In Logic, we deal with statements that are essentially
sentences in the English language. However, in Logic we are not interested in or worried about the factual correctness of the sentence. We are interested only in the Logical "truthfulness" of the statements. Statements like "I will go for shopping", "It is a rainy day", etc are called simple statements. When two or more such simple statements are connected together to form a single statement, such a statement is called a compound statement. The simple statements are combined using logical connectives to form compound statements. We should know some of the important logical operators/connectives to be able to effectively tackle questions that involve compound statements and logical operations on compound statements. Negation ("NOT") Any statement can be negated by using the words "not" or "no". In layman's language, negation is like the opposite of a statement.
1 For example, the negation of the statement "I will drink water" is "I will not drink water." The negation of the statement "He will pass the exam" is "He will not pass the exam." Having defined simple statements, we shall now study about a few common operators (also called connectives) that can be used to combine (or operate upon) two or more simple statements and arrive at more complicated or compound statements. Logical Connective ‘OR’ Two or more statements can be connected using the connective OR. The following is an example using OR. It is raining or I will go to movie. The same statement can also be written as: Either it is raining or I will go to movie. Both the statements above mean the same. The additional word "either" does not change the meaning of the statement. When two (or more) statements are connected using OR, that implies exactly one of them is true and the other is false.
2 Suppose we have a statement "Either p or q", that implies if p is not happening, then q must happen and if q is not happening, then p must happen. Logical Connective ‘AND’ Two or more statements can be connected using the connective AND. The following is an example using AND. It is raining and I will go to movie. The two statements connected by “and” have to be true for the compound statement to be true. In general, if we have a statement "p and q", then we can conclude that p should be true as well as q, that is, both the statements should be true. Even if one of the two statements is false, the compound statement is false. Here ‘p’ and ‘q’ are simple statements.
3 IMPLICATION AND NEGATION TABLE Number Logical Implications Negations Connectives 1. If p, then q pq p & -q 2. Whenever p, then -q -p -q & p q 3. Either p or q -p q -p & -q -q p -q & -p p -q p&q q-p q&p 4. Unless p, then q -p q -p & -q -q p -q & -p 5. Only if p, then q qp q & -p -p -q -p & q
Implication and Negation
Let us take all the statements one by one and understand their meanings as well the implications we can draw from the same. Here we will also do the negation of a particular statement. But let all of us be clear about the same, that negation does not mean opposite of the statement. It means where the condition given in the question gets broken i.e. it is not fulfilled e.g. the negation of the statement “India will win the match” is India will not win the match”. The negation of this statement would not be “India will lose the match”. While
4 negating we have to keep in mind that the condition given in the question is not fulfilled. Let us understand all the above types in detail. 1. If p, then q: The implication of this is that if p happens, q happens. Also the reverse with negation of each of them is true. It means if negation q happens, implies negation p happens. In simple language if q does not happen, p does not happen. These two are the valid conclusions or implications. Example: If it is raining, there would be slippery. Solution: The implications of this statement are: It is raining, there is slippery. There is no slippery, it is not raining. Negation: The negation of the statement, If p, then q are: 1) p implies negation q 2) negation q implies p. Example: If it is raining, there would be slippery. Solution: The negations of this statement are: There is raining, implies it is not slippery. It is not slippery, there is raining.
5 2. Whenever p, then q: This second type of connectives gives exactly the same implications and same negations. Hence for all the practical purposes, the same implications and the same negations as explained in the first type should be considered. Let us just take one more example to get some more clarity. Example: Whenever I study, I get good marks. Solution: The implications of this statement are: I studied implies I would get good marks. I do not get good marks imply I do not study. The negations of this statement are: I studied implies I did not get good marks. I did not get good marks imply I studied. 3. Either p or q: The implication of this is that if negation p happens, implies q happens. One more implication is there, that is: if negation q happens, implies p happens. Besides that there are two more implications, which are: 1) p happens implies q does not happen 2) q happens implies p does not happen.
6 Example: Either Mohan would sleep or Sohan would play the game. Solution: Its implications are: Mohan did not sleep implies Sohan plays the game. Sohan did not play the game implies Mohan slept. Mohan sleeps implies Sohan would not play the game. Sohan plays the game implies Mohan would not sleep. Negation: The negation of this is if p does not happen, implies q does not happen. One more negation is there, that is: if q does not happen, implies p does not happen. Besides that there are two more negations, i.e. when p & q both are happening simultaneously. Negations of this statement are: Mohan did not sleep implies Sohan did not play the game. Sohan did not play the game implies Mohan did not sleep. Mohan sleeps implies Sohan plays the game. Sohan plays the game implies Mohan sleeps.
7 4. Unless p, then q: The implications of this is that if negation p happens, implies q happens. One more implication is there, that is: if negation q happens, implies p happens. Example: Unless he works hard, he would fail. Solution: Its implications are: He did not work hard implies he failed. He did not fail implies he worked hard. Negation: The negation of this is if p does not happen, implies q does not happen. One more implication is there, that is: if q does not happen, implies p does not happen. Any other negation would be incorrect. Negations of this statement are: He did not work hard implies he did not fail. He did not fail implies he did not work hard. 5. Only if p, then q:: The implication of this is exactly reverse of the 1st case. The implication of this is that if q happens, implies p happens. Also the reverse with negation of each of them is true. It means if negation p happens, implies negation q happens.
8 Example: Only if she performs well, she would get promotion. Solution: Its implications are: She got promotion implies she performed well. She did not perform well implies she did not get promotion. Negation: The negation of this is exactly reverse of the 1st case. The negation of this is that if q happens, implies p does not happen. Also one more negation is true which is, if negation of p happens, implies q happens. Any other negation would be incorrect. The negations of this statement are: She got promotion and she did not perform well. She did not perform well and she got promotion. Negation of compound statements formed with OR, AND A compound statement formed with OR or AND can be negated in the following manner: "Negation (p OR q)" is the same as "Negation p AND Negation q." "Negation (p AND q)" is the same as "Negation p OR Negation q."
9 As described above, when a compound statement consisting of two simple statements (connected within OR or AND) is negated, the result will consist of each of the individual statements negated in the same manner i.e. (i) OR will become AND (ii) AND will become OR Example: Mohan would go to cinema or would read a book. Solution: The negation of this statement is: Mohan would not go to cinema and would not read a book. Example: Seema would go to party and Sneha would clean the house. Solution: The negation of this statement is: Seema would not go to party or Sneha would not clean the house. Example: If it is raining, then I will go to a mall or I will visit my uncle's place. (A). It is not raining, means that I will not go to a mall or I will not visit my uncle's place. (B). It is not raining, means that I will not go to a mall and I will not visit my uncle's place. (C). I will not go for a mall or I will not visit my uncle's place, means that it is not raining.
10 (D) I will not go for a mall and I will not visit my uncle's place, means that it is raining. Solution: As both the effects, i.e. “I will not go to a mall and I will not visit my uncle’s place”, are simultaneously not there, so cause should also not be there. But given, cause is there i.e. its raining. So it implies negation. Hence 4th option Binary Logic Binary logic deals with statements or propositions which are declarative sentences that are either true or false but not both. Truth value of a proposition: The truth value of a proposition is true, denoted by T or 1, if it is a true statement and false, denoted by F or 0, if it is a false statement. Negation of a proposition: The denial of a statement is called the negation of the statement. If a statement p is true, then its negation is false and if p is false, then its negation is true. Using binary logic for solving questions: The questions based on binary logic are solved using the following two facts that have been already discussed.
11 1. A proposition cannot be true as well as false at the same time. 2. If a proposition is true, then its negation is false and if a statement is false, then its negation is true. Questions based on binary logic: Type 1: When there are statements made by some people say A, B and C such that one of them always tells the truth, one of them always lies and one of them alternates between the truth and lie not necessarily in that order. In this case we first take the possibility of A always telling the truth. Considering that the statements made by A are true, we can find if the other two people are able to make the combination of one being always a liar and the other alternating between truth and lie. If this combination turns out to be possible, then we take this as a valid situation otherwise we eliminate it. Secondly we repeat the above mentioned procedure by taking the possibility of B always telling the truth and based on his statements being true we make the combination of the other two people, one being always a liar and the other one alternating between truth and lie not necessarily in that order. Again if this combination
12 turns out to be possible, then we take this as a valid situation otherwise we eliminate it. Thirdly we consider C always telling the truth and repeat the procedure to check if it is a valid possibility or not. By summing up all the valid situations we get the desired conclusions. Type 2: When there are statements made by some people say A, B, C and D such that each one of them alternates between the truth and lie not necessarily in that order. In this situation we first assume that the statements made by A are true, false, true, false…alternately in this order. Considering the statements made by A and using their truth value we see if the remaining people can be made as alternating between truth and lie not necessarily in that order without contradicting A. If this turns out to be possible, then this is a valid situation and hence can be used to make necessary conclusions otherwise we eliminate this possibility and consider the situation where the statements made by A are false, true, false, true…alternately in this order and repeat the above mentioned procedure to make necessary conclusions. Let us take some examples to understand the concepts better:
13 Illustration: DIRECTIONS for questions 1 to 3: These questions are based on the following information. Each of the three persons - Ramu, Raman and Rajan- belonged to exactly one of different cities amongst Delhi, Mumbai and Chennai. Each person always gives two replies to any question asked. Out of these three, exactly one person always speaks the truth, other always lies and the another always alternates between truth and lie, in any order. When each was asked "Which city do you belong to?", the following were their replies: Ramu: I am from Delhi. Raman is from Mumbai. Raman: I am from Delhi. Rajan is from Chennai. Rajan: Ramu is from Mumbai. Raman is from Delhi. Based on the above, answer the following questions. 1. Who among the three must be from Chennai? 1. Ramu 2. Raman 3. Rajan 4. Cannot be determined 2. Which city did Raman belong to? 1. Delhi 2. Mumbai 3. Chennai 4. Chennai or Delhi
14 3. If there are exactly two persons who always tell the truth, and the third person either always lies or alternates between truth and lie, then which of the following statements must be false? 1. Rajan is not from Mumbai 2. Ramu is not from Delhi. 3. Rajan is not from Chennai. 4. Raman is from Delhi
15 Explanation Q. No Explanation 1-3. (i) Assuming Ramu always speaks the truth: I II City Ramu T T Delhi Raman F T Mumbai Rajan F F Chennai This arrangement works out for answering the first two questions. (ii) Assuming Raman always speaks the truth: I II City Ramu F F Mumbai Raman T T Delhi Rajan T T Chennai (iii) Assuming Rajan always speaks the truth: I II City Ramu F F Mumbai Raman T T Delhi Rajan T T Chennai Arrangement (ii) and (iii) help in answering the third question. 1. Rajan must be from Chennai. 2. Raman belongs to Mumbai. 3. Rajan is not from Chennai is false.
