FUNCTIONS as OBJECTS

(download slides and .py files to follow along)

6.100L Lecture 8
Ana Bell

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FUNCTION FROM LAST LECTURE

def is_even( i ):
"""
Input: i, a positive int
Returns True if i is even and False otherwise
"""
return i%2 == 0

 A function always returns something

6.100L Lecture 8
WHAT IF THERE IS
NO return KEYWORD
def is_even( i ):
"""
Input: i, a positive int
Does not return anything
"""
i%2 == 0

 Python returns the value None, if no return given

 Represents the absence of a value
 If invoked in shell, nothing is printed
 No static semantic error generated
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6.100L Lecture 8
def is_even( i ):
"""
Input: i, a positive int
Does not return anything
"""
i%2 == 0
return None

6.100L Lecture 8
YOU TRY IT!
 What is printed if you run this code as a file?
def add(x,y):
return x+y
def mult(x,y):
print(x*y)

add(1,2)
print(add(2,3))
mult(3,4)
print(mult(4,5))

6.100L Lecture 8
 return vs. print

 return only has meaning  print can be used outside

inside a function functions
 only one return executed  can execute many print
inside a function statements inside a function
 code inside function, but  code inside function can be
after return statement, executed after a print
not executed statement
 has a value associated  has a value associated with
with it, given to function it, outputted to the console
caller
 print expression itself returns
None value
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6.100L Lecture 8
YOU TRY IT!
 Fix the code that tries to write this function
def is_triangular(n):
""" n is an int > 0
Returns True if n is triangular, i.e. equals a continued
summation of natural numbers (1+2+3+...+k), False otherwise """
total = 0
for i in range(n):
total += i
if total == n:
print(True)
print(False)

6.100L Lecture 8
 FUNCTIONS SUPPORT
MODULARITY
 Here is our bisection square root method as a function
def bisection_root(x):
epsilon = 0.01
low = 0
Initialize variables
high = x
ans = (high + low)/2.0
guess not close enough
while abs(ans**2 - x) >= epsilon:
if ans**2 < x:
iterate update low or high,
low = ans depends on guess too
else: small or too large
high = ans
ans = (high + low)/2.0 new value for guess
# print(ans, 'is close to the root of', x)
return ans return result

6.100L Lecture 8
FUNCTIONS SUPPORT
MODULARITY
 Call it with different values

print(bisection_root(4))
print(bisection_root(123))

 Write a function that calls this one!

6.100L Lecture 8
YOU TRY IT!
 Write a function that satisfies the following specs
def count_nums_with_sqrt_close_to (n, epsilon):
""" n is an int > 2
epsilon is a positive number < 1
Returns how many integers have a square root within epsilon of n """

Use bisection_root we already wrote to get an approximation

for the sqrt of an integer.
For example: print(count_nums_with_sqrt_close_to(10, 0.1))
prints 4 because all these integers have a sqrt within 0.1
 sqrt of 99 is 9.949699401855469
 sqrt of 100 is 9.999847412109375
 sqrt of 101 is 10.049758911132812
 sqrt of 102 is 10.099456787109375

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6.100L Lecture 8
ZOOMING OUT

This is my “black box”

def sum_odd(a, b): Program Scope

sum_of_odds = 0
for i in range(a, b+1): sum_odd Some
function
if i%2 == 1: code
object
sum_of_odds += i low 2
return sum_of_odds
high 7
low = 2
high = 7
my_sum = sum_odd(low, high) my_sum

One function call

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6.100L Lecture 8
ZOOMING OUT

def sum_odd(a, b): Program Scope

sum_of_odds = 0
for i in range(a, b+1): sum_odd Some
function
if i%2 == 1: code
object
sum_of_odds += i low 2
return sum_of_odds
high 7
low = 2
high = 7
my_sum = sum_odd(low, high) my_sum

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6.100L Lecture 8
ZOOMING OUT

This is my “black box”

def sum_odd(a, b): Program Scope

sum_of_odds = 0
for i in range(a, b+1): sum_odd Some
function
if i%2 == 1: code
object
sum_of_odds += i low 2
return sum_of_odds
high 7
low = 2
high = 7 15
my_sum = sum_odd(low, high) my_sum

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6.100L Lecture 8
FUNCTION SCOPE

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6.100L Lecture 8
UNDERSTANDING FUNCTION
CALLS

 How does Python execute a function call?

 How does Python know what value is associated with a variable
name?
 It creates a new environment with every function call!
 Like a mini program that it needs to complete
 The mini program runs with assigning its parameters to some inputs
 It does the work (aka the body of the function)
 It returns a value
 The environment disappears after it returns the value

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6.100L Lecture 8
ENVIRONMENTS

 Global environment
 Where user interacts with Python interpreter
 Where the program starts out
 Invoking a function creates a new environment (frame/scope)

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6.100L Lecture 8
 VARIABLE SCOPE

 Formal parameters get bound to the value of input parameters

 Scope is a mapping of names to objects
 Defines context in which body is evaluated
 Values of variables given by bindings of names
 Expressions in body of function evaluated wrt this new scope
def f( x ):
x = x + 1
print('in f(x): x =', x)
return x

xy = 3
z = f( y
x )
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6.100L Lecture 8
 VARIABLE SCOPE
after evaluating def

This is my “black box”

def f( x ): Global scope

x = x + 1
function
Some
print('in f(x): x =', x) f object
code
return x

x = 3
z = f( x )
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6.100L Lecture 8
 VARIABLE SCOPE
after exec 1st assignment

This is my “black box”

def f( x ): Global scope

x = x + 1
Some
print('in f(x): x =', x) f code
return x
x 3
x = 3
z = f( x )
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6.100L Lecture 8
 VARIABLE SCOPE
after f invoked

def f( x ): Global scope f scope

x = x + 1
Some
print('in f(x): x =', x) f code
x 3
return x
x 3
x = 3
z = f( x )
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6.100L Lecture 8
 VARIABLE SCOPE
after f invoked

def f( x ): Global scope f scope

x = x + 1
Some
print('in f(x): x =', x) f code
x 3
return x
y 3
y = 3
z = f( y )
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6.100L Lecture 8
 VARIABLE SCOPE
eval body of f in f’s scope

in f(x): x = 4 printed out

def f( x ): Global scope f scope

x = x + 1
Some
print('in f(x): x =', x) f code
x 4
3
return x
x 3
x = 3
z = f( x )
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6.100L Lecture 8
 VARIABLE SCOPE
during return

def f( x ): Global scope f scope

x = x + 1
Some
print('in f(x): x =', x) f code
x 4
return x
x 3 returns 4
x = 3
z = f( x )
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6.100L Lecture 8
 VARIABLE SCOPE
after exec 2nd assignment

def f( x ): Global scope

x = x + 1
Some
print('in f(x): x =', x) f code
return x
x 3
x = 3
z = f( x ) 4
z
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6.100L Lecture 8
 BIG IDEA
You need to know what
expression you are executing
to know the scope you are in.

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6.100L Lecture 8
ANOTHER SCOPE EXAMPLE

 Inside a function, can access a variable defined outside

 Inside a function, cannot modify a variable defined outside
(can by using global variables, but frowned upon)
 Use the Python Tutor to step through these!

def f(y): def g(y): def h(y):

x = 1 print(x) x += 1
x += 1 print(x + 1)
print(x) x = 5
x = 5 h(x)
x = 5 g(x) print(x)
f(x) print(x)
print(x)
5
2 6 Error
5 5

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6.100L Lecture 8
FUNCTIONS as
ARGUMENTS

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6.100L Lecture 8
HIGHER ORDER PROCEDURES

 Objects in Python have a type

 int, float, str, Boolean, NoneType, function
 Objects can appear in RHS of assignment statement
 Bind a name to an object
 Objects
 Can be used as an argument to a procedure
 Can be returned as a value from a procedure
 Functions are also first class objects!
 Treat functions just like the other types
 Functions can be arguments to another function
 Functions can be returned by another function

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6.100L Lecture 8
OBJECTS IN A PROGRAM

function
my_func object with
some code
is_even

def is_even(i): r int object 2

return i%2 == 0
float object
pi
r = 2 3.14285714

pi = 22/7
a False
my_func = is_even
b True
a = is_even(3)

b = my_func(4)

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6.100L Lecture 8
 BIG IDEA
Everything in Python is
an object.

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6.100L Lecture 8
FUNCTION AS A PARAMETER

def calc(op, x, y):

return op(x,y)

def add(a,b):
return a+b

def div(a,b):
if b != 0:
return a/b
print("Denominator was 0.")

print(calc(add, 2, 3))

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6.100L Lecture 8
 STEP THROUGH THE CODE

def calc(op, x, y):

return op(x,y)
Program Scope
def add(a,b):
return a+b calc function
Some
object
code
def div(a,b):
if b != 0: add function
Some
return a/b
object
code
print("Denom was 0.")
div function
Some
object
code
res = calc(add, 2, 3)

res

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6.100L Lecture 8
 CREATE calc SCOPE

def calc(op, x, y):

return op(x,y)
Program Scope calc scope
def add(a,b):
return a+b calc function
Some
object
code
def div(a,b):
if b != 0: add function
Some
return a/b
object
code
print("Denom was 0.")
div function
Some
object
code
res = calc(add, 2, 3)

res

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6.100L Lecture 8
 MATCH FORMAL PARAMS in calc

def calc(op, x, y):

return op(x,y)
Program Scope calc scope
def add(a,b):
return a+b calc function
Some op add
object
code
def div(a,b):
if b != 0: add function
Some x 2
return a/b
object
code
print("Denom was 0.")
div function
Some y 3
object
code
res = calc(add, 2, 3)

res

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6.100L Lecture 8
 FIRST (and only) LINE IN calc

def calc(op, x, y):

return op(x,y)
Program Scope calc scope
def add(a,b):
return a+b calc function
Some op add
object
code
def div(a,b):
if b != 0: add function
Some x 2
return a/b
object
code
print("Denom was 0.")
div function
Some y 3
object
code
res = calc(add, 2, 3)

res

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6.100L Lecture 8
 CREATE SCOPE OF add

def calc(op, x, y):

return op(x,y)
Program Scope calc scope add scope
def add(a,b):
return a+b calc function
Some op add
object
code
def div(a,b):
if b != 0: add function
Some x 2
return a/b
object
code
print("Denom was 0.")
div function
Some y 3
object
code
res = calc(add, 2, 3)

res

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6.100L Lecture 8
 MATCH FORMAL PARAMS IN add

def calc(op, x, y):

return op(x,y)
Program Scope calc scope add scope
def add(a,b):
return a+b calc function
Some op a
add 2
object
code
def div(a,b):
if b != 0: add function
Some x 2 b 3
return a/b
object
code
print("Denom was 0.")
div function
Some y 3
object
code
res = calc(add, 2, 3)

res

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6.100L Lecture 8
 EXECUTE LINE OF add

def calc(op, x, y):

return op(x,y)
Program Scope calc scope add scope
def add(a,b):
return a+b calc function
Some op a
add 2
object
code
def div(a,b):
if b != 0: add function
Some x 2 b 3
return a/b
object
code
print("Denom was 0.")
div function
Some y 3
object
code
res = calc(add, 2, 3)

res
returns 5
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6.100L Lecture 8
 REPLACE FUNC CALL WITH RETURN

def calc(op, x, y):

return op(x,y)
Program Scope calc scope
def add(a,b):
return a+b calc function
Some op add
object
code
def div(a,b):
if b != 0: add function
Some x 2
return a/b
object
code
print("Denom was 0.")
div function
Some y 3
object
code
res = calc(add, 2, 3)

res

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6.100L Lecture 8
 EXECUTE LINE OF calc

def calc(op, x, y):

return op(x,y)
Program Scope calc scope
def add(a,b):
return a+b calc function
Some op add
object
code
def div(a,b):
if b != 0: add function
Some x 2
return a/b
object
code
print("Denom was 0.")
div function
Some y 3
object
code
res = calc(add, 2, 3)

res
returns 5
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6.100L Lecture 8
 REPLACE FUNC CALL WITH RETURN

def calc(op, x, y):

return op(x,y)
Program Scope
def add(a,b):
return a+b calc function
Some
object
code
def div(a,b):
if b != 0: add function
Some
return a/b
object
code
print("Denom was 0.")
div function
Some
object
code
res = calc(add, 2, 3)

res 5

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6.100L Lecture 8
YOU TRY IT!
 Do a similar trace with the function call
def calc(op, x, y):
return op(x,y)

def div(a,b):
if b != 0:
return a/b
print("Denom was 0.")

res = calc(div,2,0)

What is the value of res and what gets printed?

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6.100L Lecture 8
 ANOTHER EXAMPLE:
FUNCTIONS AS PARAMS

def func_a():
print('inside func_a')
def func_b(y):
print('inside func_b')
return y
def func_c(f, z):
print('inside func_c')
return f(z)
print(func_a())
print(5 + func_b(2))
print(func_c(func_b, 3))
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6.100L Lecture 8
 FUNCTIONS AS PARAMETERS

Global scope func_a scope

def func_a(): Some
func_a
print('inside func_a') code
def func_b(y): Some
func_b code
print('inside func_b')
return y Some
def func_c(f, z): func_c code

print('inside func_c')
return f(z)
print(func_a())
print(5 + func_b(2))
print(func_c(func_b, 3))
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6.100L Lecture 8
 FUNCTIONS AS PARAMETERS

Global scope func_a scope

def func_a(): Some
func_a
print('inside func_a') code
def func_b(y): Some
func_b code
print('inside func_b')
return y Some
def func_c(f, z): func_c code

print('inside func_c') None

return f(z)
print(func_a())
print(5 + func_b(2))
print(func_c(func_b, 3))
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6.100L Lecture 8
 FUNCTIONS AS PARAMETERS

Global scope
def func_a(): Some
func_a
print('inside func_a') code
def func_b(y): Some
func_b code
print('inside func_b')
return y Some
def func_c(f, z): func_c code

print('inside func_c')
return f(z)
print(func_a())
print(5 + func_b(2))
print(func_c(func_b, 3))
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6.100L Lecture 8
 FUNCTIONS AS PARAMETERS

Global scope func_b scope

def func_a(): Some
func_a y 2
print('inside func_a') code
def func_b(y): Some
func_b code
print('inside func_b')
return y Some
func_c code
def func_c(f, z):
print('inside func_c') None
return f(z)
print(func_a())
print(5 + func_b(2))
print(func_c(func_b, 3))
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6.100L Lecture 8
 FUNCTIONS AS PARAMETERS

Global scope func_b scope

def func_a(): Some
func_a y 2
print('inside func_a') code
def func_b(y): Some
func_b code
print('inside func_b')
return y Some
func_c code
def func_c(f, z):
print('inside func_c') None
return f(z)
print(func_a())
print(5 + func_b(2))
print(func_c(func_b, 3))
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6.100L Lecture 8
 FUNCTIONS AS PARAMETERS

Global scope func_b scope

def func_a(): Some
func_a y 2
print('inside func_a') code
def func_b(y): Some
func_b code
print('inside func_b')
return y Some
func_c code
def func_c(f, z):
print('inside func_c') None
return f(z)
print(func_a()) 7 returns 2
print(5 + func_b(2))
print(func_c(func_b, 3))
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6.100L Lecture 8
 FUNCTIONS AS PARAMETERS

Global scope
def func_a(): Some
func_a
print('inside func_a') code
def func_b(y): Some
func_b code
print('inside func_b')
return y Some
func_c code
def func_c(f, z):
print('inside func_c') None
return f(z)
print(func_a()) 7
print(5 + func_b(2))
print(func_c(func_b, 3))
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6.100L Lecture 8
 FUNCTIONS AS PARAMETERS

Global scope func_c scope

def func_a(): Some
func_a f func_b
print('inside func_a') code
def func_b(y): Some z
3
func_b code
print('inside func_b')
return y Some
func_c code
def func_c(f, z):
print('inside func_c') None
return f(z)
print(func_a()) 7
print(5 + func_b(2))
print(func_c(func_b, 3))
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6.100L Lecture 8
 FUNCTIONS AS PARAMETERS

Global scope func_c scope

def func_a(): Some
func_a f func_b
print('inside func_a') code
def func_b(y): Some z
3
func_b code
print('inside func_b')
return y Some 3
func_c code
def func_c(f, z):
print('inside func_c') None returns 3 func_b scope
return f(z)
print(func_a()) y 3
7
print(5 + func_b(2))
print(func_c(func_b, 3))
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6.100L Lecture 8
 FUNCTIONS AS PARAMETERS

Global scope func_c scope

def func_a(): Some
func_a f func_b
print('inside func_a') code
def func_b(y): Some z
3
func_b code
print('inside func_b')
return y Some 3
func_c code
def func_c(f, z):
print('inside func_c') None
return f(z)
print(func_a()) 7
print(5 + func_b(2))
print(func_c(func_b, 3)) 3
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returns 3
6.100L Lecture 8
YOU TRY IT!
 Write a function that meets these specs.
def apply(criteria,n):
"""
* criteria is a func that takes in a number and returns a bool
* n is an int
Returns how many ints from 0 to n (inclusive) match
the criteria (i.e. return True when run with criteria)
"""

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6.100L Lecture 8
SUMMARY

 Functions are first class objects

 They have a type
 They can be assigned as a value bound to a name
 They can be used as an argument to another procedure
 They can be returned as a value from another procedure
 Have to be careful about environments
 Main program runs in the global environment
 Function calls each get a new temporary environment
 This enables the creation of concise, easily read code

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6.100L Lecture 8
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6.100L Introduction to Computer Science and Programming Using Python

Fall 2022

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