ELECTRONICS

MATTER
Anything that occupies space and has mass is called as Matter. Matter is made up of atoms and
molecules. Atoms can further be divided into smaller particles called Electrons, Protons and
Neutrons.

ELECTRONS NEGATIVE CHARGE

PROTONS POSITIVE CHARGE

NEUTRONS NO CHARGE

An Atom consists of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons

which move around the nucleus in orbits.

ELECTRONS AND ELECTRICITY

Electricity is the flow of electrons around a circuit.
The loose electron from the outer surface of matter when it moves, it constitutes a current or
electricity.
Electric sources like batteries give out electrons as an energy to flow through the load.
SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY (ENERGY/POWER GIVING
DEVICES)
In the way food has energy in it, electric sources also have energy in them. These sources are
batteries, electric sources, generators etc.

ELECTRICITY LOADS (POWER CONSUMPTION DEVICES)

They are things which use electrical energy. They are simple things like bulbs, fans, led’s, ac,
motor and other complex things like mobile and computers.

ROLE OF WIRES
Power sockets - source of energy
Mobile phones - power consuming load
But the mobile phone cannot be charged without plugging in the charger. Here the charging wire
acts as a path for energy to flow from source to load

LED (LIGHT EMITTING DIODE)

● Led’s have two legs, a bigger and a smaller one comparatively
● Both the legs are kept different intentionally, in order to represent differently
● The bigger leg is known as Anode, and carries a positive charge
● The smaller leg known as Cathode, and it carries a negative charge
Note: For proper connection, connect
LED Cathode - batteries negative
LED Anode- batteries positive
CIRCUIT
● Any loop which has its terminal connected with loads in between them are called circuits
● Circuits guide the flow of energy from a higher potential to a lower potential
● This can be explained with the water tanks which are connected to homes at lower
levels. Water flows from a higher spot to a lower spot through pipes
● This means water needs a path to flow. This can be called a water circuit
● Similarly electric energy needs a path too. This is provided by the load
TYPES OF CIRCUITS

Series Circuit
A circuit where components are connected end to end in a line are called a series circuit. In a
series circuit the current flowing through each load is the same, but the voltage keep’s dropping
at each load.

Parallel Circuit
A circuit where all components are connected across each other with the same terminals. In a
parallel circuit, the energy drop through each load is the same, but the current that flows through
each load is different.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUIT

SERIES PARALLEL

The same amount of current flows through all The current flowing through each component
the components. is different

The components are arranged in a line The components are arranged parallel to
each other
 If one component breaks down, the whole Other components will function even if one
circuit will burn out component breaks down, each has its own
independent circuit

If Vt is the total voltage then it is equal to V1 + If Vt is the total voltage then it is equal to V1 =
V2 V2 = V3

MEASUREMENTS

VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT
● Voltage is the measure of energy stored
● Voltage is measured in volts
● Multimeter can only measure the difference in the voltage between two points. This
measure is called voltage difference or voltage drop
● To measure voltage difference, the multimeter has to be connected to a high voltage
source on the red terminal and low voltage source on the black terminal
● Voltage drop is always measured across a component that is on parallel to a component
● This is because when the voltage is at the end of a resistor is high and the other end is
low, only then the current will start to flow from higher potential to a lower potential

VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT ACROSS A LOAD

To measure voltage difference, the multimeter has to be connected to a high voltage source on
the red terminal and low voltage source on the black terminal

CURRENT MEASUREMENT
● Current is the measure of the flow of the electricity.
● Multimeters can measure current flowing through them
● They have to be placed in series with the component through which the current has to
be measured
● This is because all the current that is to be measured should be flowing through the
multimeter
● The current should always be measured with a component in series or it might destroy
the component.
RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT
● Resistance is the measure of stoppage of the current in the component
● It should be measured independently outside of a circuit as current may interfere with the
reading
● This means that only one, or a small circuit is used to measure the resistance

ELECTRICAL PARAMETER MEASURING UNIT SYMBOL

Current Ampere (A) I

Voltage Volts (V) V

Resistance Ohm (Ω) R

Capacitance Farad (F) C

Charge Coulomb (C) Q

DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESISTANCES AND THEIR

MEASUREMENT
1. Resistance
2. PotentioMeter
3. PhotoResistor
4. RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector)

OHM’s LAW

1- EXPERIMENT WITH VARYING CURRENT AND VOLTAGE

CHANGE VOLTAGE AND OBSERVE CURRENT

We see that the current increases with increase of the voltage, so does the brightness of the
led. The resistance is constant.

CHANGE CURRENT AND OBSERVE VOLTAGE

We see that after a point, the voltage stops varying because the current draw depends upon the
component (load) in use.
2- EXPERIMENT WITH POTENTIOMETER AND
BULB

VARY RESISTANCE USING POTENTIOMETER

Fix the voltage to 30 volts and vary the potentiometer to change resistance. Observe that the
light bulb lights up only when a threshold current is reached

3- EXPERIMENT WITH POTENTIOMETER AND MOTOR

VARY RESISTANCE USING POTENTIOMETER

Fix the voltage to 30 volts and vary the potentiometer to change resistance. Observe the speed
of the dc motor in rpm due to change in current.

OBSERVATIONS
In the first experiment, the resistance was kept constant
When voltage was increased, the current also increased
When current was increased, the voltage also increased
This means that voltage and current are directly related to each other (which means increasing
anyone quantity leads to increase in the other and vise versa)

In the second experiment, the voltage was kept constant.

On decreasing the resistance using potentiometer, the bulb lit up only when the current reached
a particular value.

In the third experiment, the voltage was kept constant

On decreasing resistance using the potentiometer, the speed of the motor increased indicating
an increase in the current

The second and third experiments indicated that current and resistance are inversely related to
each other (which means that increasing anyone quantity leads to decrease in the other and
vise versa)
OHM’s LAW
Ohm’s law states that current flowing through the conductor is directly proportional to the
voltage across the conductor
V∝I
When we remove the proportionality symbol and replace it with an equal to symbol, we add a
constant variable .

The constant variable that is added in this equation is resistance (R).

V=I*R

ELECTRIC AND ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

● Electrical and electronic circuit are circuit which run on electricity or electrical energy
● These circuits have applications in daily life. So they are divided into types to be studied
● Electrical components are mainly control less components. If made HIGH once, they will
operate on constant attributes like current and voltage
● While electronic components are the control of the circuit. They can manipulate the
output based on changing inputs

Electrical Electronic

In the electrical circuit, electrical energy In the electronic circuit, energy consists of
consists of flow of electrons flow of electrons and hole

The electrical devices produce the voltage Electronic devices controls the voltage and
and the current the current

Electrical devices occupy large size and It occurs in small sizes. You can easily
requires more space transport the electronic circuit /pieces of
equipment

ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS

● Circuits used for running heavy loads like air conditioners, motors, inverters etc
● These electrical circuits work on high voltage and high current

ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS

● CIrcuits can be made of small components and can also use less electricity. For example
phones, led’s, small speaker etc
● These circuits use very less voltage and current
● These are mainly used for computation, information transfer, signaling driving low current
parts like light speakers

ELECTRICAL POWER
● It is the measure total energy that can be used by a component in a unit of time
● It is given by the product of voltage and current in a circuit at any given time
 ● Power = Voltage * Current
Note: High power equipments are generally electrical and low power equipments are electronic

TOTAL RESISTANCE

CASE 1: if all the resistances are connected in series (one

after another)
R (TOTAL) = R1 + R2 + R3 + ….

CASE 2: if all the resistances are connected to parallel

1 / R (TOTAL) = 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3 + …..
MECHANICAL SWITCHES
These require manual contact with the switch for operation

ELECTRONIC SWITCHES
We use electronic switches in our circuit which can be switched on and off by electric voltages.
These switches are called transistors.
We can apply high and low voltages to the transistor to open and close the circuits.
This component is similar to an automatic tank refilling mechanism.
When the tank is empty, the floating ball in the tank goes down and opens the path of the water
automatically to refill the tank.
ELECTRONIC GATES
● Gates are an innovation above transistors. They can sense voltage on multiple ends and
give an output depending on the voltages sensed
● There are many types of gates that can be used, namely AND gate, OR gate and NOT
gate. There are more types of gates available, but these are the main type

TRUTH TABLE
Truth table plays the most
important role while studying
the concept of electronic gates. Truth table is the table which tells the possible outcome based
on the input applied to the particular gate.

AND GATE - TRUTH TABLE

● And gates multiplies the input applied and hence gives you a corresponding output
● And gate is a 2 input terminal gate

A B OUTPUT

0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0
1 1 1

OR GATE - TRUTH TABLE

● Or gate adds the input applied and gives you a corresponding output
● Or gate is a 2 input terminal gate

A B OUTPUT

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1

NOT GATE - TRUTH TABLE

● Not gate reverses the input applied and hence gives you a corresponding output
● Not gate is a single input terminal gate

INPUT OUTPUT
 A NOT A

0 1

1 0

IC TYPES

BREAD BOARD
● All the rows and columns exhibit a special kind of property

● All the above and below rows (red

and black) of the breadboard are
electrically sorted horizontally, which
means same current and voltage are
available throughout the row
● All the blue colored middle columns of breadboard are sorted vertically, which means
same current and voltage are available throughout the column
CAPACITOR
Capacitor is a savior when the battery is not in operation. It stores current and releases the
current when a circuit is closed and the battery is not in operation.
The unit of capacitance is Farad
They don't store as much current as a battery, but are reliable and do not have to be replaced
like batteries.
Capacitors are used to smooth out current supplied to the components.
They are also used to gradually reduce the amount of current being supplied to a component.
There are two types of energies: potential energy and kinetic energy
● Batteries and capacitors store electricity
● This storage is called potential energy
● The stored energy is released into the circuits and provides kinetic energy
● The amount of kinetic energy released is measured as current
● The potential energy in batteries is measured in volts

CHARGING AND DISCHARGING OF A CAPACITOR

When we press the button:

When the button is pressed, the battery will let the led to glow under the influence of the battery,
and the capacity keeps on charging

When we release the button:

The led gradually dims before it completely turns off. The LED is dimly lit because the capacitor
is still discharging current into the LED. It cannot store as much current like a battery hence the
LED isn't as bright.
FORMULA:
Capacitance is the ratio of the change in the electric charge of a system to the corresponding
change in its electric potential.
Q∝V
Q=C*V
C=Q/V

Where Q stands for charge, V stands for potential difference and C stands for capacitance.

MICRO CONTROLLER
A microcontroller is a small low cost micro computer which is designed to perform specific tasks
in an embedded system.
Microcontrollers are devices which can control various electronic components which are
attached to it.
They have the following things in them: Processor, Memory and Circuit.
It has input and outputs similar to computers. These inputs are provided to connect input
devices to a microcontroller. Output devices can be connected to it as well.
Input and output devices are connected to microcontrollers using pins on the microcontroller.
These inputs are processed using a microcontroller which can also be thought of as an
assembly of many logic gates.

MICROCONTROLLER TYPE: ARDUINO

Arduino is a type of microcontroller, it has the capability to connect many input and output
components. Like all microcontrollers, it is built on a single board.
It can take inputs such as:
● Lights on a sensor
● Measure distance using a sensor
● Press a button or switch
It can produce outputs such as:
● Turning on lights
● Starting a motor
● Making sound using buzzer
● Showing output on screen

ARDUINO: REASONS TO USE

● Easy to use
● Beginner friendly
● Very inexpensive
● Widely used by many people around the world
 ● Can make lots of projects
● Cross platform: it can run on windows, mac, linux etc operating systems

ARDUINO: IMAGE

ARDUINO: DESCRIPTION
● Arduino UNO is powered by a power adapter and has both digital and analog pins,
power to the components connected to it can be provided to it by the board itself.
● USB port can be used to connect to a computer
● Reset button can be used to reset the board if required
● Analog pins can be used to connect Analog components
● Digital pins can be used to connect and provide digital input and output facility

DIGITAL PINS
Digital means that it will have either ON or OFF as its state. ON is represented with 1 and OFF
with 0

FEATURES:
● There are 14 digital pins in ARDUINO UNO
● These pins can be used as input as well as output
● All these pins are specified to do a certain task like turning ON and OFF the bulb
connected
● Also these pins can be used as general use of input and output too
IDE (Integrated Development Environment)
It is a software application that helps programmers develop software code efficiently. It
increases developer productivity by combining capabilities such as software editing, building,
testing, and packaging in an easy-to-use application. Just as writers use text editors,
accountants use spreadsheets and software developers use ide’s to make their job easier.

WHY ARE IDE’s IMPORTANT?

● Code editing automation: Programming languages have rules for how statements must
be structured. Because an IDE knows these rules, it contains many intelligent features
for automatically writing or editing the source code
● Syntax highlighting: An IDE can format the written text by automatically making some
words bold or italic, or by using different font colors. These visual cues make the source
code more readable and give instant feedback about accidental syntax errors
● Intelligent code automation: Various search terms show up when you start typing words
in a search engine. Similarly, an IDE can make suggestions to complete a code
statement when the developer begins typing.
● Refactoring support
● Local built automation
● Compilation
● Testing
● Debugging

ARDUINO IDE

PLATFORM EXPLANATION
void setup()
{
pinMode(LED_BUILTIN, OUTPUT);
}

void loop()
{
digitalWrite(LED_BUILTIN, HIGH);
delay(1000); // Wait for 1000 millisecond(s)
digitalWrite(LED_BUILTIN, LOW);
delay(1000); // Wait for 1000 millisecond(s)
}
CODE EXPLANATION
Void setup ()
This is the name of the function which is used to control the Arduino. Curly braces are used to
start and end a function (functions are used to perform some particular task step by step).

pinMode ()
It is used to instruct the pin to perform some task, input or output. In this case, the digital pin
number 13 is used and it is used to output light using a LED.

Void loop ()
It is used to perform a task again and again

digitalWrite(13, HIGH)
This will set the digital pin 13 of the board as high position. This will turn ON the load connected
to 13

delay(1000)
This will make the LED stay turned on for 1000ms or 1s

digitalWrite(13, LOW)
This will set the digital pin 13 of the board as a low position. This will turn OFF the load
connected to 13

SENSORS
A sensor is a device that produces an output signal for the purpose of sensing a physical
phenomena. It detects the change in the environment and responds to some output on the other
system

FEATURES
● They detect or measure a physical property
● It can be light, sound or motion etc
● They send this data to some computation device like arduino to do some task based on
that data
SENSORS USED IN ARDUINO
There are various sensors used with arduino: for sensing light, proximity, gasses, some sounds
(mic etc)

PROXIMITY SENSOR
A proximity sensor is a sensor able to detect the presence of nearby objects without any
physical contact. A proximity sensor often emits an electromagnetic field or a beam of
electromagnetic radiation. (infrared) looks for changes in the field or return signal

EX: They are commonly used in mobile phones. During a telephone call proximity
sensors play a role in detecting accidental touch screen taps when mobiles are held to
the ears

PIR SENSOR (PASSIVE INFRARED SENSOR)

Pir sensor can detect human/animal movement in the required range. Pir is made of a pyro
electric sensor, which is able to detect different levels of infrared radiation. The detector itself
does not emit any energy but passively receives it.
EX: Consider a person passing in front of a background like a wall. The temperature
changes from room to body temperature and vice versa within the sensor field.
Changes arising in the arrival of infrared radiation are converted by the sensors to the
output voltage

CONNECTION
Connect the Vcc terminal of the PIR sensor to the 5V pin of the Arduino board.
Connect the Output terminal of the PIR sensor to pin 8 of the Arduino board.
Connect the GND terminal of the PIR sensor to the Ground pin of the Arduino board.
Connect the positive leg of the LED in series with 220 Ohm resistor to pin 13 of the Arduino
board.
Connect the negative terminal of the LED to the Ground pin of the Arduino board.

RELAY
An electromechanical relay is a type of relay which functions using a magnetic field produced by
an electromagnetic coil when a control signal is applied to it. It is called as electromechanical
since it has moving contacts in the output circuit which are operated by applying a electrical
signal
Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a independent low power signal, or
where several circuits must be controlled by one signal

APPLICATIONS
● Relays are used to protect the electrical system and to minimize the damage to the
equipment connected in the system due to over currents/voltages.
● The relay is used for the purpose of protection of the equipment connected with it.
● These are used to control the high voltage circuit with low voltage signal in applications
audio amplifiers and some types of modems.
● Typical application areas of the relays include:
Lighting control systems
Telecommunication
Industrial process controllers
Traffic control
Motor drives control
Protection systems of electrical power system
Computer interfaces
Automotive
Home appliances
 ● Every electromechanical relay consists of an consists of an:
Electromagnet
Mechanically movable contact
Switching points and
Spring

RELAYS WITH ARDUINO

● Relays can work with any microcontroller
● Heavy components such as bulb, fan etc are connected using 3 points on the channel
● Connection to arduino is done by using connectors on the left side of the relay
● The high-voltage side has two connectors, each with three sockets: common (COM),
normally closed (NC), and normally open (NO).

CONNECTIONS WITH RELAY

● The low voltage side has a set of four pins and a set of 3 pins
● The set at the right consists of VCC, GND, IN1 and IN2
● The second set of pins consists of GND, VCC, JD-VCC