0, x  0

f  x, y   
 y sin1 x, x  0, y  0
 0, x0 y
is continuous but not differentiable at the origin.

Q2. Show that the function x  y is continuous, but not differentiable at the
origin.
Q3. Discuss the following functions for continuity and differentiability at the
origin.
xy 2
(i) f  x, y   when  x, y    0, 0  and f  0,0   0
x2  y2
(ii) f  x, y   y sin1 x , if x  0, f  0, y   y

Type-4
Example1. Consider the function
 x 2 sin1 x  y 2 sin1 y, if xy  0
 2
 x sin1 x, if x  0 and y  0
f  x, y    2
 y sin1 y , if x  0 and y  0
 0, if x  y  0
 The partial derivatives,
2 x sin1 x  cos1 x, if x  0
f x  x, y   
 0, if x  0

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 2 y sin1 y  cos1 y, if y  0
f y  x, y   
 0, if y  0
are discontinuous at the origin, so that both the partial derivatives exist at the
origin, but none is continuous threat.

Let us show that the function is differentiable at the origin. Here,

f  h, k   f  0, 0   h 2 sin1 h  k 2 sin1 k
 0h  0k  h  h sin1 h   k  k sin1 k 
Now  h sin1 h  and  k sin1 k  both tend to zero when  h, k    0, 0  so that f is
differentiable at the origin.

Example 2. Prove that the function

f  x, y   xy
is not differentiable at the point  0, 0  , but that f x and f y both exist at the origin
and have the value 0. Hence deduce that these two partial derivatives are
continuous except at the origin.
 Now at  0, 0  ,
f  h,0   f  0, 0  0
f x  0, 0   lim  lim 0
h0 h h 0 h

f  0, k   f  0,0  0
f y  0, 0   lim  lim  0
k 0 k k  0 k
If the function is differentiable at  0, 0  then by definition
f  h, k   f  0, 0   0h  0k  h  k
where  and  are functions of h and k, and tend to zero as  h, k    0, 0  .
Putting h   cos , k   sin  and dividing by , we get
12
cos  sin    cos   sin 
Now for arbitrary  ,   0 implies that  h, k    0, 0  .
Taking the limit as   0 , we get
12
cos  sin   0 ,
which is impossible for all arbitrary .

Hence, the function is not differentiable at  0,0  and consequently the partial
derivatives f x , f y cannot be continuous at  0,0  , for otherwise the function
would be differentiable threat,
Let us now see that it is actually so
For  x, y    0, 0  .
f  x  h , y   f  x, y 
f x  x, y   lim
h0 h

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 xh y  x y
 lim
h 0 h
Taking y common from the numerator and rationalizing,
xh  x
 lim y
h0
xh xh 

Now as h  0 , we can take x  h  0 , i.e., x  h  x  h , when x  0 and x  h  0
or x  h    x  h  , when x  0 .
 1 y
 , when x  0
 2 x
 f x  x, y   
 1 y
 2 x , when x  0

Similarly,
 1 x
 , when y  0
 2 y
f y  x, y   
 1 x
 2 y , when y  0

which are, obviously, not continuous at the origin.

Example3. Show that the function f, where

 x2  y 2
 xy , if x 2  y 2  0
f  x, y    x 2  y 2
 0, if x  y  0

is differentiable at the origin.
 It may be easily shown that
f x  0, 0   0  f y  0, 0 
Also when x  y  0 ,2 2

 
2
x4 y  4 x2 y3  y5 x4  4 x2 y 2  y 4 x2  y2 2 x2  y2
 
1
fx   y   2 x2  y 2 2

x 2
y 
2 2
x 2
y 
2 2
x 2
y 
2 2

Evidently
lim f x  x, y   0  f x  0, 0 
 x , y  0,0
Thus f x is continuous at  0,0  and f y  0, 0  exists.
 f is differentiable at  0,0  .

Example4. Let

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 f  x, y  

xy x 2  y 2  ,  x, y    0,0  , f  0, 0  0 , then
x y 2 2

show that at the origin f xy  f yx .

 Now
f y  h, 0   f y  0, 0 
f xy  0, 0   lim
h 0 h
f  0, k   f  0,0  0
But f y  0, 0   lim  lim
0
k 0 k k k 0

f  h, k   f  h, 0  hk  h 2  k 2 
and f y  h, 0   lim  lim h
k 0 k 
k 0 k  h 2  k 2

h0
 f xy  0, 0   lim 1
h 0 h
Again
f x  0, k   f x  0, 0 
f yx  0, 0   lim
k 0 k
But
f  h,0   f  0, 0 
f x  0, 0   lim 0
h0 h

f x  0, k   lim
f  h, k   f  0, k 
 lim

hk h 2  k 2   k
h0 h h 0 h h 2
k 2

k  0
 f yx  0, 0   lim  1
k 0 k
 f xy  0, 0   f yx  0, 0  .

Example5. Examine the equality of f xy and f yx , where

f  x, y   x 3 y  e xy
2

 Now
2
f y  x3  2 xye xy

2 2
f xy  3x 2  2 ye xy  2 xy 3e xy
Again
2
f x  3 x 2 y  y 2 e xy
2 2
f yx  3x 2  2 ye xy  2 xy 3e xy
 f xy  f yx

Example6. Show that for the function

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

  x2 y 2
 ,  x, y    0, 0 
f  x, y    x 2  y 2
 0,  x, y    0, 0 

f xy  0, 0   f yx  0,0  , even though the conditions of Schwarz's theorem and also of
Young's theorem are not satisfied.
 Now
f  h, 0   f  0, 0 
f x  0, 0   lim 0
x 0 h
Similarly, f y  0, 0   0 .
Also, for  x, y    0, 0  ,

fx  x, y  
x 2

 y 2  2 xy 2  x 2 y 2  2 x

2 xy 4
x  x 
2 2
2
 y2 2
 y2
2 x4 y
f y  x, y  
x 
2
2
 y2
Again
f x  0, y   f x  0, 0 
f yx  0, 0   lim 0
y 0 y
and
f xy  0, 0   0 , so that f xy  0, 0   f yx  0, 0 
For  x, y    0, 0  , we have
   2 xy  4 y  x 
2
8 xy 3 x 2  y 2 4 2
 y2 8x3 y3
f yx  x, y  
x  y  2 4
x 
3
2 2
 y2
and it may be easily shown (by putting y  mx ) that
lim f yx  x, y   0  f yx  0,0 
 x , y  0,0 
so that f yx is not continuous at  0, 0  , i.e., the conditions of Schwarz's
theorem are not satisfied.
Let us now show that the conditions of Young's theorem are also not
satisfied.

Now
f x  x, 0   f x  0, 0 
f xx  0, 0   lim 0
x 0 x
Also f x is differentiable at  0,0  if
f x  h, k   f x  0, 0   f xx  0, 0   h  f yx  0, 0   k  h  k
or

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 2hk 4
 h  k
 
2
h2  k 2
where  , tend to zero as  h, k    0, 0  .
Putting h   cos and k   sin  , and dividing by , we get
2 cos  sin 4   cos     sin  
and  h, k    0, 0  is same thing as   0 and  is arbitrary. Thus proceeding
to limits, we get
2 cos  sin 4   0
which is impossible for arbitrary .
 f x is not differentiable at  0, 0 
Similarly, it may be shown that f y is not differentiable at  0, 0  .
Thus the conditions of Young's theorem are also not satisfied but, as shown
above,
f xy  0, 0   f yx  0,0  .

Example 7. Show that the function

f  x, y  

xy x 2  y 2  ,  x, y    0, 0 
x y 2 2

f  0, 0   0
does not satisfy the conditions of Schwarz's theorem and
f xy  0, 0   f yx  0, 0 
 It may be shown, as in example 15, that
f xy  0,0   1, f yx  0, 0   1
so that
f xy  0, 0   f yx  0, 0 
Now, for  x, y    0, 0  we have

fx  x, y  
x 2
  
 y 2 y 3x 2  y 2  2 x 2 y x2  y 2    y x 4
 4 x 2 y 2  44 
x  y  x 
2 2
2 2 2
 y2

x   x  12 x    x 
2
2
 y2 4 2
y2  5 y4  4 y 2 x2  y 2 4
 4x2 y 2  y 4
 f yx  x, y  
x 2
y 
2 4

x  9x y  9x y  y
6 4 2 2 4 6

x 
3
2
 y2
By putting y  mx or x  r cos  , y  r sin  , it may be shown that
lim f yx  x, y   1  f yx  0, 0 
 x , y  0,0 
Thus f yx is not continuous at  0,0  .

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 It may similarly be shown that f xy is also not continuous at  0, 0  .
Thus, the conditions of Schwarz's theorem are not satisfied.

Examples on Euler’s theorem on homogeneous functions

Example:- 1 Verify Euler’s theorem for the following functions
(i) u  x  x3  y 3  /  x3  y 3 
(ii) u  axy  byz  czx
  y 3 
x. x 3 1    
x  x3  y3    x 
 
u   x .  y / x 
x3  y3   y 3 
x 1    
3
 x 
  (1)
Clearly u is a homogenous function of degree 1 .
 By Euler’s theorem
u u
x y  1. u  u (2)
x y
For L.H.S of (2). Let’s find partial derivatives
 From (1) log u  log x  log  x 3  y 3   log  x 3  y 3  differentiating partially
1 u 1 3x 2 3x 2
w.r.t x , we get   3 
u x x x  y 3 x 3  y 3
(3)
1 u 3y2 3 y2
For y ; 0  3  (4)
u y x  y 3 x3  y 3

 x3  y 3  1 u u
Example:- (3) If u  tan   , show that x  y  sin 24
 x y  x y
x3  y 3
Solution:- tan u   x2   y / x 
x y
 tan u is a homogenous function of degree 2.
u u
 By Euler’s theorem x  tan u   y  tan u   2 tan u
x y
u u
x sec 2 u  y.sec 2 u  2 tan u
x y
u u u u
x y  2sin u cos u  x  y  sin 2 u
x y x y

x3  y 3 u u
Example:- (4) If u  tan 1 , show that x  y  sin 2u and find the value
x y x y
 2u  2u 2  u
2
of x 2  2 xy  y .
x 2 x y y 2

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Solution:-  tan u is a homogenous function of degree 2.
 By Euler’s theorem
u u
x  tan u   y  tan u   2 tan u
x y
u u
x sec2 u  y sec2 u  2 tan u
x y
u u
 x y  sin 2u (1)
x y
Differentiating (1) w.r.t. x, y separately, we get
 u u
2
u
2
u
x  y  0  2 cos 2u
x 2
x x y x
Multiplying (iii) by x and (iv) by y ,then adding columnuise, we get
1  u u  3  x 3  y 3  3  x3  y 3 
 x  y   1   3  1 3  3
u  x y  x3  y 3  x  y3 
u u
 x y  1. u Euler’s theorem is verified
x y

(i)  u is a homogenous function in x, y, z of degree 2.

u u u
  ay  cz ,  ax  bz ,  by  cx
x y z
u u u
 x y z  2  axy  byz  czx   2u
x y z
Hence Euler’s theorem is verified

 x2  y 2  u u
Example:- (2) If u  sin 1   , show that x  y  tan u
 x y  x y
1   y / x  
2
x2  y 2
Solution:- Here sin u   x   x .  y / x 
x y  1   y / x  
 sin u is a homogenous function of degree 1.
 By Euler’s theorem
 
x.  sin u   y.  sin u   1.sin u .
x y
u u
x cos u  y .cos u  sin u
x y
u u
 x y  tan u .
x y

Assignment

Type-1

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

1. Show that lim f  x, y  and lim lim f  x, y  exist, but lim lim f  x, y  does not,
 x , y   0,0  y 0 x 0 x  0 y 0

where
 1
 y  x sin   ,if y0
f  x, y     y
 0, if y0


2. Show that lim lim f  x, y  exists, but the other repeated limit and the double
x 0 y  0

limit do not exist at the origin, when

 
 y sin 1 x   xy x 2  y 2 , x  0
f  x, y   
 0, x0

3. Show that the repeated limits exist but the double limit does not when
 x, y    0, 0  :
x y x2 y 2
(i) f  x, y   , (ii) f  x, y  
x y x4  y 4  x2 y2
 x3  y3  x2  y2
, x y , x y
(iii) f  x, y    x  y (iv) f  x, y    x 2  y 2
 0, x y  0, x y
 

4 Show that the limit and the repeated limits exist when  x, y    0, 0  :
 x2  y2
 xy ,  x, y    0, 0 
f  x, y    x 2  y 2
 0,  x, y    0,0 


Type-2
1. Show that the following functions are discontinuous at the origin:
 1
,  x, y    0, 0 
(i) f  x, y    x 2  y 2
 0,  x, y    0, 0 

x4  y 4
(ii) f  x, y   ,  x, y    0,0  , f  0,0   0
x4  y 4

(iii) f  x, y  
 x y  ,  x, y    0, 0  , f  0, 0   0
2 2

x  y 
4 4

2. Show that the following functions are continuous at the origin:

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 x2 y 2
(i) f  x, y   ,  x, y    0, 0  , f  0, 0   0
 x2  y2 
 x3 y 3
,  x, y    0, 0 
(ii) f  x, y    x 2  y 2
 0,  x, y    0, 0 

3. Show that the following functions are discontinuous at  0, 0  .
 x2 y
,  x, y    0, 0 
(i) f  x, y    x3  y 3
 0,  x, y    0, 0 

 x3  y3
, x y
(ii) f  x, y    x  y
 0, x y

xy 3
(iii) f  x, y   ,  x, y    0, 0  , f  0,0   0
x2  y6

4. Discuss the following functions for continuity at  0, 0  .

 x2 y
, x2  y 2  0
(i) f  x, y    x3  y 3
 0, x y 0

 x2  y 2
 2 xy 2 ,  x, y    0, 0 
(ii) f  x, y    x  y2
 0,  x, y    0, 0 

 0,  x, y    2 y, y 
(iii) f  x, y   

exp x  2 y x 2

 4 xy  4 y 2 ,  x, y    2 y , y 

5. Show that f has a removable discontinuity at  2,3 :

3 xy,  x, y    2, 3
f  x, y   
 6,  x, y    2,3
Suitably redefine the function to make it continuous.

6. Show that the function f is continuous at the origin, where

 x3  y 3
 ,  x, y    0, 0 
f  x, y    x 2  y 2
 0,  x, y    0, 0 


7. Can the given functions be appropriately defined at  0, 0  in order to be

continuous there?

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 x
(i) f  x, y   x , (ii) f  x, y   sin
y

y
x3  y 3
(iii) f  x, y   , (iv) f  x, y   x 2 log  x 2  y 2 
x2  y2

Type-3
1. If f  x, y   x3 y  e xy , find f x and f y .
2

2. If f  x, y   xy
x 2
 y2  , when x 2  y 2  0 , and f  0,0   0 , show that
x 2
y 2

f x  x, 0   0  f y  0, y 
f x  0, y    y, f y  x, 0   x
 x 2  xy
, if  x, y    0, 0 
3. If f  x, y    x  y , find f x  0, 0  and f y  0, 0 
 0, if  x, y    0, 0 

 x3  y3
, x y
4. If f  x, y    x  y , show that the function is discontinuous at the
 0, x y

origin but possesses partial derivatives f x and f y at every point, including the
origin.
 xt tan  y x  ,  x, y    0, 0 
5. If f  x, y    , show that xf x  yf y  2 f .
 0,  x, y    0, 0 
6. Calculate f x , f y , f x  0, 0  , f y  0, 0  for the following:
 x3  y3
, x  0, y  0
(i) f  x, y    x 2  y 2
 0, x0 y


 xy
 , if x2  y 2  0
(ii) f  x, y    x 2  y 2
 0, if x y0


7. Show that the function

 x2 y
 , x2  y2  0
f  x, y    x 4  y 2
 0, x0 y

possesses first partial derivatives everywhere, including the origin, but the
function is discontinuous at the origin.

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

8. If f  x, y   xy , find f x  0, 0  , f y  0, 0 

Type-4
1. Verify that f xy  f yx for the functions:
2x  y
(a) , (b) x tan xy , (c) cosh  y  cos x  , (d) x y
x y
indicating possible exceptional points and investigate these points.

2. 
Show that z  log  x  a    y  b 
2 2
 satisfies
2 z 2 z

x 2 y 2
 0 , except at  a, b  .

3. Show that z  x cos  y x   tan  y x  satisfies x 2 z xx  2 xyz xy  y 2 z yy  0 , except

at points for which x  0 .

4. Prove that f xy  f yx at the origin for the function:

f  x, y   x 2 tan 1  y x   y 2 tan 1  x y  , x  0, y  0
f  x, y   0 , elsewhere.

If f  x, y, z    x 2  y 2  z 2 
1 2
5. , show that
 f  f  f
2 2 2
   0.
x 2 y 2 z 2

6. Examine for the change in the order of derivation at the origin for the
functions:
(i) f  x, y   e x  cos y  x sin y 
(ii) f  x, y   x 2  y 2 sin 2 ,
where f  0, 0   0 and   tan 1  y x  ,
(iii) f  x, y   x 2  y 2

7. Examine the equality of f xy  0, 0  and f yx  0, 0  for the function:

 
f  x, y   x 2  y 2 tan 1  y x  , x  0, f  0, y    y 2 2

8. Given u  e x cos y  e y sin z , find all first partial derivatives and verify that
 2u  2u  2 u  2u  2u  2u
 ;  ; 
xy yx xz zx yz zy

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Repeated Limits
 limit of f  x, y  when y is constant. i.e. y  b is fixed, then limit of f  x, a 

 limit of f  x, y  when x is constant. i.e. if x  a is fixed, then limit of f  a, y 

Theatrically Thinking:
If some function f  x, y  is continuous at  a, b 

 by definition
f  x, y   f  a, b    whenever x  a   , y  b  

or lim f  x, y   f  a , b  ….(1)
 x , y  a ,b 

 (1) holds for arbitrary values y in nbd of  a, b 

(1) will also hold for particular y  b

i.e. lim f  x, b   f  a , b 
 x ,b  a ,b 

 lim f  x, b   f  a, b 
xa

 f  x, b  is also continuous at x  a

Ans3 CSE 2019. Prove or disprove lim f  x, y   0 where

 x , y  0,0 

 x2  y2
 ; x y 0
f  x, y    x  y
0 ; x y 0


Steps (i)

x2  y 2 r 2  cos 2   sin 2  
0   r   cos   sin    r cos   r sin 
x y r  cos   sin  

ab  a  b =  r cos   r sin   r  cos   r  sin 

 r 1  r 1  2 r  2 x 2  y 2  

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Step (ii)
  
i.e. x 2  y 2  ; x  0  , y 0  ; x0  , y0 
2 2 2 2 2

   2 2
 ;x ,y ; x2  , y2 
2 2 2 2 2 2 4 2 4 2

2  x2  y 2
 x2  y 2   x2  y 2   lim 0
4 2  x , y  0,0  x  y

Example. Show that the limit exists at origin i.e.  0,0 

 1 1
 x sin    y sin   ; xy  0
f  x, y     y x
0 ; xy  0

Solution.
We want limit at  0, 0 
1 1
 f  x, y  may approach to the value 0  sin  0  sin  0  
2 2

 Now we want to check limit is 0 or not??

Step (i)
1 1 1 1
f  x, y   0  x sin  y sin  x sin  y sin
y x y x

1 1
 x  sin  y  sin  x 1  y 1  x  y  
y x

Step (ii)
  
x , y   x  0   , y  0   where  
2 2 2

Therefore x, ylim f  x, y   0
  0,0 

 x2  y2
xy , x2  y 2  0
Ans4 IFoS 2018. Consider the function f  x, y    x 2  y 2
0 , x2  y2  0


Find a  0 such that f  x, y   f  0,0   0.01 whenever x 2  y 2  

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Solution.
Step (i)

x2  y2 r 2  cos 2   sin 2  
f  x, y   f  0, 0   xy 2  0  r cos  sin  2
2

x  y2 r  cos 2   sin 2  

r2 r 2 x2  y 2
 sin 4    0.01  
4 4 4

x2  y2  2
 , x  2 ; x  2 , y  2 ;   2 ;   2  0.01
4 2 2 2

 2 x 4 y  5x 2 y 3  y 5
 ;  x, y    0, 0 
Ans6 CSE 2016. Let f  x, y     x 2  y 2 
2


0 ;  x, y    0, 0 

Find a   0 s.t. f  x, y   f  0,0   0.01 whenever x 2  y 2  

Solution.

2r 4 cos 4  sin   5r 5 cos 2  sin 3   r 5 sin 5 

f  x, y   f  0, 0   0
r cos 2   r 2 sin 2  
2 2

x  r cos  , y  r sin 

2r 5  cos 4  sin    5 cos 2  sin 3   sin 5 


r 4 1

 r
 2 r cos 4  sin   5r cos 2  sin 2   r sin 5   2 r 1  5 r 1  r 1

 0.01
  x 2  y 2    0.01  x 2  y 2   
 
abc  a  b  c

a bc  a  b  c

CSE 2015. Discuss the limit of the function

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

  x2  x y
 ;  x, y    0, 0 
f  x, y    x 2  y
0 ;  x, y    0, 0 

Solution.
f  x, y    at  x, y    0, 0 

[See the denominator of f  x, y  ]

1 ; x  2
x2 
f  x   0
x2  ; x  2
0

Way 1:
 1 
r 2  cos 2   1 cos  sin  
x2  x y r 2 cos   r 2 cos  sin 
3

f  x, y   0     r 2

x2  y r 2 cos 2   r sin   1 
r 2  cos 2   sin  
 2 

 r is present in denominator

When   x, y    0, 0   r 2  x 2  y 2  r  0  f  x, y   0

May tend to infinity  f  x, y   0   when x  0   , y  0  

 lim f  x, y  does not exist.

 x , y  y  0,0

Exam Point
If after implications f  x, y    has either r in the denominator of sin  ,cos  in

the denominator then f  x, y     

If 0  x  1
1


1 1 1
e.g. ; 2,  2000,.....
sin  12 1
2000
1
 
sin 

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

CSE 2009. Let f :  2   2 be defined as
 xy
 2 , if  x, y    0, 0 
f  x, y    x  y
2

0 if
  x, y    0, 0 
Discuss the continuity if f  x, y  at  0, 0 
Solution.
If f  x, y  is continuous at  0,0 

Then f  x, y   f  0, 0    whenever x  0   , y  0   ….(1)

xy r cos   r sin  r r 1 2
 0   r cos  sin   sin 2   x  y2  
x2  y 2 r cos 2   sin 2  2 2 2

4 2 4 2
x 2  y 2  2 ; x 2  y 2  4 2 ; x 2  , y2   y  2
2 2

Therefore (1) holds well given function is continuous at  0,  

 x2  x y
 ;  x, y    0, 0 
UPSC CSE 2015. Check the continuity of f  x, y    x 2  y 2
0 , x, y  0, 0
    
Solution.
 f  x, y  may be undefined or infinitely at x  0, y  0 so we need to check

continuity of f  x, y  at  0,0  only at Rest of the points in    plane, f  x, y 

will be continuous.
 Let’s check continuity at  0,0 

 for continuity lim f  x, y   f  0, 0 

 x , y   0,0

But we have already shown in previous example that

x2  x y x 2  x m  x 1 m
lim  lim 
 x , y   0.0  x 2  y  x ,m, x2  x 2  mx 2 1 m

limit does not exist

Function cannot be continuous.
Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052
  xy : if y  0
2

CSE 2019. Let f  x, y    2

 xy : if y  0

f  f 
Determine which of   and   exists and which does not exist.
 x  0,1  y  0,1

Solution.
We know that
 f  f  a  h, b   f  a, b 
   lim
 x  a ,b  h  0 h

 f  f  0  h,1  f  0,1 f  h,1  f  0,1 h  12  0  12

    lim  lim  lim
 x  0,1 h 0 h h0 h h 0 h

h
 lim 1
h0 h

 y  1,  y  0 , f  x, y   xy 2

 f 
  exists and equal to 1.
 x  0,1

 f  f  a, b  h   f  a, b 
   lim
 y  a ,b  h 0 h

f  0,1  h   f  0,1 0  1  h   0 12

2
 f 
    lim  lim 0
 y  0,1 h 0 h h 0 h

 f 
  also exists and is equal to 0.
 y  0,1

CSE 2009. Let f :  2   be defined as

 xy
 2 ; if  x, y    0, 0 
f  x, y    x  y
2

0 ; if  x, y    0, 0 


Is f continuous at  0,0  ? Compute partial derivatives of f at any point  x, y  if

exist.
Solution.

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 lim f  x, y   0  f  0, 0  [From previous question]
 x , y  0,0

 f  x, y  is continuous at  0,0 

 x  h  y 
xy
f  x  h , y   f  x, y   x  h  y2 x  y2
2 2
 f  0
   lim  lim :
 x  x , y  h0 h h0 h 0

 Let’s apply L’Hospital rule [w.r.t. h ]

  x  h
2

 y2  y   x  h y 
2
1
 x  h
2
 y2
 2  x  h

 x  h
2
 y2
 lim 0
h0 1
x2
x 2
 y y 
x 2
 y2  y  x2
x2  y 2

x2  y 2 x  y2 
3
2 2

2 f 2 f
CSE 2014. Obtain  0, 0  and  0, 0  for the function
xy y x

 xy  3x 2  2 y 2 
 ,  x, y    0, 0 
f  x, y    x2  y2

0 ,  x, y    0, 0 
2 f 2 f
Also discuss the continuity of and at  0,0 
xy yx

 2 f     f  
     
 xy  0,0  x  y   0,0 

f y  h, 0   f y  0, 0 
 lim
h  h

1 f  h, k   f  h, 0  f  0, k   f  0, 0  
 lim  lim  lim 
h0 h k 0 k k 0 k
 

  3h 2  2k 2  
hk  2  0  0
1  h   3h  2  0  
 2  2 2
1  h k  
 lim lim  lim  3
h 0 h  k  0 k  h 0 h  h2
 
 
 

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Similarly we can find
 2 f    f 
HINT:      
 y x  0,0   x    0,0 
y

2 f
Let’s check continuity of
yx

 2 f  :  x, y    0, 0 
g  x, y   
yx 3:  x, y    0, 0 

 
2

f  x  y  9 yx  2 y  xy  3 x  2 y   2 x
2 2 3 2 2

x  x2  y 2 
2

2 f

yx

Now check continuity of g  x, y  at  0,0 

 sin 1  x  2 y 
 1 ,  x, y    0, 0 
IFoS 2016. Examine the continuity of f  x, y    tan  2 x  4 y 
 1 ; x, y  0,0
 2    
At the point  0, 0 
Solution.
Putting x  2 y  t for  x, y    0, 0   t  0 [Single variable function]

 sin 1 t
 1 ; t  0
f  t    tan 2t
1 ; t  0
 2
1
1
sin t
 lim 1  t  1
2
 lim f  t   lim 1
t 0 t 0 tan t t 0 1
1  t 2 
 lim f  t   f  0   f  t  i.e. f  xy  is not continuous at  0,0 
t 0

 xy  x 2  y 2 
 ; if  x, y    0, 0 
IFoS 2010. Let f  x, y    x 2  y 2

0 , if  x, y    0, 0 

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Show that (i) f xy  0, 0   f yx  0,0 

(ii) f is differentiable at  0, 0 
Solution.
 2 f     f  
f xy  0, 0        
 xy  0,0  x  y    0,0 

f y  0  h, 0   f y  0, 0  1 f  h, 0  k   f  h, 0  f  0, 0  k   f  0, 0  
 lim  lim  lim  lim 
h0 h h0 h k 0
 k k 0 k 

 h  k  h2  k 2  
1  h   h  0 
 0  2
1 h 2
 k 2 0  0 h3
 lim lim  lim  lim   0   lim 1 ….(1)
h  0 h  k 0 k k  h 0 h  h 2  0 h  0 h3
k 0
 

 
 

   f  
f yx  0, 0      
 y  x    0,0 

f x  0, h   f x  0, 0  1 f  k , h   f  0, h  f  k , 0   f  0, 0  
 lim  lim  lim  lim 
h0 h h0 h k 0 k  k
 k 0


 k  h  k 2  h2  
  0
1  k h 2 2
 h3
 lim 0  lim  1 ….(2)
h 0 h  k  h 0 h

 
 

From (1) and (2)

f xy  0, 0   f yx  0, 0 

 x3  y 3
, x y
IFoS 2011. Show that the function f  x, y    x  y
0 , xy


Is discontinuous at the origin but posses partial derivatives f x and f y there at

Solution.
Let’s check lim f  x, y   f  0,0   0 ?
 x , y   0,0 

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

   Definition:

x3  y 3 r 3  cos3   sin 3  
f  x, y   f  0,0   0  
x y r  cos   sin  

 cos   sin  is available in denominator [for some   0 ]

 Not continuous at  0,0  for x  0   , y  0  

h 3  03
f  h, 0   f  0, 0  0
f x  0, 0   lim  lim h  0 0
h 0 h h0 h
03  h3
f  0, h   f  0, 0 
f y  0, 0   lim  lim 0  h  0
h 0 h h 0 h

  x  y 2
 , if  x, y    0, 0 
UPSC CSE 2012. Let f  x, y    x 2  y 2

1 if  x, y    0, 0 

f f
Show that and exist at  0,0  though f  x, y  is not continuous at  0, 0 
x y

h2
f  h, 0   f  0, 0  1
 f  2 0
   lim  lim h  lim  0
 x  0,0  h  h h 0 h h 0 h

h2
f  0, h   f  0, 0  1
 f  2
   lim  lim h 0
 y  0,0 h 0 h h 0 h

 r cos   r sin    cos   sin  

2 2

f  x, y   f  0, 0     2 [may be]
r 2  cos 2   sin 2   1

If we choose   1 2

We get f  x, y   f  0, 0    for x  0   , y  0  

Where  towards on 
 f  x, y  is not continuous at  0,0 

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 2 f 2 f
UPSC CSE 2014. Obtain  
0, 0 and  0, 0  for the function
xy yx

 xy  3x 2  2 y 2 
 ,  x, y    0, 0 
f  x, y    x2  y2

0 ,  x, y    0, 0 
2 f 2 f
Also discuss the continuity of and at  0,0 
xy yx

 2 f     f   f  h, 0   f y  0, 0 
       lim y
 xy  0,0  x  y   0,0  h  h

1 f  h, k   f  h, 0  f  0, k   f  0, 0  
 lim  lim  lim 
h0 h k 0 k k 0 k
 

  3h 2  2k 2  
h  k  0  0
  lim 1  
  2 2   h  3h 2  2  02  
1
 lim  lim  h k   3
h 0 h  k  0 k  h 0 h  h2
 
 
 

Similarly we can find

 2 f     f  
     
 yx  0,0  y  x    0,0 

2 f
Let’s check continuity of
yx

 2 f  :  x, y    0, 0 
g  x, y   
yx 3:  x, y    0, 0 

 
2

f  x  y  9 yx  2 y  xy  3 x  2 y   2 x
2 2 3 2 2

x  x2  y 2 
2

2 f

y x

Now check continuity of g  x, y  at  0,0 

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 xy
UPSC IFoS 2016. Examine if the function f  x, y   ,  x, y    0, 0  and
x  y2
2

f f
f  0, 0   0 is continuous at  0,0  Find and at points other than main.
x y

Solution.
Method I

xy r cos   r sin 
f  x, y   f  0, 0   0  2
x y r  cos 2   sin 2  
2 2

1 1
 cos  sin   sin 2   sin 2
2 2
1 1
 1 
2 2

But if we choose   1

Then
f  x, y   f  0, 0   

For x  0   , y  0  

 lim f  x, y   f  0, 0 
 x , y  0,0

 f  x, y  is not continuous at  0,0 

Method II
 along y  mx

xy x  mn m
lim  lim  depending on m
 x , y   0,0 x  y
2 2  x ,sin x  0,0  x  m x
2 2 2
1  m2

 lim f  xy  does not exist

 x , y  0,0

 f  x, y  is not continuous at  0,0 

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

UPSC SCE 2012. Define a function f of two real variables in the x  y -plane
 3 1 1
 x cos y  y cos x
3

by f  x, y    for  x, y    0, 0 
 x 2
 y 2

0 , otherwise

Check the continuity and differentiability of f at  0, 0 

Solution.
1 1
x3 cos  y 3 cos
y x
f  x, y   f  0, 0   0
x y
2 2

1 1
r 3 cos3   cos  r 3 sin 3   cos

 r sin   r cos 
r 2  cos 2   sin 2  

 1 1 
r 3  cos 3   cos  sin 3   cos 
  r sin    r cos   

r2

 1 1 
 r  cos 3   cos  sin 3  cos  
 r sin  2  cos  

1 1
 r  cos3  cos  sin 3   cos
sin  x cos 

 r  1  1  2 2  2 x 2  y 2  

Define a function f of two real variables in the x  y plane by

 3 1 1
 x cos y  y cos x
3

f  x, y    for  x, y    0, 0 
 x 2
 y 2

0 , otherwise

To check differentiability of f  x, y  at  0, 0 
Step (i)

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Let f  x, y  is differentiable  0, 0   by definition

 f   f 
f  h, k   f  0, 0   df  Ah  Bk  h  k  where A    , B   
 x  0,0  y  0,0

and  , both tend to zero as  h, k    0,0 

1
f  h, 0   f  0, 0  h3 cos  0  0
 f  0
A   lim  lim  lim h 2 cos   0  some finite
 x  0,0 h0 h h 0 h h0

value = 0
1
f  0, h   f  0, 0  h3 cos
 f  0 0
B   lim  lim
y
  0,0  h0 h h 0 h

 From (1)
1 1
h3 cos  k 3 cos
k h  0  0  h  0  k  h  k 
h2  k 2
Putting g   cos  , k   sin   for arbitrary  :   0 when  h, k    0,0 

 2  h2  k 2

 1 1 
 cos   cos  sin   cos    cos     sin   
  sin   cos  
 R.H.S.  0 But L.H.S. may not be zero for arbitrary values at 

 Our Assumption was wrong.

 x3  y 3
, x y
UPSC IFoS 2011. Show that the function f  x, y    x  y
0 , x y


Is discontinuous at the origin but possesses partial derivatives f x and f y there at

Solution.
Let’s check lim f  x, y   f  0,0   0 ?
 x , y   0,0 

   Definition:

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 x3  y 3 r 3  cos3   sin 3  
f  x, y   f  0,0   0  
x y r  cos   sin  

 cos   sin  is available in denominator [for some   0 ]

 Not continuous at  0,0  for x  0   , y  0  

h 3  03
f  h, 0   f  0, 0  0
f x  0, 0   lim  lim h  0 0
h 0 h h0 h
03  h3
f  0, h   f  0, 0 
f y  0, 0   lim  lim 0  h  0
h 0 h h 0 h

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

CHAPTER- TAYLOR'S THEOREM, MAXIMA/MINIMA

If f  x, y  is a function which possesses continuous partial derivatives of order n

in any domain of a point  a, b  , and the domain is large enough to contain a
point  a  h, b  k  with it, then there exists a positive number 0    1 , such that
2
    1   
f  a  h, b  k   f  a, b    h  k  f  a, b    h  k  f  a, b 
 x y  2!  x y 
n 1
1    
...  h  k  f  a, b   Rn ,
 n  1 !  x y 
n
1   
where Rn   h  k  f  a   h, b   k  , 0    1 .
n !  x y 
Let x  a  th, y  b  tk , where 0  t  1 is a parameter, and
f  x, y   f  a  th, b  tk     t 
Since the partial derivatives of f  x, y  of order n are continuous in the domain
under consideration,  n  t  is continuous in  0,1 , and also
df f dx f dy f f    
 ' t     h k  h k  f
dt x dt y dt x y  x y 
2
   
 "t    h k  f
 x y 

n
   
  n  t    h k  f
 x y 
therefore by Maclaurin's theorem
t2 t n 1 t n  n
  t     0   t '  0    "  0   ...    n 1
 0     t  ,
2!  n  1! n!
where 0    1 .
Now on putting t  1 , we get
1 1 1
 1    0    '  0    "  0   ...    n 1  0     n   0 
2!  n  1! n!
But  1  f  a  h, b  k  , and   0   f  a, b 
   
 ' 0   h  k  f  a, b 
 x y 
2
   
 "  0    h  k  f  a, b 
 x y 

n
   
 n
    h  k  f  a   h, b   k 
 x y 

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

    
 f  a  h, b  k   f  a , b    h  k  f  a, b 
 x y 
2 n 1
1    1    
  h  k  f  a, b   ...  h  k  f  a, b   Rn
2!  x y   n  1!  x y 
n
1   
where Rn   h  k  f  a   h, b   k  , 0    1 .
n !  x y 
Rn is called the remainder after n terms, and the theorem, Taylor's theorem with
remainder or Taylor's expansion about the point  a, b  .
If we put a  b  0 ; h  x, k  y , we get
   
f  x, y   f  0, 0    x  y  f  0, 0 
 x y 
2 n 1
1    1    
  x  y  f  0, 0   ...  x  y  f  0,0   Rn
2!  x y   n  1!  x y 
n
1   
where Rn   x  y  f  x,  y  , 0    1 , is called the Maclaurin's theorem
n !  x y 
or Maclaurin's expansion.
It is easy to see that Taylor's theorem can also be put in the form:
1 2
f  a  h, b  k   f  a, b   df  a, b   d f  a, b   ...
2!
1 1
 d n 1 f  a, b   d n f  a   h, b   k 
 n  1! n!
The reasoning in the general case of several variables is precisely the same and
so the theorem can be easily extended to any number of variables.

Maxima and Minima of Several Variables

INTRODUCTION
The students are already familiar with the problems of maxima and minima of
functions of a single variable. In the present chapter, we shall first define
maxima and minima of functions of several variables and then develop methods
for determining them.

MAXIMA AND MINIMA OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

Let f  x, y , z,... be a function of several independent variables ( x, y, z,... .Further,
let f be continuous and finite for all values of x, y, z,... in the neighbourhood of
their values a, b, c,... respectively. Then the value f  a, b, c,... is said to be a
maximum or a minimum value of f  x, y, z,... if f  a  h, b  k , c  l ,...  f  a, b, c,...
maintains an invariant sign, negative or positive, for all small values, positive or
negative, of h, k , l ,....

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

NECESSARY CONDITION FOR THE EXISTENCE OF MAXIMA OR
MINIMA
Let f  x, y , z,... be a continuous and differentiable function of variables x, y, z,... .
Expanding f  x  h, y  k , z  l ,... by extended Taylor's theorem, we have
 h   k   l  ... 
f  x  h, y  k , z  l ,...   e x y z  f
 
      1    
2

 1   h  k  l  ...    h  k  l  ...   ... f ,
  x y z  2!  x y z  
 f f f 
or f  x  h, y  k , z  l ,...  f  x, y, z ,...   h  k  l  ...  + terms of second and
 x y z 
higher orders. ....(1)
Now for a maximum or a minimum, the difference
f  x  h, y  k , z  l ,...  f  x, y, z ,... ....(2)
must preserve an invariant sign. Since h, k , l ,... are sufficiently small, the first
f f f
degree terms, namely, h k l  ... , can be made to govern the sign of
x y z
difference (2). Evidently, by changing the sign of each of h, k , l ,... , the sign of
the first degree terms can be changed. Hence unless the first degree term on the
right hand side of (1) is zero, the sign of the left hand side can be changed by
changing the signs of h, k , l ,... . Therefore, a necessary condition for the
existence of a maximum or a minimum is
f f f
h k l  ...  0 . ....(3)
x y z
Since h, k , l ,... are arbitrary and independent, (3) holds if
f f f
 0,  0,  0,... . ....(4)
x y z
If there are n independent variables, we have n simultaneous equations in (4).
Solving them for x, y, z... , we get the values of variables for which f  x, y , z ,...
may have a maximum or a minimum value.
Note. The equations in (4) are necessary but not sufficient for the existence of
maxima or minima. In the subsequent sections, we shall investigate sufficient
conditions in the case of two and three independent variables.

ALGEBRAIC LEMMA
In this section, we establish a lemma to find the conditions which govern the
sign of a quadratic expression in two and three variables.
Case 1. Two Variables. The quadratic expression I 2  ax 2  2hxy  by 2 in two
variables x and y can be written as

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 1 2 2
I2 
a

a x  2ahxy  aby 2 

1
a
 ax  hy    ab  h  y  .
2 2 2

Therefore, if ab  h 2 is positive, the sign of I 2 will be the same as that of a.

But if ab  h 2 is negative, the expression within the curly brackets may be
positive or negative and therefore we cannot say anything about the sign of the
expression I 2 . When ab  h 2  0 , the case is doubtful.
Case 2. Three Variables. The quadratic expression in three variables x, y and
z can be written as
I 3  ax 2  by 2  cz 2  2 fyz  2 gzx  2hxy
1
  a 2 x 2  aby 2  acz 2  2afyz  2agzx  2ahxy 
a
1

 a 2 x 2  2ax  gz  hy   aby 2  acz 2  2afyz
a

1
 ax  hy  gz  aby 2  acz 2  2afyz   gz  hy 
2 2

a
1
  
  ax  hy  gz   ab  h 2 y 2  2  af  gh  yz  ac  g 2 z 2 .
a
2
  
Therefore, I 3 will have the same sign as a if
 ab  h  y  2  af  gh  yz   ac  g  z be positive,
2 2 2 2

i.e.,  ab  h  and a  abc  2 fgh  af  bg  ch  be positive.

2 2 2 2

a h
But ab  h 2 
h b
a h g
and abc  2 fgh  af  bg  ch  h b
2 2 2
f .
g f c
Thus the expression I 3 will be positive if
a h g
a h
a, ;h b f
h b
g f c
are all positive, and will be negative if these are alternately negative and
positive.

MAXIMA AND MINIMA FOR A FUNCTION OF TWO VARIABLES:

LAGRANGE'S CONDITION

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Mentor’s advice: Students can read below article just to have feel for how this
maxima minima method works so. After all they have to remember working
rule to solve questions in your exam.

Let f  x, y  be a function of two independent variables x and y . Further, let

2 f 2 f 2 f
r , s  , t  at x  a, y  b .
x 2 xy y 2
As a set of necessary conditions for a maximum or a minimum to exist at  a, b  ,
we have
f f
 0 and  0 at  a, b  .
x y
Then by extended Taylor's theorem, we have
1
f  a  h, b  k   f  a, b  
2!
 
rh 2  2 shk  tk 2  R3 , ....(1)
where R3 consists of terms of the third and higher orders of small quantities.
Now by taking h and k sufficiently small, the second degree terms in (1) can be
made to govern to sign of the right hand side and therefore that of the left hand
side also. If for all such values of h and k , these terms be of a fixed sign, then
we shall have a maximum or a minimum for f  x, y  according as that sign is
negative or positive.
Therefore, by Case 1, the expression rh 2  2shk  tk 2 will be of the same sign as
r , provided rt  s 2 is positive.
Therefore, by S Case 1, the expression rh 2  2shk  tk 2 will be of the same sign as
r , provided rt  s 2 is positive.
Hence if rt  s 2 is positive, we have a maximum or minimum according as r is
negative or positive.
This is Lagrange's condition for maxima and minima of a function of two
variables.
If rt  s 2  0 , f  x, y  is not a maximum or minimum at x  a, y  b . In this case,
f  a  h, b  k   f  a, b  has one sign for some values of h and k (e.g., k  0, h  0 ),
while it has another sign for other values h and k (e.g., h   ks r , k  0 ). Such a
point is called a saddle point.
If rt  s 2  0 , further investigation is needed to determine whether f  x, y  is a
maximum or minimum at x  a, y  b .
Working Rule Exam Point. In order to determine a maximum or minimum of
a function u  f  x, y  , we proceed as follows:
(i) Find f x and f y , and equate them to zero. Solve these simultaneous
equations for x and y . Let the roots be x  ai , y  bi , where i  1, 2,... .
(ii) Find  2 f x 2 ,  2 f xy and  2 f y 2 , and substitute in them by turns
x  ai , y  bi . Calculate the value of rt  s 2 for each pair of values.

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Now at the point given by x  y  a , we have
 2u 2 a 3  2u  2 u 2a 3
r   2, s   1, t   3  2.
x 2 x3 xy y 2 y
Therefore, rt  s  2  2  1  3  0 . Now, since r  0 , by Lagrange's condition, the
2 2

function u has a minima at x  y  a . The minimum value of u is given by

a3 a3
umin  aa    3a 2 .
a a
Example 2. Find the maximum or minimum values of
y  x 2 y 2 1  x  y  .
Solution.
For maxima and minima of u , we must have
u
 2 xy 2 1  x  y   x 2 y 2  0 , i.e., xy 2  2  3 x  2 y   0
x
u
and  2 x 2 y 1  x  y   x 2 y 2  0 i.e., x 2 y  2  2 x  3 y   0 .
y
The factors x and y present in both these equations provide the solutions
x  0,   y   and   x  , y  0 .
Further, the other factors give the equations
2  3x  2 y  0 and 2  2 x  3 y  0 .
2 2
Solving these, we get x  , y  .
5 5
 2u
Now, r   2 y 2  6 xy 2  2 y 3
x 2

 2u d 2u
s  4 xy  6 x 2 y  6 xy 2 and t  2  2 x 2  2 x 3  6 x 2 y .
xy y
When x  0,   x   , we have r  2 y 2 1  y  , s  0 and t  0 . Therefore,
rt  s  0 . So this case is doubtful and needs further investigation.
2

When   x  , y  0 , we have r  0, s  0 and t  2 x 2 1  x  . Therefore,

rt  s 2  0 . So this case is also doubtful and needs further investigation.
2 2
When x  , y  , we have
5 5
2 2 3
2 22 2 24
r  2   6     2    ,
5 55 5 125
2 2
2 2 2 2 22 16
s  4   6    6    
5 5 5 5 55 125
2 3 2

and t  2    2    6     
2 2 2 2 25
.
5 5 5 5 125
2

So, rt  s   
24  24   16  320
2
     , which is positive.
 125  125   125  15625

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Now, since r is negative, by Lagrange's condition, the function u is maximum
2 2
at x  , y  . The maximum value of u is
5 5
2 2
2 2  2 2 16
umax      1     .
 5   5   5 5  3125
Example 3. Discuss the maximum or minimum values of u  x3  y 3  3axy .
Solution.
For maxima and minima of u , we must have
u
 3 x 2  3ay  0 , i.e., x 2  ay  0 ....(1)
x
u
and  3 y 2  3ax  0 , i.e., y 2  ax  0 . ....(2)
y
Putting the value of x from (2) in (1), we obtain
 y a  
2
2
 ay  0 , i.e., y 4  a 3 y  0 , i.e., y y 3  a 3  0 , which gives y  0, a.
From (1), when y  0 , we get x  0 , and when y  a , we get x   a .
But x  a, y  a do not satisfy (2). So we reject these values. Therefore, the only
solutions of (1) and (2) are x  0, y  0 and x  a, y  a .
 2u  2u  2u
Now r   6 x, s   3a and t  2  6 y .
x 2
xy y
At x  0, y  0 , we have r  0, s  3a and t  0 . So, rt  s 2  9a 2  0 .
Hence u is neither maximum nor minimum at x  0, y  0 .
At x  a, y  a , we have r  6a, s  3a and t  6a . So,
rt  s 2   6a  6a    3a   36a 2  9a 2  27a 2 .
2

Since rt  s 2 is positive and r is positive or negative according as a is positive

or negative, we have maximum or minimum according as a is negative or
positive. The maximum or minimum value of u is  a3  a3  3aaa  a3 .
Example 4. Discuss the maximum and minimum values of the function
u  x3 y  y 3 x  bx 3  3bxy 2  2b 2 xy .
Solution.
For maxima or minima we must have
u
 3 x 2 y  y 3  3bx 2  3by 2  2b 2 y  0
x
u
and  x3  3 y 2 x  6bxy  2b 2 x  0 ,
y
i.e., x  x 2  3 y 2  6by  2b 2   0 .
Therefore, we have to consider the following pairs of equations:
3 x 2 y  y 3  3bx 2  3by 2  2b 2 y  0, 
 ....(1)
x  0, 

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 3 x 2 y  y 3  3bx 2  3by 2  2b 2 y  0, 
and 2  ....(2)
x  3 y 2  6by  2b 2  0, 
Putting x  0 in the first equation of pair (1), we get
 
y 3  3by 2  2b 2 y  0 , i.e., y y 2  3by  2b 2  0 ,
i.e., y  y  b  y  2b   0 ,
which gives y  0, b, 2b .
Thus the pair (1) of equations gives the following pairs of values of x and y :
 0, 0  ,  0,b  and  0, 2b  .
Further, multiplying the second equation of pair (2) by y and subtracting the
resulting equation from the first equation of the same pair, we get
2 x 2 y  2 y 3  3by 2  3bx 2  0 , i.e., 2 y  x 2  y 2   3b  x 2  y 2   0 ,
3
i.e.,  x 2  y 2   2 y  3b   0 , which gives y   x and y  b .
2
Now putting y  x in the second equation of pair (2), we get
4 x 2  6bx  2b 2  0 , i.e., 2 x 2  3bx  b 2  0 ,
1
i.e.,  x  b  2 x  b   0 , which gives x  b, b .
2
Similarly, putting y   x , we get
4 x 2  6bx  2b2  0 , i.e., 2 x 2  3bx  b2  0 ,
1
i.e.,  x  b  2 x  b   0 , which gives x  b,  b .
2
3 1 1
Also, putting y  b , we get x 2  b 2  0 , which gives x   b .
2 4 2
Thus the pair (2) of equations gives the following pairs of values of x and y :
 b, b  , 
1 1   1 1  1 3   1 3 
b, b  ,  b, b  ,   b, b  ,  b, b  ,   b, b  .
2 2   2 2  2 2   2 2 
u
2
Now r  2  6 xy  6bx ,
x
u
2
 2u
s  3 x 2  3 y 2  6by  2b 2 , t  2  6 yx  6bx .
xy y
We form the following table for the values of r , s, t and rt  s 2 at various points
determined above.

 x, y   0, 0   0,b   0, 2b   b, b  1 1   b , b   1 1  1 3   1 3 
 b, b    b, b   b, b    b, b 
2 2   2 2  2 2   2 2 

r 0 0 0 0 3
 b2
0 3 2
b
3 2
b
3
 b2
2 2 2 2

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

s 2b2 b2 2b2 2b2 1 2 2b2 1 2 1 2 1 2
b b b b
2 2 2 2
t 0 0 0 0 3
 b2
0 3 2
b
3 2
b
3
 b2
2 2 2 2
rt  s 2 4b 4 b4 4b 4 4b 4 2b4 4b 4 2b4 2b4 2b4

Since rt  s 2  0 and r  0 at  b, b  and   b, b  , u is maximum at these

1 1 1 3
2 2   2 2 
points.
Further, since rt  s 2  0 and r  0 at   b, b  and  b, b  , u is minimum at
1 1 1 3
 2 2  2 2 
these points.
But, rt  s 2  0 at  0, 0  ,  0, b  ,  0, 2b  ,  b, b  ,  b, b  , the function u is neither
maximum nor minimum at these points.
Example 5. Find the maximum value of u , where u  sin x sin y sin  x  y  .
Solution.
Since the function u is periodic with period  for x and y both, it suffices to
consider the values of x and y satisfying 0  x   ,0  y  
For maxima and minima of u , we must have
u
 sin y sin x cos  x  y   cos x sin  x  y   0 ,
x
i.e., sin y sin  2 x  y   0 , ....(1)
u
and  sin x sin y cos  x  y   cos y sin  x  y   0 ,
y
i.e., sin x sin  x  2 y   0 . ....(2)
To find the values of x and y lying between 0 and  , and satisfying (1) and (2),
we need to consider the following pairs of equations:
x  0, y  0; 2 x  y   ; 2 x  y  2 , 2 y  x  2 .
Solving these, we get the following pairs of values of x and y between 0 and 
:
1 1 2 2
x  0, y  0; x   , y   ; x   , y   .
3 3 3 3
u2
Now, r  2  2sin y cos  2 x  y  ,
x
u2
s  sin x cos  x  2 y   cos x sin  x  2 y   sin  2 x  2 y 
xy
 2u
and t  2  2 sin x cos  x  2 y  .
y
At x  0, y  0 , we have r  0, s  0, t  0 so that rt  s 2  0 .

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Therefore, at the point  0, 0  , the case is doubtful, and further investigation is
needed.
1 1
At x   , y   , we have
3 3
1 1 
r  2sin  cos   2  3   1   3 ,
3 2 
4  1  1 1
s  sin   sin        sin    3
3  3  3 2

and t  2sin  cos   2  3   1   3 .

1 1
3 2 
2
2
  
So, rt  s   3  3    3   3    0 . Also, since r   3  0, u is
1
 2 
3 9
4 4
1 1
maximum at x   , y   .
3 3
 2
At x   , y   , we have
3 3
2 1 
r  2 sin  cos 2  2  3  1  3 ,
3 2 
8  2  2 1
s  sin   sin  2     sin   3,
3  3  3 2

and t  2sin  cos 2  2  3  1 .

2 1
3 2 

  
So, rt  s 2  3 3   3   3    0 . Also, since r  3  0, u is minimum
1
2 
3 9
4 4
2 2
at x   , y   .
3 3
Example 6. Discuss the maxima or minima of the function
 x y  x y
u  2sin   cos    cos  x  y  .
 2   2 
Solution.
The given function can be written in the form u  sin x  sin y  cos  x  y  ,
which is more convenient for the purpose.
For maxima or minima of u , we must have
u
 cos x  sin  x  y   0 , ....(1)
x
u
and  cos y  sin  x  y   0 , ....(2)
y
These equations give cos x  cos y , i.e., x  y . Putting y  x in (1) (or in (2)), we
get
cos x  sin 2 x  0 , i.e., cos x  2 sin x cos x  0 ,

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 1
i.e., cos 1  2 sin x  , so that cos x  0,sin x  .
2
1
Now cos x  0 gives x  2n   ,
2
1 n 1
and sin x  gives x  n   1  , where n is any integer.
2 6
u
2
Further, r  2   sin x  cos  x  y  ,
x
 2u  2u
s   cos  x  y  , t  2   sin y  cos  x  y  .
xy y
1
When x  y  2n   , we have
2
r  0, s  1, t  0 so that rt  s 2  1  0 .
1
When x  y  2n   , we have
2
r  2, s  1, t  2 so that rt  s 2  2  2  1  3  0 .
1
Since r  2  0, u is minimum at x  y  2n   .
3
n 1
Lastly, when x  y  n   1  , we have
6
1 3
r  1, s   , t  1 so that rt  s 2   0 .
2 4
1
Since rt  s 2 is positive and r is negative, u is maximum at x  y  n   1
n
.
6
Example 7. Find a point within a triangle such that the sum of the squares of its
distances from the three vertices is a minimum.
Solution.
Let  x1 , y1  ,  x2 , y2  ,  x3 , y3  be the co-ordinates of the vertices of the triangle and
let the co-ordinates of the required point be  x, y  . If u denote the sum of the
squares of the distances of  x, y  from these vertices, then
u  x  x 
1
2
  y  y1  
2
  x  x    y  y     x  x 
2
2
2
2
3
2
  y  y3  .
2

For maxima and minima of u , we must have

u
 2  x  x1   2  x  x2   2  x  x3   0
x
u
and  2  y  y1   2  y  y2    y  y3   0 .
y
Solving these equations, we have
1 1
x  x1  x2  x3  and y   y1  y2  y3 
3 3
 2u  2u  2u
Now r  2  6 , s   0 and t  2  6 , so that
x xy y

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

u  r1  r2  r3 .
Now for maxima and minima of u , we must have
u x  x1 x  x2 x  x3
   0
x r1 r2 r3
u y  y1 y  y2 y  y3
and    0,
y r1 r2 r3
These equations are
cos   cos    cos  and sin   sin    sin  .
Squaring and then adding these relations, we get
 cos 2
  cos 2   2cos  cos     sin 2   sin 2   2sin  sin    cos 2   sin 2  ,
i.e.,  cos2   sin 2     cos 2   sin 2    2  cos  cos   sin  sin    1 ,
i.e., 1  1  2 cos      1 ,
1
i.e., cos       , which gives     120 .
2
Therefore, APB  120 . Similarly, BPC  CPA  120 .
Hence the point P is such that each side subtends an angle 120° on it. Now
 2u 1   x  x1   1
2
  x  x 2  1   x  x  2 
r  1
    1  
2
  1  
3
 
x 2 r1   r1   r2  r   r3 r
   2
  3  
1 1 1
 
 1  cos 2   1  cos 2 
r1 r2
  
 1  cos 2 
r3

sin 2  sin 2  sin 2 
  
r1 r2 r3
 2u cos 2  cos 2  cos 2 
Similarly, t    
y 2 r1 r2 r3

Also, s 
 2u  y  y r 
   2 1  1    
 x  x1  y  y1 
xy  r1 x  r13
cos  sin   cos  sin  cos  sin  cos  sin  
      
r1  r1 r2 r3 
 sin  sin  sin 2    cos 2  cos 2  cos 2  
2 2
So, rt  s 2        
 r1 r2 r3   r1 r2 r3 
2
 cos  sin  cos  sin  cos  sin  
   
 r1 r2 r3 
2
 sin  cos   cos  sin  
   , by Lagrange's Identity*
  r1r2  
sin    
2

 , which is positive.
r1r2

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Since both rt  s 2 and r are positive, it follows that u is minimum for the
position of P determined above.
Example 9. Show that the maxima and minima of the function
ax 2  by 2  2hxy  2 gx  2 fy  c
u ....(1)
a ' x 2  b ' y 2  2h ' xy  2 g ' x  2 f ' y  c '
are given by the roots of the equation
a  a 'u h  h 'u g  g 'u
h  h 'u b  b 'u f  f 'u  0 .
g  g 'u f  f 'u c  c 'u

Solution.
From (1) we have
 
u a ' x 2  b ' y 2  2h ' xy  2 g ' x  2 f ' y  c '  ax 2  by 2  2hxy  2 gx  2 fy  c ....(2)
Partial differentiation of (2) with respect to x and y , one-by-one, gives
u
x
 
a ' x 2  b ' y 2  2h ' xy  2 g ' x  2 f ' y  c ' 2u  a ' x  h ' y  g '  2  ax  hy  g  ....(3)
u
and  a ' x 2  b ' y 2  2h ' xy  2 g ' x  2 f ' y  c ' 2u  b ' y  h ' x  f '  2  by  hx  f 
y
....(4)
Now for maximum and minimum of u , we must have u x  0 and u y  0 .
Therefore, from (3) and (4), we have
u  a ' x  h ' y  g '   ax  hy  g ....(5)
and u  h ' x  b ' y  f '   hx  by  f . ....(6)
Also, multiplying (5) by x and (6) by y , and then subtracting the sum of the
resulting equations from (2), we obtain
u  g ' x  f ' y  c '  gx  fy  c ....(7)
Equations (5), (6) and (7) can be written as
a  a 'u  x  h  h 'u  y   g  g 'u   0 ,
 h  h ' u  x  b  b ' u  y   f  f ' u   0 ,
and  g  g ' u  x   f  f ' u  y   c  c ' u   0 .
Eliminating x and y from these equations we find that the maxima and minima
of u are given by the roots of the equation
a  a 'u h  h 'u g  g 'u
h  h 'u b  b 'u f  f 'u  0 .
g  g 'u f  f 'u c  c 'u

*The following relation is called Lagrange's Identity:

l1
2
 
 m12  n12 l22  m22  n22   l1l2  m1m2  n1n1 
2

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

  m1n2  m2 n1    n1l2  n2l1    l1m2  l2 m1  .
2 2 2

MAXIMA AND MINIMA FOR A FUNCTION OF THREE VARIABLES:

LAGRANGE'S CONDITIONS
Let a, b, c be the values of x, y, z respectively obtained by solving the equations
f f f
 0,  0,  0.
x y z
Also, let the corresponding values of
2 f 2 f 2 f 2 f 2 f 2 f
, , , , ,
x 2 y 2 z 2 yz zx xy
be denoted by A, B, C, F, G, H respectively. Then by the extended Taylor's
theorem, we have
1
f  a  h, b  k , c  l   f  a , b, c  
2!
 
Ah 2  Bk 2  Cl 2  2 Fkl  2Glh  2 Hhk  R3 ,

....(1)
where R3 consists of the terms of third and higher orders of small quantities.
Now by taking h, k and l sufficiently small, the second degree terms in (1) can
be made to govern the sign of right hand side and hence of the left hand side
also. If these terms be of a fixed sign for all such values of h, k and l , we shall
have a maximum or minimum of f  x, y , z  according as that sign is negative or
positive.
Therefore (by Case 2), if the expressions
A H G
A H
A, , H B F
H B
G F C
be all positive, we shall have a minimum value of f  x, y , z  and if they be
alternately negative and positive, we shall have a maximum value of f  x, y , z  .
These are Lagrange's conditions for maxima and minima of a function of three
variables. However, if none of these two conditions is satisfied, we shall, in
general, have neither a maximum nor a minimum.

Example 1. Show that the function u   x  y  z   3  x  y  z   24 xyz  a3 has a

3

minimum at 1,1,1 and maximum at  1, 1, 1 .

Solution.
For maxima and minima of u , we must have
u
 3  x  y  z   3  24 yz  0 .
2

x
i.e., 8 yz   x  y  z   1 ,
2
....(1)

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

u
 3  x  y  z   3  24 xz  0 ,
2

y
i.e., 8 xz   x  y  z   1 ,
2
....(2)
u
 3  x  y  z   3  24 xy  0 ,
2
and
z
i.e., 8 xy   x  y  z   1 .
2
....(3)
From (1), (2) and (3), we have
yz  xz  xy , i.e., x  y  z .
Then (1) gives 8 x 2  9 x 2  1 , i.e., x 2  1 or x  1 .
Therefore, 1,1,1 and  1, 1, 1 are the points of maxima or minima.
Now to discuss maxima or minima, we have
 2u  18 at 1,1,1
A  6 x  y  z  
x 2
18 at  -1, -1, -1
 2u 
 6 at 1,1,1
and F   6  x  y  z   24 x  
yz  6 at  -1,-1,1
By symmetry, we have
A  B  C  18 and F  G  H  6 at 1,1,1
and A  B  C  18 and F  G  H  6 at  1, 1, 1 .
Now we can see that the values of the expressions
A H G
A H
A, , H B F
H B
G F C
are 18, 288,3456 respectively at 1,1,1
and 18, 288, 3456 respectively at  1, 1, 1 .
Hence by Lagrange's conditions, there is a minimum at 1,1,1 and maximum at
 1, 1, 1 .
Example 2. Find the maximum value of
xyz
u ,
 a  x  x  y  y  z  z  b 
where all the letters denote positive real numbers.
Solution.
Taking logarithms, we have
log u  log x  log y  log z  log  a  x   log  x  y   log  y  z   log  z  b  .
Differentiating partially with respect to x , we get
1 u 1 1 1 ay  x 2
    ,
u x x a  x x  y x  a  x  x  y 

so that
u


ay  x 2 u
.
 ....(1)
x x  a  x  x  y 

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Similarly,
u


zx  y 2 u
and
u

by  z 2 u
.
 
y y  x  y  y  z  z z  y  z  z  b 
Now for maxima and minima, we have
u u u
 0,  0,  0,
x y z
so that ay  x 2  0 , zx  y 2  0 , by  z 2  0 .
These equations give
x y z b
   .
a x y z
Therefore, each of these fraction is
14 14
 x y z b b
           say. (note)
a x y z a
Hence x  a , x  a 2  a 3 and b  z  a 4 .
Substituting these values of x, y and z in the given equation, we have
a  a 2  a 3
u
a 1     a 1     a 2 1     a 3 1   
1 1 1
   . ....(2)
a 1   
 
a1 4  b1 4 
4 4 4
a 1  b a 
14

Now we decide whether this value of u is maximum or minimum. For this, we

proceed to find the second order derivatives of u .
From relation (1), we have
u
x  a  x  x  y 
x

 ay  x 2 u . 
Differentiating partially with respect to x , this gives
 2u u u
x  a  x  x  y 
x 2
 '
x
 ay  x 2
x
 2 xu ,  
where  ' is some function of x and y . Substituting the values of x, y and z
obtained above and using u x  0 , we get
 2u 2
A  3 .
x a  1   
2 6

Similarly, we can show that

2 2
B ,C   ,
a  1    a  1   
3 3 6 3 5 6

1 1
F , G  0, H  .
1    1   
6 5
a
3 4
a 3 2

From these values, we find that

A = a negative quantity,
A H 3
 AB  H 2   a a positive quantity
1   
12
H B a
6 4

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 A H G
4
and H B F  = a negative quantity.
a  1   
9 9 18

G F C
Hence by Lagrange's conditions, the value of u found in (2) is maximum.
Example 3. Find the maximum and minimum values of
 ax  by  cz  e x  y  z .
2 2 2 2 2 2

Solution.
Let u   ax  by  cz  e x   y  z . Taking logarithm on both sides, we have
2 2 2 2 2 2


log u  log  ax  by  cz    2 x 2   2 y 2   2 z 2 .  ....(1)
For maxima and minima, we must have
u u u
 0,  0,  0.
x y z
Differentiating (1) partially with respect to x, y and z respectively, we get
1 u a
  2 2 x  0 , ....(2)
u x ax  by  cz
1 u b
  2 2 y  0 , ....(3)
u y ax  by  cz
1 u c
and   2 2 z  0 ....(4)
u z ax  by  cz
These equations give
a
x  ax  by  cz   , ....(2')
2 2
b
y  ax  by  cz   , ....(3')
2 2
c
and z  ax  by  cz   . ....(4')
2 2
Multiplying (2'), (3'), (4') by a, b, c respectively and adding the resulting
equations, we obtain
1  a 2 b2 c2 
 ax  by  cz  
2
   ,
2 2 2  2 
 1  a 2 b2 c 2  
i.e., ax  by  cz     2  2  2     , say. ....(5)
 2      
It follows from (2'), (3') and (4') that
a b c
x , y , z ....(6)
2 
2
2  2
2 2 
a b c
and x   , y , z . ....(7)
2 
2
2  2
2 2
Now from (2), differentiating partially with respect to x , we have

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 2
1  2 u 1  u  a2
      2 2 ,
u x 2 u 2  x   
2
cx  by  cz

 2u  a2  u
so that A   u   2 2
 , as 0.
x   ax  by  cz  x
2 2

Case 1. Since u is positive for the values of x, y, z obtained in (6), we find that
A is negative.
Similarly, we can show that
A H G
A H
 0 and H B F 0
H B
G F C
for the values of x, y, z obtained in (6). Hence u is maximum for these values.
Case 2. Since u is negative for the values of x, y, z obtained in (7), we find that
A is positive.
Similarly, we can show that
A H G
A H
 0 and H B F 0
H B
G F C
for the values of x, y, z obtained in (7). Hence u is minimum for these values.
Now putting the values of x, y, z from (6) and using (5), the maximum value of
u is
 1  a 2 b 2 c 2    1  a 2 b 2 c 2  
umax    2  2  2   exp   2  2  2  2  
 2        4      

 1  a 2 b 2 c 2    1  a 2 b 2 c 2  
   2  2  2   e1 2    2  2  2  
 2        2e      
Similarly, putting the values of x, y, z from (7) and using (5), the minimum
value of u is
 1  a 2 b 2 c 2  
umin     2  2  2   .
 2e      

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Example 4. If all the letters denote positive real numbers, find the maximum
value of
 x2 y2 z 2 
xy  z  a   2  2  2  .
h g k 
Solution.
 x2 y2 z2 
Let u  xy  z  a   2
 2  2.
h g k 
For maxima or minima of u , we must have
u  x2 y2 z 2  2x
 y  z  a   2  2  2   xy  z  a  2  0 ,
x h g k  h
 3x 2 y 2 z 2 
i.e., y  z  a   2
 2  20 ....(1)
h g k 
u  x2 3 y2 z 2 
Similarly,  x  z  a  2  2  2   0 ....(2)
z h g k 
u  x2 y 2 z 2   2z 
and  xy  2  2  2   xy  z  a    2   0 ,
z h g k   k 
 x2 y2 3z 2 2az 
i.e., xy  2  2  2  2   0 . ....(3)
h g k k 
Equations (1), (2) and (3) give
3x 2 y 2 z 2
  0, ....(4)
h2 g 2 k 2
x2 3 y2 z2
   0, ....(5)
h2 g 2 k 2
x 2 y 2 3 z 2 2az
and 2  2  2  2  0 . ....(6)
h g k k
2 x2 2 y 2
Subtracting (5) from (4), we get  2 0,
h2 g
x2 y 2 z 2 4 x2
i.e.,  , so that  2 , using (4).
h2 g 2 k2 b
Hence from (6), we have
x 2 x 2 12 x 2 2a 2 x 10 x 4a
2
 2 2    0 , or  ,
h h h k h h k
x 2a y z
or    . ....(7)
h 5k g 2 k
Putting the values of x, y, z obtained from these equations in the expression for
u , we have
  4a 4a 2 16a 2 
2
 2ah   2ag   4
u   a  a  2
  
 5k   5k   5   25k 25k 2 25k 2 

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 5
 2ah   2ag   a   8a   2a  hg
2
      2
  4 ....(8)
 5k   5k   5   25k   5  k
Now for the values of x, y, z obtained in (7), we have
 2u 6 x 2ag  4   6 2ah  24a 3 g
A  y  z  a    a  a  2    .
x 2 h2 5k  5   h 5k  125hk 2
 2u 24a 3h
Similarly, B    and
y 2 125 gk 2
 2u  3x2 y 2 z 2   2y 
H   z  a 2  2  2   y  z  a 2 
xy  h g k  g 
 3x 2 3 y 2 z 2  8a 3
  z  a 2  2  2    .
 h g k  125k 2
Clearly, A  0 and
2 2
A H  24a 3   8a3 
 AB  H 2   2 
 2 
 0.
H B  125k   125k 
Similarly, we can show that
A H G
H B F  0.
G F C
Hence the value of u obtained in (8) is its maximum value, i.e.,
5
 2a  hg
umax    4 .
 5  k

Assignment
1. Find the conditions of optimality of a function of two variables.

[Hint. Give details of the necessary and sufficient conditions for the existence
of maxima and minima.]
2. Find the maxima and minima values of the following functions:
(i) u  xy 1  x  y 
(ii) u  x 3 y 2 1  x  y 
(iii) u  y 2  x 2 y  x 4
3. Discuss the maxima and minima of u in the following cases:
(i) u  x 2 y 2  5 x 2  8 xy  5 y 2
(ii) u  x 4  y 4  2 x 2  4 xy  2 y 2
(iii) u  x 4  2 x 2 y  x 2  3 y 2
(iv) u  xy 2  3x  6 y  2  .
(v) u  x 2 y  y 2 x  x  y .
(vi) u  x 2  3xy  y 2  2 x .

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 2
ds  dr 
Polar Form:-  r2   
d  d 
2
ds  d 
 1  r 
dr  dr 

Polar Equation:- Let equation of curve be r  f   we know that

2
1 1 1  dr 
 2 4 
p 2
r r  d 
2

Differentiating w.r.t r ,we get  3   3  5  

2 dp 2 4 dr
p dr r r  d 
1 dr d  dr 
 4 .2  
r d dr  d 
2
1 dp 1 2  dr  1 d 2r
     
p 3 dr r 3 r 5  d  r 4 d 2

  r
dr

r 2
  dr / d  
2 3/2

2
dp  dr   d 2r 
r2  2   r  2
 d   d 

Asymptotes and Curve Tracing

Curve Tracing:
To trace the curve f  x, y   0 , we need to know:
(i) symmetry
(ii) tangents at origin (if curve passes from origin)
(iii) Asymptotes parallel to axes
(iv) points on axes; where curve cuts

Asymptotes:
A straight line at a finite distance from the origin to which a given curve
approaches infinitely near as we records along the curve to an infinite distance.
e.g.
Here x  a is an asymptote to some given curve y  f  x 

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 y  f  x

xa

p  x, y 

 In other words, a s.t line is said to be an asymptote, if the for distance of any
point p  x, y  on the curve from the s.t line tends to zero as the point p
records to infinite along the curve.

Finding Asymptotes (if exists) of some Algebraic curve f  x, y   0

e.g. Find asymptote for the curve
Note:
(1) The equation a0 x n  a1 x n1  ...  an 1 x  an  0 ....(1)
will have one root as x  0 if an  0 .
1
Putting x  in ...(1)
y
an y n  a1 y n 1  ...  an 1 y  a0  0 ....(2)
equation (2) has one root as y  0 if a0  0 .
Now it is clear that equation (1) may have one root tending to infinite is that
a0  0 .
(2) The asymptote (if exists), it must meet the curve in atleast two point at
infinite i.e., to have two roots as infinite for the equation (1), the condition is
a0  0 and a1  0 .

Method:
Let's consider a curve f  x, y   0 which is algebraic and rational of nth degree.
Let y  mx  c is an asymptote of equation (1)
Putting this value of y in the given curve we get an equation of the form
a0 x n  a1 x n 1  a2 x n 2  ...  an  0 ....(3)

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Here a0 , a1 ,...an are constants (containing m and c )
Now, since y  mx  c is an asymptote, it must meet atleast two points of the
given curve.
Thus, two roots of equation (3) must be infinite
i.e.
a0  0 ....(4)
a1  0 ....(5)
Now find values of m from equation (4) and get values of c for different values
of m .
e.g. Find all asymptotes of the curve
x3  2 x 2 y  xy 2  2 y 3  4 y 2  2 xy  y  1  0 ....(1)
Putting y  mx  c in equation (1)
x3  2 x 2  mx  c   x  mx  c   2  mx  c   4  mx  c   2 x  mx  c    mx  c   1  0
2 3 2

 x 3  2mx3  2cx 2  x m 2 x 2  2mxc  c 2  

    2  mx  cx   mx  c  1  0
2 m3 x 3  3m2 x 2c  3mxc 2  c3  4 m2 x 2  2mxc  c 2 2

  x  2mx  m x  2m x   2cx  2mcx  6m cx  4m x  2mx 

3 3 2 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

c x  6mc x  8mxc  2cx  mx  2c  4c  c  1  0

2 2 3 2

 1  2m  m  2m  x  2c  2mc  6m c  4m  2m x  ...  0

2 3 3 2 2 2

Now 3  m   0  1  2m  m 2  2m3  0 ....(1)

 m  1, 1, ½ .
Now
2c  2mc  6m2 c  4m2  2m  0 ....(2)
Putting m  1 ; 2c  2c  6c  4  2  0
 c  1.
Putting m  1 in equation (2);
2c  2c  6c  4  2  0  c  1
6 1
Putting m  ½ in equation (2); 2c  c  c  4   2  ½   0
4 4
3c
 3c  0 c0
2
Therefore there are 3 asymptotes of the given curve given by
y  x 1
y   x  1 and y  ½ x .

Another Method.
Let the equation of the curve be
a x
0
n
 
 a1 x n 1 y  a2 x n  2 y 2  ...  an y n  b1 x n 1  b2 x n  2 y  ...  bn y n 1 + 
c x
2
n2
 c3 x n 3
y  ...  cn y n2
  ...  0
The above equation can be put in the form
Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052
  y  y  y
x nn    x n 1n 1    x n  2n  2    ...  0 ....(1)
x x  x
where n   represents a term of nth degree in y x .
y
x
y c
Let y  mx  c be an assymptote of (1) putting  m  in (1), we get
x x
 c  c
x nn  m    x n1n 1  m    ...  0 ....(ii)
 x  x
Applying Taylor's expansion in (ii)
 c   c 
x n n  m   n  m    x n1 n 1  m   n 1  m    ...  0
 x   x 
Arranging the above expression in descending powers of x
 c2 
 
x nn  m   x n1 cn'  m   n 1  m   x n  2  n"  m   cn' 1  m   n  2  m    ...  0 ...(iii)
 2! 
Now as y  mx  c is an asymptote so 2 roots of equation (3) must be infinite
i.e., n  m   0 ....(4)
c    m   n 1  m   0
'
n ....(5)

Note:
The equation (4) is of nth degree so it has n values of m.
If any k values of n are repeated, we say the given curve has k parallel
asymptotes.

Working Rule
(1) Find n  m  by putting x  1 and y  m in the nth degree term.
Similarly find n 1  m  by putting x  1 and y  m in  n  1 th degree term of the
given curve and so on.
(2) Solve n  m   0 . If all roots of m are real and distinct get value for c from
the equation (5).

Note: If we get two parallel asymptote we find the value of c from the equation
c2 "
n  m   cn' 1  m   n  2  m   0
2!

Examples. Find asymptotes of the curve

y 3  xy 2  2 xy 2  2 x 3  7 xy  3 y 2  2 x 2  2 x  2 y  1  0 .
Solution.
Find 3  m  ;
Putting x  1, y  m in 3rd degree term of (1)
mnm  2m2  2  0

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

3  m   m3  m  2m 2  2 and 2  m   7 m  3m 2  2  0
Now 3  m   0  m3  2m2  m  2  0
 m 2  n  2   1 m  2   0
  n  1 m  1 m  2   0
 m  1,1, 2
Now find c from this equation
cn'  m   n 1  m   0
 
 c 3m 2  4m  1  2  7m  3m 2  0
Now m  1 , c 3  4  1  0  2c  2  c  1
m   1 ; c  2
m2; c0
 Asymptotes y  x  1
y  x  2
y  2x

Asymptotes of to x-axis
To get an asymptote parallel to the x-axis put the coefficient of the highest
degree term in equal to zero.
 Similarly asymptotes equation of y-axis can be obtained by putting the
coefficient of the highest degree term in y equal to zero.

Q. Find asymptotes of the cisoid y 2  2a  x   x3 .

Solution.
There is no asymptote parallel to x-axis
 coefficient of x3  1  0
Asymptote parallel to y -axis is
2a  x  0
 x  2a .

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 x  2a

Tangents of Origin:
Multiple Points:
The points through which more than one branches of the curve pass is called a
multiple point.

Double Points: Two branches pass through this point.

(a) Node:

y  x
yx

 y  f  x

When two tangents at a double point are real and distinct, the point is called a
node.
e.g. In the above figure we have two tangents y  x and y   x at origin. So
origin is a node here.
(b) Cusp: When the two tangents at a double point are real and coincident then
that point is known as cusp.

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 x  2a

Parallel to x -axis:
1  0 (not possible)
(iv) Points on the axes (cut by curve)
x -axis; put y  0 in the given curve get x  0
i.e.  0, 0 
y -axis put x  0  y 2  2a  0   0  y  0
i.e.  0, 0 
There is no point on the curve in the 2nd and 3rd order.
x  0
x3
y (complex numbers)
2a  x

x  2a

Note:
If the curve remains unchanged on exchanging x and y then the curve is
symmetrical about the line y  x .
e.g. x3  y 3  3axy is symmetrical about the line y  x .

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

But y 3  x3  3ayx
 x3  y 3  3axy
Trace the curve x3  y 3  3axy .
(i) Symmetry
If is symmetric about the line y  x because by putting y  x the curve remains
unchanged.
(ii) Tangent/s at origin
Equating the lowest degree term to term
We get 3axy  0  xy  0
 x  0 or y  0
Real and distinct tangents
 Origin is NODE
(iii) Asymptotes Parallel to Axes:
Parallel to y -axis
1  0 (not possible)
Parallel to x -axis
1  0 (not possible)
There is no asymptotes parallel to coordinate axes.
By Method of finding asymptotes we get that
x  y  a  0 is an asymptote.
(iv) Points on the axes:
x -axis ; put y  0 , we get x  0
i.e.  0, 0 
y -axis; put x  0 , we get y  0
i.e.  0, 0 
In 3rd ODE,  x  0, y  0 , R.H.S. > 0 but L.H.S. < 0, 3rd ODE

x3  y 3  3axy
yx

x ya 0

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Q. Trace the curve (1) a 2 y 2  x3  2a  x 
(2) x 2  a 2  y 2   y 2  a 2  y 2 
x 2 1  x 2 
(3) y  2

1  x 2

(4) x 2 y 2   a  y   b 2  y 2  , b  a
2

(1) a 2 y 2  x3  2a  x 
(i) It is symmetric about x -axis
(ii) Tangent at origin
a 2 y 2  0  y  0 i.e., x -axis
Real and coincident tangent.
 Origin is a cusp.
(iii) Asymptotes parallel to x -axis
No asymptotes parallel to x -axis

Asymptotes parallel to y -axis

No asymptotes parallel to y -axis.
And also the curve passes through origin.

Points:
a 2 y 2  x 3  2a  x 
x 3  2a  x 
y
a
Hence No part of the curve will lie on 2nd and 4th ODT.
Putting x  2a, y  0

x  2a

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 x 2 1  x 2 
(3) Trace the curve y 2

1  x2
(i) Symmetry:
Replacing x by - x , y by –y; curve remains unchanged.
 Symmetric about both axes.
(ii) The curve passes through origin?
Yes

Tangent at origin
Putting the lowest degree term equal to zero;
y 2  x 2  0  y   x ; Two tangents
 Origin is a node.

(iii) Asymptotes parallel to y -axis

1  x 2  0  x  1

(iv) Curve cuts no points on the axes, except  0, 0  .

x  1 x 1

No point of the curve out side x  1

If x  1, y is imaginary.

Q. Trace the curve x 2 y 2   a  y   b 2  y 2  , b  a

2

(i) It is symmetric about y -axis as putting x by - x the curve remains

unchanged.
(ii) Tangents at origin

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Putting x  0, y  0 in the equation 0  a 2b2 origin does not satisfy the equation.
i.e., The curve does not pass through origin
 No tangent at origin.
 a
 x   1   b2  y 2
 y

dx  a   2 y   a  
   1      b2  y 2   2  
dy  y   2 b 2  y 2 
  y  
dx b2  a 2 dy a
   
dy  0,0  a dx a 2  b2
i.e., There are two tangents at  0, a  . So the point  0, a  is a node.

(iii) Points on axes:

The curve cuts
 y at  0, a  and  0, b 
 Does not cut x -axis at any point

(iv) Asymptotes parallel to x -axis

Parallel to x -axis
y  0 i.e., y -axis only

 0,b 

 0, a  a

 0, b  b

Tangents parallel to x -axis at  0,b  and  0, b 

dx dy
  and  0.
dy dx

(2) x 2  a 2  y 2   y 2  a 2  y 2 

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Symmetrical about both the axes curve passes through origin.
y   x are tangent at origin.
The curve passes through the points  0, a  and  0, a  and no parts of the curve
will lie above  0, a  and below  0, a  points.

 0, a 
ya

y  x
yx

 0, a  y  a

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 A is a point of minima
 f min A  13  23  3  1  12  2  20

 r  B  6   1  6 ,  t B  6  2  rt   2  72  0
 B  1, 2  is saddle point

 r C  6 1  6,  t C  6   2   rt   2  0

 C 1, 2  is saddle point

 r  D  6   1  6 ,  t 0  12 ,  rt   2  0 and r  0  Maxima

Example 2: Find relative maximum and minimum values of the function

f  x, y   x 4  y 4  2 x 2  4 xy  2 y 2

Solution.
Step (i): To find point of maximum / minimum
f
We put  0  4 x3  4 x  4 y  0 ….(1)
x
f
 0  4 y3  4 x  4 y  0 ….(2)
y

On adding (1) and (2)

 4 x3  4 y 3  0

 x3   y 3

 x  y

Putting x   y
4 y 3  4 y  4 y  0

4 y 3  5 y  0

4 y   y2  2  0

y  0 , y 2  2, y   2

Points are A  0, 0  , B   2, 2  , C  2, 2 

Step (ii)

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 2 f 2 f 2 f
r  12 x 2
 4 , t   12 y 2
 4 ,   4
x 2 y 2 xy

rt   2  12 x 2  4 12 y 2  4   42

 16  3 x 2  1 3 y 2  1  1

  rt   2  A  0 ; Doubt ful care

  rt   2   0 ;  r  B  0  B is a minima
B

  rt   2   0 ;  r C  0  C is a minima
C

   2      2
4  2 2
fB   2  2  2 4  2 2 2

fC 

Example 2. Find relative maximum and minimum values of the function

f  xy   x 4  y 4  2 x 2  4 xy  2 y 2

How to investigate doubtful care??

[Although its not easy]
 Point  0, 0  is a doubtful case

We would like to get the sign of f  x, y   f  0, 0 

Where  x, y  denote arbitrary point in nbd of  0,0  i.e. x and y are small closer
to zero
Let’s do it:
f  x, y   f  0, 0   x 4  y 4  2 x 2  4 xy  2 y 2  0

 x 4  y 4   2 x 2  4 xy  2 y 2 

  x4  y4       2y  
2 2
2x  2  2x  2 y 
 

  x4  y 4    
2
2x  2 y

  x4  y4   2  x  y 
2

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

f  x, y   f  0, 0   0

 the point  0, 0  is a point of relative maxima

Example 1: Show that the function u   x  y  z   3  x  y  z   24 xy 2  a3 has a

3

minimum at 1,1,1 and maximum at  1, 1, 1

Solution.
Step (i) Already given in question
(i) At the point 1,1,1

 A1,1,1  6 1  1  1  18  0
A H 18 6
 0
H B 6 18

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

CHAPTER DIFFERENTIALS OF HIGHER ORDER

Note: This chapter deals with all basics which we use frequently in mathematics
optional topics. Also here proper justifications are given. Students are suggested
to read and just remember results only according to demand of exam.

TOTAL DIFFERENTIAL
u u
If u  f  x, y  , then to show that du  dx  dy .
x y
We have u  f  x, y  . Let
u   u  f  x   x, y   y  .
Then  u  f  x   x, y   y   f  x, y 
f  x   x, y   y   f  x, y   y  f  x, y   y   f  x, y 
 x  y.
x y
Now in the limiting case when  x becomes indefinitely small,
f  x   x, y   y   f  x, y   y  
becomes f  x, y   y  ,
x x
and further when  y diminishes indefinitely,
 f  x, y  u
f  x  y   y  becomes , i.e., .
x x x
Also, when  y becomes indefinitely small,
f  x , y   y   f  x, y  f  x, y  u
becomes , i.e., .
y y y
Therefore, when  x and  y diminish indefinitely, it follows from (1) that
u u
du  dx  dy .
x y
This value of du is called the total differential of u with respect to x and y .
In general, if u  f  x1 , x2 ,...., xn  , where x1 , x2 ,...., xn are independent variables, we
can show that
u u u
du  dx1  dx2  ...  dxn .
x1 x2 xn
TOTAL AND PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL COEFFICIENTS
If u  f  x, y  , where x and y are function of a single variable t, we have
u u
du  dx  dy .
x y
du dx dy
But du  dt , dx  dt and dy  dt . Therefore
dt dt dt
du u dx u dy
  .
dt x dt y dt
This value of du dt is called the total differential coefficient.

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

In general, if u  f  x, y  , where x and y are functions of t, we can show that
du u dx1 u dx2 u dxn
   ...  .
dt x1 dt x2 dt xn dt
Similarly, if u  f  x, y  , where x and y are functions of two other variables t1
and t2 , then we have
u u x u y
  ....(1)
t1 x t1 y t1
u u x u y
and   . ....(2)
t2 x t2 y t2
These results can be extended to any number of variables.
CHANGE OF TWO INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
In this section, we consider the problem of changing two independent variables
x and y to t1 and t2 with the help of relations
x  f1  t1 , t2  and y  f 2  t1 , t2  . ....(1)
u
Let u  f  x, y  . Then solving the equation (1) and (2) of Section 5.8 for and
x
u
we get
y
u y u y

u t1 t2 t2 t1
 ....(2)
x x y  x y
t1 t2 t2 t1
u y u y

u t2 t1 t1 t2
and  . ....(3)
y x y  x y
t1 t2 t2 t1
On the other hand, if the equations given by (1) are easily solvable for t1 and t2
in terms of x and y , say
t1  F1  x, y  and t2  F2  x, y  ,
then we can find the values of
t1 t1 t2 t2
, , ,
x y x y
and substitute in the relations
u u t1 u t2
  ....(4)
x t1 x t2 x
u u t1 u t2
and   . ....(5)
y t1 y t2 y
The higher order partial derivatives of u with respect to x and y can be obtained
by repeated application of the formulae (2), (3), (4) and (5).

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

The above formulae can be easily extended for more than two independent
variables.
Caution. While changing two independent variables, one should be careful to
detect which variables are to be regarded as constants in performing partial
u
differentiation. For instance, to find the value of , the variable y is to be
x
regarded as a constant and not t1 or t2 , since there is independence between x
and y, and not between x and t1 or x and t2 .
TRANSFORMATION FROM CARTESIAN TO POLAR CO-
ORDINATES
If V is a function of x and y, x  r cos  and y  r sin  , then to show that
 2V  2V  2V 1 V 1  2V
    .
x 2 y 2 r 2 r r r 2  2
Since x  r cos  and y  r sin  , ....(1)
we have r   x 2  y 2  and   tan 1  y x  .
12
....(2)
From relations (1) and (2), we have
x x r x x
 cos   ,    cos  ,
r r x  x 2  y 2 12
r
y y r y y
 sin   ,    sin  ,
r r y  
12
x  y2
2 r
x  y sin 
 r sin    y ,  2  ,
 x x y 2
r
y  x cos 
 r cos   x ,  2  .
 y x  y 2
r
Using these equations, we have
V V r V  V sin  V
   cos   ,
x r x  x r r 
V V r V  V cos  V
   sin   ,
y r y  y r r 
V V x V y x V y V
    ,
r x r y r r x r y
V V x V y V V
   y x .
 x  y  x y
Therefore, we have the following equivalence of Cartesian and polar operators
  sin   
 cos   ,
x r r d 
....(3)
  cos   
 sin   .
y r r  

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

    
r  x  y ,
r x y 
and  ....(4)
   
x y
 y x 
 2V  2V
We now transform and to polar co-ordinates. Using (3), we have
x 2 y 2
 2V   V    sin    V sin  V 
     cos    cos   
x 2
x  x   r r   r r  
  V sin  V  sin    V sin  V 
 cos   cos     cos   
r  r r   r   r r  
  2V sin  V sin   2V  sin    2V V cos  V sin   2V 
 cos   cos  2  2    cos   sin    
 r r  r r   r  r r r  r  2 
 2V 2 sin  cos   2V sin 2   2V sin 2  V 2sin  cos  V
 cos 2    2   . ....(5)
r 2 r r  r  2 r r r2 
Also,
 2V   V    cos    V cos  V 
     sin    sin   
y 2
y  y   r r   r r  
  V cos  V  cos    V cos  V 
 sin   sin     sin   
r  r r   r   r r  
  2V cos  V cos   2V  cos    2V V sin  V cos   2V 
 sin   sin  2  2    sin   cos    
 r r  r r   r  r r r  r  2 
 2V 2sin  cos   2V cos 2   2V cos 2  V 2sin  cos  V
 sin 2      . ....(6)
r 2 r r r 2  2 r r r2 
Adding (5) and (6), we obtain
 2V  2V  2V 1 V 1  2V
    .
x 2 y 2 r 2 r r r 2  2
Exercise. Transform the following equation to polar co-ordinates
 2V  2V
  0.
x 2 y 2
r
Note. It should be noted that denotes the partial derivative of r when it is
x
x
expressed as a function of x and y . While denotes the partial derivative of
r
x when it is expressed as a function of r and  . Here it is worth mentioning
that
r x r x
 1 , i.e., 1 .
x r x r
Corollary. If V be a function of r alone, where r 2  x 2  y 2 , then
 2V  2V  2V 1 V
   .
x 2 y 2 r 2 r r

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

  2V  2V  2V
TRANSFORMATION OF  2V    TO SPHERICAL POLAR
x 2 y 2 z 2
CO-ORDINATES
From three dimensional co-ordinate geometry, we know that the transformation
formulae from Cartesian to spherical polar co-ordinates are
x  r sin  cos  , y  r sin  sin  , z  r cos  .
Putting r sin   u , we have
x  u cos  and y  u sin  .
Now using the result of Section 5.10, we obtain
 2V  2V  2V 1 V 1  2V
    .
x 2 y 2 u 2 u u u 2  2
 2V
Adding to both the sides, we get
z 2
 2V  2V  2V  2V  2V 1 V 1  2V
   2  2   . ....(1)
x 2 y 2 z 2 z u u u u 2  2
Now for z and u , we have
z  r cos  and u  r sin  .
Therefore, again using the result of Section 5.10, we have
 2V  2V  2V 1 V 1  2V
    . ....(2)
z 2 u 2 r 2 r r r 2  2
V V r V 
, where r 2  z 2  u 2 ,  tan 1  
u
Also,  
u r u  u z
V cos  V
 sin   ,
r r 
1 V 1  V cos  V 
so that   sin   
u u r sin   r r  
1 V 1 V cot  V
i.e.,   2 . ....(3)
u u r r r 
Substituting from (2) and (3) in (1), we get
 2V 2 V 1  2V cot  V 1  2V
 2V      .
r 2 r r r 2  2 r 2  r 2 sin 2   2
ORTHOGONAL TRANSFORMATION OF  2V
 2V  2V  2V  2V  2V  2V
To show that the expression 2  2  2 transforms to   by
x y z  2  2  2
changing to any other set of axes O , O , O , mutually at right angles, the origin
being the same.
Let  l1 , m1 , n1  ,  l2 , m2 , n2  ,  l3 , m3 , n3  be the direction cosines of O , O , O , referred
to Ox, Oy, Oz as axes. Then we know (from three dimensional co-ordinate
geometry) that
l12  m12  n12  1, l22  m22  n22  1, l32  m32  n32  1 , ....(1)
and l1l2  m1m2  n1n2  0 etc.

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Again, since  l1 , l2 , l3  ,  m1 , m2 , m3  ,  n1 , n2 , n3  are the direction cosines of Ox, Oy, Oz ,
respectively, referred to O , O , O , as axes, we have
l12  l22  l32  1 etc.
and l1m1  l2 m2  l3m3  0 etc.
Now
  projection of the line joining  0, 0, 0  and  x, y, z  on O , i.e.,
  l1 x  m1 y  n1 z .
Similarly,   l2 x  m2 y  n2 z and   l3 x  m3 y  n3 z .
V V  V  V 
Now   
x  x  x  x
V V V
 l1  l2  l3 .
  
 2V   V 
Therefore,   ,
x 2 x  x 
 2V      V V V 
i.e., 2   l1  l2  l3  l1  l2  l3 
x         
 2V  2V 2  V
2
 2V  2V  2V
 l12 2  l22  l  2l l  2l l  2l l . ....(3)
  2  2    
3 1 2 2 3 31

 2V 2  V
2
Similarly,  m  ... etc. ....(4)
 2
1
y 2
 2V  2V
and 2  n12 2  ... etc. ....(5)
z 
Adding (3), (4) and (5), and using (1) and (2), we get
 2V  2V  2V  2V  2V  2V
     .
x 2 y 2 z 2  2  2  2

Example 1. If x  r cos  and y  r sin  , show that

 2  2
 0.
x 2 y 2
Solution.
From x  r cos  and y  r sin  , we have   tan 1  y x  . Then
 1  y  y
 2 
 2  2
x 1   y x   x  x  y2
 2       y  2 xy
so that     2 2 
 . ....(1)
x x  x x  x  y   
2 2
 x2  y 2
 1 1 x
Also,    2 ,
y 1   y x  x x  y 2
2

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

  2       x  2 xy
so that     2  2 . ....(2)
y y  y  y  x  y  
2 2 2
 x  y2
  2 2
Adding (1) and (2), we get  0.
x 2 y 2
Example 2. If x  r cos  , y  r sin  , prove that the equation
  2 u  2u   2u

xy  2  2   x 2  y 2  0
 x y  xy
 2 u u
becomes r   0.
r 
Solution.
We know that
     
r x y and x y .
r x y  y x
Therefore,
 2u   u      u u 
r r     x  y  x  y 
r  r     x y  y x 
 2u u  2u  2u  2u u
 x2 x  xy 2  xy 2  y 2 y
xy y x y yx x
 2u   2u  2u  u u u u

 x2  y 2  xy
 xy  2  2  
y  
, since x  y  ,
x 
 x y
 2u u    2 u  2u   2u 
or r 
r  
   xy  2  2   x 2  y 2
x y
  x y

  0.
   
Example3. If x   cos    sin  , y   sin    cos  , prove that
 2u  2u  2 u  2u
   .
x 2 y 2  2  2

OR
 2u  2u
Prove that  is invariant for change of rectangular axes.
x 2 y 2
Solution.
We have
u u x u y u u
   cos   sin  ,
 x  y  x y
 2u   u      u u 
so that 2      cos   sin    cos   sin   ,
      x y   x y 
u
2
u2
u2
 y
2
i.e., 2  cos 2  2  2 sin  cos   sin 2  2 . ....(1)
 x xy y
u u x u y u u
Also,     sin   cos  ,
 x  y  x y

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

  2u   u      u u 
so that       sin   cos     sin   cos  ,
 2
     x y   x y 
 2u  2u  2u  2u
i.e., 2  sin 2  2  2sin  cos   cos 2  2 . ....(2)
 x xy y
 2 u  2u  2 u  2 u
Adding (1) and (2), we get    .
 2  2 x 2 y 2
Example 4. If u  c cosh x cos y, v  c sinh x sin y , prove that
 2V  2V c 2   2V  2V 
   cosh 2 x  cos 2 y   2  2 .
x 2 y 2 2  u v 
Solution.
We have
V V u V v V V
   c sinh x cos y  c cosh x sin y
x u x v x u v
V V u V v V V
and    c cosh x sin y  c sinh x cos y .
y u y v y u v
Therefore
V V V V
i  c  sinh x cos y  i cosh x sin y   c  cosh x sin y  i sinh x cos y 
x y u v
V c V
 c sinh  x  iy   sin  x  iy 
u i y
 V V 
 c sinh  x  iy   i ,
 u v 
   
so that  i  c sinh  x  iy    i  . ....(1)
x y  u v 
Replacing i by -i, we get
     
 i  c sinh  x  iy    i  . ....(2)
x y  u u 
Multiplying (1) and (2) we have
2 2  2 2 
  c 2
sinh  x  iy  sinh  x  iy   2  
x 2 y 2  u v 2 
c2  2 2 
  cosh 2 x  cosh 2iy   2  2 
2  u v 
c2  2 2 
  cosh 2 x  cos 2 y   2  2  .
2  u v 
Now operating both sides on the function V, we get
 2V  2V c 2   2V  2V 
   cosh 2 x  cos 2 y   2  2 .
x 2 y 2 2  u v 
Example 5. Transform the equation
2 z z z
x 2
 2 xy 2
x

 2 y  y3 
y
 x2 y 2 z  0

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

by the substitutions x  uv, y  1 v , and hence show that z is the same function of
u, v as of x, y.
Solution.
Since x  uv and y  1 v , we have u  xy and v  1 y .
Therefore
u u v v 1
 y,  x,  0,   2 . ....(1)
x y x y y
z z u z v z
Now    y , using (1)
x u x v x u
z 1 z
i.e.,  , since y  1 v , ....(2)
x v u
 2 z  z 1   1 z  1  2 z
so that 2       . ....(3)
x x  x  v u  v u  v 2 u 2
z z u z v z 1 z
Also,   x  2 , using (1),
y u y v y u y v
z z 1 z z z
so that y  xy  u v . ....(4)
y u y v u v
Using (2), (3) and (4) the given equation transforms into
1 2z 1  1 z   1   z z 
 2u    2 1  2   u  v   u2 z  0
v u
2 2
v  v u   v   u v 

i.e.,
2 z
u 2 
 2u  2u v 2  1
z

u

 2v v 2  1
z
v
 
 u 2v 2 z  0 ,

2 z z z
i.e., 2  2uv 2  2 v  v3
u u v
 
 u 2v2 z  0 .

This equation is exactly similar to the given equation, which shows that z is the
same function of u, v as of x, y.
 2V  2V
Example 6. If the equation   0 is satisfied when V is a function of x
x 2 y 2
and y, show that it will also be satisfied when V is the same function of u and v
, where
1
u
2
 
log x 2  y 2 and v  tan 1  y x  .

Solution.
Multiplying v by i and then adding to u , we have
1
 
u  iv  log x 2  y 2  i tan 1  y x   log  x  iy  ,
2
so that x  iy  eu  iv  eu eiv  eu  cos v  i sin v  .
Equating real and imaginary parts, we get
x  eu cos v and y  eu sin v .
x dx
Whence  eu cos v  x ,  eu sin v   y
u dv

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

y y
 eu sin v  y ,  e x cos v  x .
u v
Using these values of partial derivatives, we have
V V x V y V V
  x y .
u x u y u x y
V V x V y V V
and    y x .
v x v y v x y
Therefore,
 2V   V       V V 
    x  y x y ,
u 2
u  u   x y   x y 
 2V  2V V  2V  2V V
i.e.,  x2 2  x  2 xy  y2 2  y ; ....(1)
u 2 x x xy y y
 2V   V       V V 
and     y  x y x ,
v 2 v  v   x y   x y 
 2V 2  V
2
 2V V V 2  V
2
i.e.,  y  2 xy  y  x  x . ....(2)
x 2 x 2 xy y x y 2
Adding (1) and (2), we have
 2V  2V 2  V  2V   2V  2V
2

u 2 v 2
 x 2
 y 
 2     0 , as   0.
 x y 2  x 2 y 2
Hence the given equation is also satisfied when V is the same function of u and
v.
Example 7. If f  x, y  has continuous partial derivatives of the first two orders,
and  x  y    u  v  , x  y   u  v  , show that
3 3

 2 f 2 f   2 f 2 f 
 
9 x2  y 2  2  2   u 2  v2  2  2   .
 x y   u v 
Solution.
We are given that
x  y  u 3  3u 2 v  3uv 2  v3 and x  y  u 3  3u 2v  3uv 2  v 3 .
On addition and subtraction, these equations give
x  u 3  3uv 2 and y  3u 2v  v 3 .
x y x y
Whence
u
 
 3 u 2  v 2  ,  6uv 
v v u
.
Using these values of partial derivatives, we have
f f x f y f f
 
u x u y u
 3 u 2  v2
x

 6uv
y
 ....(1)
f f x f y f f
and  
v x v y v
 6uv  3 u 2  v 2
x y
.   ....(2)
Relations (1) and (2) on addition and subtraction give
   

u v

 3 u 2  v 2  2uv
x

 3 u 2  v 2  2uv
y
, 

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

   2   
i.e.,   3u  v    
u v  x y 
  2   
and   3 u  v     .
u y  x y 
Therefore,
   3       
 u  v      3u  v      3  x  y    
 u v   x y   x y 
   3       
and  u  v      3u  v      3 x  y     .
 u v   x y   x y 
    f f  
Hence  u  v      u  v     
 u v    u v  
     f f  
 3  x  y     3  x  y      ,
 x y    x y  
 2 f 2 f   2 f 2 f 
   
i.e., u 2  v 2  2  2   9 x 2  y 2  2  2  .
 u v   x y 
Example 8. If x  e sec u, y  e tan u and  is a function of x and y , show that
v v

  2     2  2   2
cos u     xy  2  2   x  y
2 2
 . 
 uv u   x y  xy
Solution.
From the given relations, we have
x x
 ev sec u tan u ,  ev sec u ,
u v
y  y
 ev sec2 u ,  ev tan u .
u v
Using these values of partial derivatives, we get
  x  y  
   ev sec u tan u  ev sec 2 u ,
u x u y u x y
  
so that cos u  ev tan u  ev sec u ,
u x y
 
y x . ....(1)
x y
  x  y  
Also,    ev sec u  ev tan u
v x v y v x y
 
x y . ....(2)
x y
Now using (1) and (2), we obtain
 2            
cos u  cos u     y  x   x y 
uv u  v   x y   x y 
 2  2  
2
2  
2
 2 
 xy  y  y  x  xy x
x 2
x xy xy y 2
y

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

   2  2   2  

 xy  2  2   x 2  y 2 y x
 x y  xy x y
    
2 2
2

 xy  2  2    x 2  y 2   cos u ,
 x y  xy u
  2     2  2   2
i.e., cos u      
   xy .
2 2
 xy  2 x y
 uv u   x y 2 
Example 9. If x  y  2e cos  and x  y  2ie sin  , show that
 2V  2V  2V
  4 xy
 2  2 xy
Solution.
On adding and subtracting, the given relations provide
x  e  cos   i sin    e ei  e  i
and y  e  cos   i sin    e e  i  e i .
x x
Whence  e  i  x,  ie i  ix ,
 
y y
 e i  y,  ie i  iy .
 
Using these partial derivatives, we have
V V x V y V V
  x y ....(A)
d x  y  x y
V V x V y  V V 
and    i x y . ....(B)
 x  y   x y 
Therefore,
 2V   V       V V 
     x  y  x y ,
 2
     x y   x y 
 2V  2V V  2V  2V V
i.e., 2  x 2 2  x  2 xy  y2 2  y , ....(1)
 x x xy y y
 2V   V       V V 
and 2     i 2  x  y   x  y  ,
      x y   x y 
 2V  2  2V V  2V 2  V
2
V 
i.e.,    x  x  2 xy  y y  ....(2)
 2
 x
2
x xy y 2
y 
Adding (1) and (2), we get
 2V  2V  2V
  4 xy .
 2  2 xy
[Aliter. From (A) and (B), we have
V V V V V V
i  2y and i  2x .
  y   x
 2V  2V       
Therefore, 2  2    i   i V .
        

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

       2V
  2 y   2 x  V  4 xy .]
 y   x  xy
Example 10. If u  f  x, y  , x 2   and y 2    , change independent variables
to  , in the equation
 2u  2u 2  u
2
u
x2  2 xy  y  2y 0.
x 2
xy y 2
y
Solution.
From the given relations, we have
  xy and   x y .
   1  x
Whence  y,  x,  ,  2 .
x y x y y y
Using these partial derivatives, we have
u u  u  u 1 u
  y 
x  x  x  y 
  x   
so that x  xy    ; ....(1)
x  y   
u u  u  u x u
also   x 
y  y  y  y 2 
  x   
so that y  xy    . ....(2)
y  y   
Subtracting (2) from (1), we get
  
x y  2 . ....(3)
x y 
     u u 
Now  x  y   x  y 
 x y   x y 
  u u    u u 
x x  y  y x y 
x  x y  y  x y 
 2u u  2u  2u 2  u
2
u
 x2  x  xy  xy  y y
x 2
x xy xy y 2
y
 2u  2u 2  u
2
u u
 x2  2 xy  y x y
x 2
xy y 2
x y
u2
u
2
u
2
u  u u 
 x 2 2  2 xy  y2 2  2 y x y 
x xy y y  x y 
on adding and subtracting y  u y 
Therefore,
 2u  2u 2  u
2
u
x2  2 xy  y  2y
x 2
xy y 2
y
     u u   u u 
  x  y  x  y   x  y 
 x y   x y   x y 

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

    u  u
  2  2   2 , using (3)
     
  2u u  u
 2  2 2  2   2
    
 2u u u 2  u
2
u
 4 2  4  2  4  2 .
 2
   2

Hence the transformed equation is
 2u u  2u u
4 2  2  0 , i.e., 2  0.
 2   2 
Example 11. Transform the equation
2 z 2 z 2  z
2
z z
y2  2 xy  x x  y z
x 2
xy y 2
x y
by putting x  u cos v, y  u sin v .
Solution.
We have
z z x z y z z
   u sin v  u cos v ,
v x v y v x y
z z z   
i.e.,  y  x so that  y  x .
v x y v x y
Therefore,
 2 z   z       z z 
     y  x  y  x 
v 2
v  v   x y   x y 
  z z    z z 
 y y  x   x y  x 
x  x y  y  x y 
2 z 2z z 2 z z 2  z
2
 y2  yx  y  xy  x  x
x 2 xy y yx x y 2
2 z 2 z 2  z
2
z z
 y2  2 xy  x x y
x 2
xy y 2
x y
  z , using the given equation.
2 z
Hence 2  z  0 , which is the required transformed equation.
v
Example 12. If   y 2  z 2 ,  z 2  x 2 ,   x 2  y 2 , and u is a function of x, y, z ,
prove that
u u u  u u u   2 u u u 
x y z  2     4 y  z2  x2 .
x y z          
Solution.
From the given relations, we have
  
0,  2y ,  2z 3
x y z

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

  
 2x 3 ,  0,  2z ,
x y z
  
and  2x ,  2 y 3 , 0.
x y z
Using these partial derivatives, we have
u u  u  u  u u u
  
x  x  x  x 
 0 

2 x 3 

 
 2x  ,
u 2 u u
so that x   2  2 x2 ; ....(1)
x x  
u u  u  u  u u u
  
y  y  y  y 
 2y  0 
 
2 y 3 ,  
u 2 u u
so that y   2  2 y2 ; ....(2)
y y  
u u  u  u  u u u
and   
z  z  z  z 
 2 z 3 

 
 2z    0 .

u 2 u u
so that z   2  2 z 2 ; ....(3)
z z  
Adding (1), (2) and (3), we get
u u u u u u
x
x
y
y
z
z

 2 y 2  z 2 

 2 z 2  x 2  

 2 x 2  y 2 
u u u
 
 2 2 y 2   y 2  z 2 

 
 2 2 z 2   z 2  x 2 

 
 2 2 x 2   x 2  y 2 

u  u  u
 22 y2     2  2 z 2    2  2x2    ,
  
u u u  u u u   2 u u u 
i.e., x  y  z  2         4 y  z2  x2 .
x y z          
Example 13. If x  r cos  , y r sin  and r  e z , prove that
 2u  2u 2  u
2
   
(i) x 2  2 xy  y  r  r  1 u
x 2
xy y 2
r  r 
  
   1 u .
z  z 
 2u  2u  2u  2u u  2u u
(ii) x 2 2  2 xy  y2 2  2  r   .
y xy x  r  2 z
Solution.
(i) Since x  r cos  , y  r sin  , we have
u u x u y u u
   cos   sin  ,
r x r y r x y
u u u
so that r  r cos   r sin  . Therefore
r x y
u u u   
r x y and r  x  y . ....(1)
r x y r x y

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Using (1), we have
          
r  r  1 u   x  y  x  y  1 u
r  r   x y  x y 
  u u    u u 
 x x  y u y  x  y u
x  x y  y  x y 
  2u u  2u u    2u  2u u u 
  x2 2  x  xy  x    xy  y2 2  y y 
 x x xy x   yx y y y 
 2u  2u  2u
 x 2 2  2 xy  y 2 2 (First Result)
x xy y
dr
Further, from the relation r  e z , we have  ez  r .
dz
u u z 1 u
Therefore,   ,
r z dr r z
u u  
so that r  and r  . ....(2)
r z r z
    
Hence r  r  1 u    1 u . (Second Result)

r  r  z  z 
(ii) We have
u u x u y u u
    r sin   r cos  ,
 x  y  x y
u u u
 y  x .
 x y
 2u   u 
Therefore,   ,
 2
   
 2u      u u 
i.e., 2    y  x    y  x 
  x y   x y 
  u u    u u 
 y y  x  x y x 
x  x y  y  x y 
  2u  2u u    2u u  2u 
  y 2 2  xy  y     xy x  x2 2 
 x xy y   yx x y 
u
2
u
2
u
2
u
 y 2 2  2 xy  x2 2  r , using (1).
x xy y r
Now transposing and using (2), we get
 2u  2u 2  u
2
 2u u  2 u u
x2  2 xy  y   r   .
y 2 xy x 2  r  2 z
Example 14. If u  iv  f  x  iy  , where x and y are independent and u, v, x, y are
all real, prove that
 2V  2V   2V  2V 
    f '  x  iy  f '  x  iy  .
x 2 y 2  u 2 v 2 
Hence establish that if x  r cos  and y  r sin  , then

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 2V  2V  2V 1 V 1  2V
    .
x 2 y 2 r 2 r r r 2  2
Solution.
V V u V v
We have   ,
x u x v x
 2V  V  V u V v 
so that 2       
x x  x  x  u x v x 
V  2u u   V  V  2 v v   V 
      
u x 2 x x  u  v x 2 x x  v 
V  2u u    V  u   V  v  V  2 v v    V  u   V  v 
                 
u x 2 x  u  u  x v  u  x  v x 2 x  u  v
 x v  v  x 
V  2u u   2V u  2V v  V  2v v   2V u  2V v 
          . ....(1)
u x 2 x  u 2 x uv x  v x 2 x  uv x v 2 x 
Similarly
V V  2u u   2V u  2V v  V  2v v   2V u  2V v 
        . ....(2)
y 2 u y 2 y  u 2 y uv y  v y 2 y  uv y v 2 y 
Adding (1) and (2), we have
 2V  2V   2u  2u  V  u   u    2V
2 2

          
x 2 y 2  x 2 y 2  u  x   y   u 2
 
  2 v  2 v  V  v   v    2V
2 2
 u v u v   2V
 2  2         2 2    . ....(3)
 x y  v  x   y   v  x x y y  uv
 
Now since u  iv  f  x  iy  , ....(4)
we have u  iv  f  x  iy  . ....(5)
Differentiating (4) partially with respect to x and y, we have
u v
 i  f '  x  iy 
x x
u v
and i  if '  x  iy  .
y y
Eliminating f '  x  iy  between these two equations, we get
u u  u v  u v
i  i i   i  .
y y  x x  x x
Equating real and imaginary parts, we have
u v v u
 and  . ....(6)
y x y x
 2u  2 v  2u 2v
Therefore, 2  and 2   ,
x xy y xy
 2u  2u
so that 2  2  0 ; ....(7)
x y

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

  2 v  2u  2v  2u
and  and   ,
y 2 xy x 2 xy
 2v  2v
so that   0. ....(8)
x 2 y 2
Also, multiplying two equations in (6), we get
u v u v
  0. ....(9)
x x y y
Using (6),(7), (8) and (9) in (3), we get
 2V  2V  u   v     2V  2V 
2 2

          . ....(10)
x 2 y 2  x   x    u 2 v 2 
Again differentiating (4) and (5) partially with respect to x , we have
u v u v
 i  f '  x  iy  and  i  f '  x  iy  . ....(11)
x x x x
Now using (11) in (10), we obtain
 2V  2V   2V  2V 
    f '  x  iy  f '  x  iy  . ....(12)
x 2 y 2  u 2 v 2 
Deduction. Since x  r cos  and y  r sin  , we have
r  cos   i sin    x  iy , i.e., rei  x  iy .
Therefore, log r  i  log  x  iy  .
Now taking f  x  iy   log  x  iy  , so that f  x  iy   log  x  iy  ,
we have u  log r and v   .
V V dr V
Therefore,  r , since log r  u ,
u r du r
 2V  V  V  V dr
and 2      r    r 
u u  u  u  r  r  r  du
  2V V  2  V
2
V
 r 2   r  r r . ....(13)
 r r  r r
2

 2V  2V
Also, 2  2 , (since v   ). ....(14)
v 
1 1
Further, f '  x  iy   and f '  x  iy   ,
x  iy x  iy
1 1
so that f '  x  iy  f '  x  iy   2 2  2 . ....(15)
x y r
Now using (13), (14) and (15) in (12), we have
 2V  2V  2  2V V  2V  1
   r  r   2
x 2 y 2  r 2 r  2  r
 2V 1 V 1  2V
 2   .
r r r r 2  2
Example 15. Show that

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

  3u  3u 2  y
3
3  u
3
x3  3 x 2
y  3 xy  y      1   2  u ,
x 3 x 2 y xv 2 y 3
  
where   x  y or r in polars.
x y r
Solution.
We have
     u u    u u    u u 
  u   x  y   x  y   x  x  y   y  x  y 
 x y   x y  x  x y  y  x y 
  2u u  2u    2u  2u u 
 x x 2  y  y x y 2 
 x x xy   xy y y 
 2u  2u 2  u
2
u u
 x2  2 xy  y x y
x 2
xy y 2
x y
 2u  2u 2  u
2
 x2  2 xy  y  u ,
x 2 xy y 2
 2u  2u  2u
i.e.,   u  u  x 2 2  2 xy  y2 2 ,
x x y y
 2u  2u 2  u
2
i.e.,     1 u  x 2  2 xy  y .
x 2 xy y 2
Now operating on both sides by the operator  , we have
     d 2u  2u  2u 
 2    1 u   x  y   x 2 2  2 xy  y2 2 
 x y   x xy y 
   2u  2u  2u     2u  2u  2u 
 x  x 2 2  2 xy  y 2 2   y  x 2 2  2 xy  y2 2 
x  x xy y  y  x xy y 
  3u  2u  3u  2u 3 x 
 x  x 2 3  2 x 2  2 xy 2  2 y  y2 2 
 x x x y xy y x 
  3u  3u  2u 2  u
3
 2u 
 y  x 2 2  2 xy  2 x  y  2 y 
 x y xy 2 xy y 3 y 2 
3  u
3
 3u 2  u
3
3  u
3
 2  2u  2u 2  u
2
x  3 x y 2  3 xy
2
y  2  x  2 xy  y 
x 3 x y xy 2 y 3  x xy y 2 
2

 3u  3u 2  u
3
3  u
3
 x3  3 x 2
y  3 xy  y  2    1 u ,
x 3 x 2y xy 2 y 3
 3u  3u  3u 3  u
3
i.e., x3 3  3x 2 y 2  3 xy 2  y   2    1 u  2    1 u
x x y xy 2 y 3
     1   2  u .

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

TEST- Differential Calculus

Time allowed: Three Hours Maximum Marks : 250

Question Paper Specific Instructions:

1- There are eight questions divided in two sections.

2- Candidate has to attempt five questions in all.
3- Question nos. 1 and 5 are compulsory and out of remaining, three
are to be attempted choosing at least one question from each
section.
4- The number of marks carried by a question / part is indicated
against it.
5- Answers must be written in the medium authorized.
6- Assume suitable data, if considered necessary, and indicate the
same clearly.
7- Unless and otherwise indicated, symbols and notations carry their
usual standard meanings.
8- Attempts of questions shall be counted in sequential order. Unless
struck off, attempt of a question shall be counted even if
attempted partially. Any page or portion of the page left blank in
the Question-cum-Answer Booklet must be clearly struck off.

SECTION-A
Q1. Each question is of 10 marks.
a. Discuss the kind of discontinuity, if any of the function is defined as follows:
x x
 when x0
f  x   x
 2 when x0

b. A function f is defined as follows
 p 1
 x cos   , x  0
f  x    x
 0, x0

What conditions should be imposed on p so that f may be
(i) Continuous at x  0 (ii) Differentiable at x  0

c. Discuss the continuity and differentiability of the function f defined by

 2x 1 ; if x is rational
f  x   2
 x  2 x  5 ; if x is irrational

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

b. By using the differentiation, show that tan x  x  sin x , x   0,  2  .
c. Prove or disprove in  0,  2  [12.5+12.5 marks]

(i) cos x  cos  sin x 

1  x2
(ii)  log  2  x 
2

SOLUTIONS

Solutions
Q1. a
The function is continuous at all points expect possibly the origin.
Let us test at x  0 .
Now
xx xx
lim f  x   lim  2 ; lim f  x   lim 0
x 0 x0 x x 0  x0 x
Thus the function has discontinuity of the first kind from the right at x  0 .
Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052
b. Solution:
(i) f  0  0   lim h p cos 1 h 
h0

f  0  0    1 lim h p cos 1 h 

p

h 0

To make f  0  0   f  0  0   f  0  , condition required is p  0

(ii) Rf '  0   lim h p 1 cos 1 h 
h 0

Lf '  0    1 lim h p 1 cos 1 h 

p 1

h 0

So for differentiability condition required is p  1

c. Solution:  x 2  2 x  5  2 x  1  x 2  4 x  4  0  x  2
We have x 2  2 x  5  2 x  1 except when x  2 that means we have to check
continuity at x  2 only (except x  2 ; they are unequal; (since rational  =
irrational).
Hence f is continuous at x  2 only.
Further, it follows that x  2 is the only point at which f may be differentiable.
In this regard, we see that
  2 x  1  5
2; when x is rational
f  x   f  2   x2
 2
x2 
 x  2x  5  5 
 x ; when x is irrational
 x2
Therefore, in either case, we have
f  x   f  2
lim 2
x2 x2
Hence f is differentiable at x  2 and f '  2   2 .

d.  m and n are positive integers, on being expanded by Binomial theorem,

 x  a  and  x  b  are polynomials in x.
m n

So f  x  is differential and continuous in  a, b  further f  a   f  b   0

 All conditions of Rolle's theorem satisfied.
 at least one c   a, b  s.t f '  c   0
f ' x  0
  x  a  x  b  n  x  a   m  x  b   0
m 1 n 1

  x  a   x  b   m  n  x   na  mb   0
m 1 n 1

na  mb
 x  a , b,
mn
na  mb
Out of these values of x, is the only point which lies in the  a, b  .
mn

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 In fact, it divides the interval  a, b  internally in the ratio m : n . Hence Rolle's
theorem is verified.

e.  r 2  x 2  y 2  y 2  r 2  x 2  y  r 2  x 2 ….(1)

 Area of rectangle = 2 x  2 y  A  2 x  2 r 2  x 2  r constant

dA
For maximum Area ;  0  r  2 x ,  y  x from (1)  ABCD is a square.
dx
Ans. 2 a. Solution.
Try; intuition comes from Rolle’s theorem. But on which function??
Lets consider a function
C1 x 2 C2 x3 C x n 1
f  x   C0 x    ...  n
2 3 n 1

 f  x  is polynomial  continuous in  0,1 and differentiable in  0,1

Also f  0   C0 x 0  C1 x02  ...  Cn x0n 1  0

C1 C2 C
f 1  C0  C1  12  C2  13  ...  Cn  1n 1  C0    ... n  0 in (1)
2 3 n 1
i.e. f  0   f 1  0

 f  x  satisfies all three conditions of Rolle’s theorem

 at least one point (real number) C   0,1 s.t

f ' C   0

 C0  C1C  C2C 2  ...  Cn C n  0

 f '  x   C0  C1 x  C2 x 2  ...  Cn x n

C is a real root of the equation C0  C1 x  C2 x 2  ...  Cn x n =0 between 0 and 1.

b. Solution.
Since the function u is periodic with period  for x and y both, it suffices to
consider the values of x and y satisfying 0  x   ,0  y  
For maxima and minima of u , we must have
u
 sin y sin x cos  x  y   cos x sin  x  y   0 ,
x
i.e., sin y sin  2 x  y   0 , ....(1)

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 u
and  sin x sin y cos  x  y   cos y sin  x  y   0 ,
y
i.e., sin x sin  x  2 y   0 . ....(2)
To find the values of x and y lying between 0 and  , and satisfying (1) and (2),
we need to consider the following pairs of equations:
x  0, y  0; 2 x  y   ; 2 x  y  2 , 2 y  x  2 .
Solving these, we get the following pairs of values of x and y between 0 and 
:
1 1 2 2
x  0, y  0; x   , y   ; x   , y   .
3 3 3 3
u2
Now, r  2  2sin y cos  2 x  y  ,
x
 2u
s  sin x cos  x  2 y   cos x sin  x  2 y   sin  2 x  2 y 
xy
 2u
and t  2  2 sin x cos  x  2 y  .
y
At x  0, y  0 , we have r  0, s  0, t  0 so that rt  s 2  0 .
Therefore, at the point  0, 0  , the case is doubtful, and further investigation is
needed.
1 1
At x   , y   , we have
3 3
1 1 
r  2sin  cos   2  3   1   3 ,
3 2 
4  1  1 1
s  sin   sin        sin    3
3  3  3 2

and t  2sin  cos   2  3   1   3 .

1 1
3 2 
2

So, rt  s 2    3   3     
1 3 9
3   3    0 . Also, since r   3  0, u is
 2  4 4
1 1
maximum at x   , y   .
3 3
 2
At x   , y   , we have
3 3
2 1 
r  2sin  cos 2  2  3  1  3 ,
3 2 
8  2  2 1
s  sin   sin  2     sin   3,
3  3  3 2

and t  2sin  cos 2  2  3  1 .

2 1
3 2 

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 x3  y 3  3axy
yx

x ya 0

Ans4.
Solution.
Applying Rolle’s theorem on a function   x  s.t  '  x  can give required answer.

So let’s try to construct   x 

Let
f 'a f  x
 x  a f a f b 
  x  
g  a  g  x  b  a  g  a  g b

Now if (i) f  x  and g  x  are continuous in  a, b  then   x  will also be

continuous.
(ii) if f  x  and g  x  are differentiable in  a, b  then   x  will also be

differentiable in  a, b 

f a f  x
b  a  f  a  f a
  a    00  0
g  x g  x b  a g  x g  x

Similarly   b   0

i.e.   a     b 

   x  is continuous in [a, b]

  x  is differentiable in  a, b 

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

  a    b 

 All condition of Rolle’s theorem are satisfied in  a, b  by   x 

 at least one real number    a, b  s.t  '    0

1 f a f b  f  a  f b
 0
b  a  g  a  g b g  x g b 

Rough Work to construct 

1 f a f b  f a f 'a


b  a  g  a  g b g a g 'b 

and   a     b 
1 xa
To get , took x and to get   a     b  took
ba ba
b. Solution.
 Expansion around x  2  power of  x  2 

 a  2 and h  x  2

 x  2  x  2
2 3

 f  x   f  2   x  2  f ' 2 f " 2 f "'  2    x  2  


   2! 3!
  
Ist Term IInd Term
IIIrd Term Remainder term after 3terms where 0  1

 f  x   log 1  x   f  2   log 1  2   log 3

1 1
f ' x   f '  2 
1 x 1 2
1 1
f " x     f " 2  
1  x 
2
9

2 2
f "'  x     f " 2 
1  x  1  2 
3 3

Use all values in (1).

Ans5 a. Solution- Putting y  mx , we see that
m
lim f  x, y  
x 0 1  m2

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 so that the limit depends on the value of m, i.e., on the path of approach and
is different for the different paths followed and therefore does not exist.
Hence the function f  x, y  is not continuous at  0,0  .

Again
f  0  h, 0   f  0, 0  0
f x  0, 0   lim  lim 0
h 0 h h 0 h

b. Solution:-  tan u is a homogenous function of degree 2.

 By Euler’s theorem
u u
x  tan u   y  tan u   2 tan u
x y
u u
x sec2 u  y sec2 u  2 tan u
x y
u u
 x y  sin 2u (1)
x y
Differentiating (1) w.r.t. x, y separately, we get
 u u
2
u
2
u
x  y  0  2 cos 2u
x 2
x x y x
Multiplying (iii) by x and (iv) by y ,then adding columnuise, we get
1  u u  3  x 3  y 3  3  x3  y 3 
 x  y   1 3  3  1 3  3
u  x y  x  y3  x  y3 
u u
 x y  1. u Euler’s theorem is verified
x y

(ii)  u is a homogenous function in x, y, z of degree 2.

u u u
  ay  cz ,  ax  bz ,  by  cx
x y z
u u u
 x y z  2  axy  byz  czx   2u
x y z
Hence Euler’s theorem is verified
c. Solution- Put x  r cos  , y  r sin  .
x3  y 3

x y
2 2   3 3
 r cos3   sin 3   r cos   r sin   2 r  2 x 2  y 2   ,

if
2 2
x2  , y2 
8 8
or, if
 
x , y 
2 2 2 2

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 x3  y 3  
  0   , when x  , y 
x y
2 2
2 2 2 2
x3  y3
 lim 0
 x , y  0,0  x 2  y 2

 lim f  x, y   f  0, 0 
 x , y  0,0 
Hence the function is continuous at  0, 0  .
Again
f  h, 0   f  0, 0  h0
f x  0, 0   lim  lim
1
h0 h h0 h
f  0, k   f  0, 0  k
f y  0, 0   lim  lim  1
k 0 k k  0 k
Thus, the function possesses partial derivatives at  0,0  .
If the function is differentiable at  0, 0  , then by definition
df  f  h, k   f  0,0   Ah  Bk  h  k ....(1)
when A and B are constants  A  f x  0,0   1, B  f y  0,0   1 and  , tend to zero
as  h, k    0, 0  .
Putting h   cos , k   sin  , and dividing by , we get
cos 3   sin 3   cos   sin    cos    sin 
....(2)
For arbitrary   tan  h k  ,   0 implies that  h, k    0, 0  . Thus we get the
1

limit,
cos3   sin 3   cos   sin 
or  cos   sin    cos2   sin 2   cos   sin    cos   sin 
or cos  sin   cos   sin    0
which is plainly impossible for arbitrary  .
Thus, the function is not differentiable at the origin.

 x2 
d. Solution- Consider f  x   log 1  x    x  
 2 
2
1 x
 f ' x   1  x    0, x  0
1 x 1 x
Hence, f  x  is an increasing function for all x  0 .
Also
f 0  0
Hence for x  0, f  x   f  0   0
Thus
x2
log 1  x   x  , for x  0
2
Similarly by considering the function
Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052
 x2
F  x  x   log 1  x 
2 1  x 
it can be shown that
x2
log 1  x   x  , x  0
2 1  x 

e. Solution.
x x
 5   12 
P  x       1
 13   13 
x x
5  5   12   12 
P '  x     log e      log e   ….(1)
 13   13   13   13 
d x

dx
 a   a x loge a
log e  is negative if 0    1

5
x

    0; x   
 13  
x 
 12  
   0' x   ….(2)
 13  
5 12 
 log e  0, log e  0
13 13 

Using (2) in (1), we get

P '  x   0 for all x  

P  x  is strictly decreasing for all x   [Proved]

6.a Solution- Let

f  x   sin x  cos x
f '  x   cos x  sin x
f "  x    sin x  cos x
f '  x   0 when tan x  1 , so that

x  n 
4
where n is zero or any integer.
 1    1   1 
f "  n      sin  n     cos  n    
 4    4   4 

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

   
  1
 sin  cos    1
n 1 n 1
2
 4 4
 sin  n      1n sin  and cos  n      1n cos  
 
Also f  n     sin  n     cos  n      1 2
1 1 1 n

 4   4   4 
When n is zero or an even integer, f "  n   4  is negative and therefore
1
x  n   makes f  x  a maxima with the maximum value 2.
4

When n is an odd integer, f "  n    is positive and therefore x  n  

1 1
4   4
makes f  x  a minima with the minimum value 2 .

b. Solution.
1 1
x3 cos  y 3 cos
y x
f  x, y   f  0, 0   0
x2  y 2

1 1
r 3 cos3   cos  r 3 sin 3   cos

 r sin   r cos 
r 2  cos 2   sin 2  

 1 1 
r 3  cos 3   cos  sin 3   cos 
  r sin    r cos   

r2

 1 1 
 r  cos 3   cos  sin 3  cos  
 r sin  2  cos  

1 1
 r  cos3  cos  sin 3   cos
sin  x cos 

 r  1  1  2 2  2 x 2  y 2  

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Define a function f of two real variables in the x  y plane by
 3 1 1
 x cos y  y cos x
3

f  x, y    for  x, y    0, 0 
 x 2
 y 2

0 , otherwise

To check differentiability of f  x, y  at  0, 0 
Step (i)
Let f  x, y  is differentiable  0, 0   by definition

 f   f 
f  h, k   f  0, 0   df  Ah  Bk  h  k  where A    , B   
 x  0,0   y  0,0 

and  , both tend to zero as  h, k    0,0 

1
h3 cos  0  0

 
f
A   lim
f  h , 0   f  0, 0   lim 0  lim h 2 cos   0  some finite

  0,0
x h 0 h h 0 h h0

value = 0
1
f  0, h   f  0, 0  h3 cos
 f  0 0
B   lim  lim
 y  0,0  h  0 h h  0 h

 From (1)
1 1
h3 cos  k 3 cos
k h  0  0  h  0  k  h  k 
h2  k 2
Putting g   cos , k   sin   for arbitrary  :   0 when  h, k    0,0 

 2  h2  k 2

 1 1 
 cos   cos  sin   cos    cos     sin   
  sin   cos  
 R.H.S.  0 But L.H.S. may not be zero for arbitrary values at 

 Our Assumption was wrong.

7.a Solution.
For maxima and minima of u , we must have
u
 3 x 2  3ay  0 , i.e., x 2  ay  0 ....(1)
x

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

 f  x   f  0  for x  0  tan x  x  tan 0  0 for x  0  tan x  x  0

 tan x  x for x  0 in  0,  2 

Now let’s consider another function g  x   x  sin x for x  0,  2

 g  x   1  cos x  0  g  x  is strictly increasing

 By definition g  x   g  0  for x  0

x  sin x  0  sin 0 for x  0

x  sin x for x  0 in  0,  2  ….(3)

 On combining (2) and (3) we get

tan x  x  sin x for x   0,  2

c. Solution.
We have used some fundamentals too
Let’s consider a function
f  x   x  sin x

 f '  x   1  cos x  0 for x   0,  2 

 f  x  is strictly increasing in the interval  0,  2

 By definition f  x   f  0  for x  0

x  sin x  0  sin 0 in  0,  2 

x  sin x  0 in  0,  2 

x  sin x in  0,  2 

 cos  x   cos  sin x  Hence Proved

Inequality reversed: On increasing x ; cos x decreases in  0,  2 

cos  , cos 
 
x   sin x

If get some relation between  and  then it will be easy to get relation
because cos  and cos 

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052

Upendra Singh : Mindset Makers for UPSC Mentoring +91-9971030052