HIGHER MATH

Conic Sections

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 Conic Sections
A conic (or a conic section) is the locus of a point which
moves in a plane such that its distance from a fixed point
bears a constant ratio to its distance from a fixed line.
The fixed point is called a focus and the fixed line is
called a directrix of the conic. The Constant ratio is
known as the eccentricity of the conic and is denoted by
the letter e. The conic is an ellipse, a parabola or a
hyperbola, according as e < = or > 1.
Geometrically, these curves can be obtained as sections
of a right circular cone by a plane in various positions
and that is why they are called conic sections. A conic
(or a conic section) is given by a second degree
equation. Thus a conic means a pair of straight lines, a
circle, a parabola, an ellipse or a hyperbola. A circle is a
limiting case of an ellipse.
CARTESIAN EQUATION OF CONIC SECTIONS
Cartesian equation of conic sections is
ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy +c = 0
Which is general equation of second degree, which
always represents:
(i) Parabola , if ∆ ≠ 0, h² = ab

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 (ii) Ellipse , if ∆ ≠ 0, h2 < ab
(iii) Hyperbola , if ∆ ≠ 0, h2 > ab
(iv) Rectangular Hyperbola , if ∆ ≠ 0, h2 > ab and a + b =
0
Where ∆ = abc + 2fgh –af² - bg²-ch²
1. Parabola
A parabola is the locus of a point which moves in place
such that its distance from a fixed point (called the
focus) is equal to its distance from a fixed line (called the
directrix).
In Fig 1 (a), let the focus S be (a, 0) and directrix be the
line x = - a, which a > 0. If P(x, y) is any point on the locus,
then
SP = PL [by defn. of Parabola]
⇒ SP2 = PL2
⇒ (x – a)2 + (y – 0)2 = (x + a)2
⇒ y2 = (x + a)2 – (x – a)2 = 4ax
y2 = 4ax is a standard form of the equation of parabola.

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 Y
L
P (x,y)

X'
X
O S (a,0) x

x+a=0
Y'

Fig. 1 (a)

Four standard forms of a parabola are

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 Fig 1 (b)
Terms used in context of the Parabola y2 = 4 ax.
1. FOCUS: The fixed point is called the focus of
parabola.
2. DIRECTRIX: The fixed straight line is called the
directrix.
3. VERTEX: The point of intersection of the parabola
and the axis is called vertex of the parabola. The
point O (0, 0) is the vertex of the parabola, and the
tangent to the parabola at the vertex is x = 0
4. AXIS: The line joining the vertex O and the focus S
(a, 0) is the axis of the parabola and its equation is
therefore y = 0.

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5. DOUBLE ORDINATE: Any chord of the parabola
perpendicular to its axis is called a double ordinate.
6. FOCAL CHORD: A chord of the parabola passing
through its focus is called a focal chord.
7. LATUS RECTUM: A double ordinate through the
focus is called the latus rectum. The focal chord of
the parabola perpendicular to its axis is called its
latus rectum.
In Fig 1 (c), LSM is the latus rectum of the parabola y² =
4ax
By symmetry of the curve SL = SM = k (say)
So coordinates of L are (a,k)
And as L lies on parabola y² = 4ax
So k² = 4a² => k = 2a
So the length of this latus rectum is therefore 4a.

5
 Fig 1 (c)
8. CO-NORMAL POINTS: The points on a parabola, the
normal at which are concurrent, are called co - normal
points of the parabola. If (x1, y1), (x2, y2) and (x3, x3) are co
normal points of the parabola y2 = 4ax, then y1 + y2 +y3 = 0
9. DIAMETER: A line which bisects a system of parallel
chords of a parabola is called a diameter of the parabola.
There are three other standard form of parabola which
depends upon the choice of axes. The shapes of the
curves in these four standard forms are given above in
figure 1.2 and their results can be tabulate as follows: -

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 Parabola / y² = 4ax y² = -4ax x² = 4ay x² = -4ay
Values
Vertex (0,0) (0,0) (0,0) (0,0)
Focus (a,0) (-a,0) (0,a) (0,-a)
Equation of y=0 y=0 x=0 x=0
Axis
Equation of x = -a x=a y = -a y=a
Directrix
Latus 4a 4a 4a v
Rectum
Focal a+x a- x a +y a-y
Distance of
P(x , y)
The following are some standard results for the parabola
y2 = 4ax:
1. The parametric equations of the parabola or the
coordinates of any point on it are x = at2, y = 2at.
2. The tangent to the parabola at ( x’, y’) is yy’ = 2a (x +
x’) and that at (at2, 2at) is ty = x + at2.
3. The condition that the line y = mx + c is a tangent to
the parabola is c = a/m and the equation of any
tangent to it (not parallel to the y-axis) is therefore y
= m x + (a/m).

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4. The chord of contact (defined as in circles) of (x’, y’)
w.r.t. the parabola is yy’ = 2a (x + x’).
5. The normal at (at2, 2at) to the parabola is y = - tx +
2at + at3. If m is the slope of this normal then its
equation is y = mx – 2 am – am3, which is the
normal to the parabola at (am2, -2am)
Examples
1. The focus of the parabola (y – 2)2 = 8 (x – 2) is
1. (2, 1) 2. (4, 2) 3. (5, 1) 4. (3, 0)
Ans. Option 2
Solution: Equation of the given parabola can be written
as Y2 = 4aX, where Y = y – 2, X = x – 2 and 4a = 8 ⇒ a =2
whose focus with respect to (X, Y) as new coordinates is
(2,0).
i.e. X = 2 and Y = 0, so x – 2 = 2 and y – 2 = 0 ⇒ x = 4
and y = 2. Hence the required focus with respect to old
axis is (4, 2).
2. The vertex of the parabola y2 + 4x – 6y + 17 = 0 is
1. (1, - 1) 2. (- 2, 1) 3. (3/2, 1) 4. (- 2,3)
Ans. Option 4
Solution: The equation of the parabola can be written as

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(y – 3)2 = -4 (x+2), which is of the form Y2 =- 4aX,
Y = y – 3, a = -1, X = x +2.
The vertex is therefore at X=0 and Y = 0. i.e. x = - 2 and y
=3
3. The directrix of the parabola y2 - 8y - x+ 19 =0 is
1. x – 11/4 = 0 2. x + 11/4 = 0
3. x – 1/4 = 0 4. x – 4/3 = 0
Ans. Option 1
Solution: The equation of the parabola can be written as
(y-4)2 = (x-3), which is of the form Y2 = X
Where Y = y - 4 , X = x - 3 and 4a = 1 so a = ¼
The equation of directrix w.r.t new axis X = -a=> X = -1/4
So the equation of directrix w.r.t. old axis is (x-3) = -1/4
=> x = 11/4 or
x - 11/4 = 0
2. Ellipse
An ellipse is the locus of a point in a plane which moves
in the plane such that the ratio of its distance from a
fixed point(focus) in the same plane to its distance from

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a fixed straight line (directrix) is always constant, which
is always less than unity.
The constant ratio is known as the eccentricity of the
ellipse and is denoted by ‘e’.
In Fig 2(a)
SP
So by definition e
PM
Equation of Ellipse in Standard Form

Fig 2(a)

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Let S be focus, and ZK the directrix and e the eccentricity
of the ellipse. Draw SK perpendicular from S on the
directrix.
SA
So by definition  e  SA  e.AK.......(1)
AK
SA'
And  e  SA'  e.A' K.......( 2 )
A' K
As A and A’ are the points having constant distances
from the focus i.e. ‘e’ (<1) to their respective distances
from the directrix , so these points lie on the ellipse.
Let AA’ = 2a and C is the mid point of AA’, then CA = CA’ =
a ….. (3)
Adding (1) and (2) we get
SA + SA’ = e(AK + A’K) => 2a = e(CK –CA + A’C + CK)
2a = 2e . CK [using (3)]
a
CK 
e
Subtracting (1) from (2) we get
SA’ – SA = e(A’K –AK)
(CS + CA’) – (CA – CS) = e . AA’
2CS = 2ae [using (3)]

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CS = ae
Now let C is origin, so co ordinates of focus S are (ae,0)
and equation of directrix ZK is
a
x
e
Let P (x, y) is any point on the ellipse. Join SP and draw
PM perpendicular to ZK, then by definition
SP = e PM => SP2 = e2 PM2 => SP2 = e2 NK2 then (x – ae)2
2
2 2 a 
+ (y-0) = e   x  or (1 – e2) x2 + y2 = a2 (1 – e2) or
e 
2 2
x y
 2 1
a 2
a (1  e 2 )

If e < 1, i.e. 1 – e2 > 0, then writing a2 (1 – e2) = b2, we get

the equation of the ellipse in the standard form as
x 2 y2
  1 ……………….. (4)
a 2 b2
As e < 1, so a2 (1 – e2) < a2 ⇒ b2 < a2

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Second Focus and the Second Directrix of Ellipse

Fig 2(b)
Let S’ and K’ be points on the x-axis on the side of C
which is opposite to the side of S such that
a
CS’ =ae and CK’ =
e
Let us draw Z’K’ ⊥ CK’ and PM’ ⊥ Z’K’ as in figure 2(b) .
Join P and S’, so that PM’ = NK’
Now equation (4) can be written as
x2 (1-e2) + y2 = a² (1 – e²)
x² + y² + a²e² = a²+ e²x²

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(x² + 2aex + a²e² ) + y² = a²+2aex + e²x²
(x+ae)² + y² = (a+ex)²
(x+ae)² + (y-0)² = e²(a/e+x)²
S’P² = e² . PM’²
S’P = e . PM’
=> distance of P from S’ = e.(distance of P from Z’K’)
Hence we obtained the same curve with S’ as focus and
Z’K’ as directrix
It means ellipse has a second focus S’(-ae,0) and second
directrix
a
x
e
x 2 y2
Terms used in context of the Ellipse  1
a 2 b2

1. VERTICES: The points A(a,0) and A’(-a,0) in Fig 2(b)

where the curve meets the line joining the foci S
and S’ are called the vertices of the ellipse.
2. FOCI: The points S(ae,0) and S’(-ae,0) in Fig 2(b)
are the foci of the ellipse.

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3. MAJOR AND MINOR AXES: in Fig 2.2 distances AA’
= 2a and BB’ =2b are called major and minor axes of
the ellipse. As e < 1 and a2 (1 – e2) = b², therefore a
> b => AA’ > BB’
4. DIRECTRICES: ZK and ZK’ are two directrices of the
ellipse and their equations are respectively
a a
x  and x
e e

5. CENTRE: in Fig 2(b), C(0,0) is centre of the ellipse,

which is mid point of AA’
6. ECCENTRICITY: Equation of ellipse
x 2 y2
 1
a 2 b2

As b² = a2 (1 – e2)
On solving for ‘e’ we get
(2b)²
e²  1 
(2a )²

(Minoraxis )²
e  [1  ]
(Majoraxis )²

7. ORDINATE AND DOUBLE ORDINATE: in Fig 2 (b) PN

is called ordinate of P and PNP’ is called double
ordinate of P.

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8. LATUS RECTUM: Double ordinate passing through
the focus is known as Latus Rectum
In Fig 2(b), LSL’ is Latus Rectum and LS is semi
latus rectum . The co ordinates of L are (ae,SL).
x 2 y2
As L lies on the ellipse   1, therefore
a 2 b2

(ae) 2 SL2
 2 1
a2 b
b2
On solving, SL =
a

2b 2
So length of Latus Rectum = = 2a(1-e²)
a
9. FOCAL DISTANCES: The distances of any point on
the ellipse from its foci are called its focal
distances.

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Equation of ellipse in other form
Y
y=b/e
K
Z
B(0,b)

S(0,be

X' X
A' A
(-a,0) (a,0)
S'(0,-be

B'(0,-b)
Z'
K' y=-b/e
Y'

Fig 2(c)
If in standard form of ellipse, a > b or a² > b², then the
major (2a) axis and minor axis (2b) lie along x-axis and y-
axis respectively [Fig 2(b)] and if a < b or a² < b² then the

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major (2b)and minor axis (2a) lie along y-axis and x-axis
respectively [Fig 2(c)] and equation of ellipse is
x 2 y2
  1, a  b
b2 a 2
The co ordinates of foci are S(0,be) and S’(0,-be) and
b
equations of directrices ZK and Z’K’ are x  
e
And eccentricity
(a )²
e²  1 
(b)²

So all points given above can be summarized as

Ellipse x 2 y2 x 2 y2
  1, a  b   1, a  b
a2 b2 a2 b2
Centre (0,0) (0,0)
Vertices (a,0) and (-a,0) (0,b) and (0,-b)
Foci (ae,0) and (-ae,0) (0,be) and (0,-be)
Length of 2a/2b 2b/2a
major/minor
axes
Equation of y=0 / x=0 x=0 / y = 0
major/minor
axes
Equations of x
a b
x
directrices e e

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 Eccentricity (b)²
e  [1 
(a )²
e  [1  ] ]
(a )² (b)²
Length of 2b2 2a 2
Latus Rectum a b
Focal a ± ex b ± ey
distances of a
point(x,y)
SOME STANDARD RESULTS FOR AN ELLIPSE
1. The Parametric equations of an ellipse or the
coordinates of any point on the ellipse are x = a cos
θ, y = b sin θ, where θ is the parameter, which
ranges from 0 to 2π radians.
2. An equation of the tangent at the above point “θ” is
x y
cos  sin   1
a b
3. An equation of the normal at the same point “θ” is
ax by
  a 2  b2
cos sin 
4. An equation of the tangent (which is also equation
of chord of contact of P) at the point P (x’,y’) on the
xx ' yy'
ellipse is  1
a 2 b2

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5. The condition that the line y = mx + c touches the
ellipse is c² = a²m² + b², so that the equation of any
tangent to the ellipse (not parallel to the y – axis)
can be written as

y = mx  a 2 m2  b 2
Examples
1. Find the length of minor and major axes of the
ellipse 16x² + 25y² = 400
1. 8,10 2. 10,8 3. 5,4 4. 4,5
Ans. Option 2
x ² y²
Sol: 16x² + 25y² = 400 can be written as  1
25 16
x 2 y2
On comparing from   1, a  b we get a = 5
a 2 b2
and b = 4
So length of major axes = 2a = 2x5 = 10
And length of minor axes = 2b = 2x4 = 8
2. Find eccentricity of ellipse x2 + 4y2 – 2x = 0
1. 2/√3 2. 2/√2 3. √3/2 4. √3/3
Ans. Option 3

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Sol: x2 + 4y2 – 2x = 0
( x  1)² ( y  0)²
Which can be written as  1
1 1/ 4

Put x-1 = X and y-0 = Y

X² Y²
So we have  1
1² (1/ 2)²

So a = 1 and b = ½
(b)²
So eccentricity e  [1  ]
(a )²

(1/ 2)²
e  [1  ]
(1)²

e = √3/2
x2 y2
3. The equation   1 represents an ellipse if
8p 6p

1. p < 6 2. p > 6 3. 6 < p < 8 4. p > 8

Ans. Option 1
x2 y2
Solution :  1
8p 6p

The given equation will represents an ellipse if 8 -p > 0

and 6- p > 0
⇒ above equation represents ellipse iff p < 6

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3. HYPERBOLA
An Hyperbola is the locus of a point in a plane which
moves in the plane such that the ratio of its distance
from a fixed point (focus) in the same plane to its
distance from a fixed straight line (directrix) is always
constant, which is always greater than unity.
The constant ratio is known as the eccentricity of the
ellipse and is denoted by ‘e’.
SP
So by definition, in Fig 3(a), e
PM
EQUATION OF HYPERBOLA IN STANDARD FORM
Let S be focus, and ZK the directrix and e the eccentricity
of the hyperbola. Draw SK perpendicular from S on the
directrix. In Fig 3(a)
SA
So by definition  e  SA  e.AK.......(1)
AK
SA'
 e  SA'  e.A' K........(2)
And A ' K

As A and A’ are the points having constant distances

from the focus i.e. ‘e’ (>1) to their respective distances
from the directrix , so these points lie on the hyperbola

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 Fig 3(a)
Let AA’ = 2a and C is the mid point of AA’
then CA = CA’ = a ….. (3)
Adding (1) and (2) we get
SA + SA’ = e(AK + A’K) ⇒
CS – CA + CS + CA’ = e(CA –CK + CA’+ CK)
2CS = 2ae [using (3)]
CS =ae

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Subtracting (1) from (2) we get
SA’ – SA = e(A’K –AK)
AA’= e .(CA’ + CK – CA +CK)
AA’ = 2e CK [using (3)]
2a= 2e CK ⇒
a
CK 
e
Let C be the origin and P (x,y) be any point on hyperbola
and PM ,PN be the perpendiculars from P ton KZ and KX
respectively. Now by definition
SP = e PM ⇒ SP2 = e2 PM2 ⇒ SP2 = e2 NK2
⇒ SP2 = e² (CN –CK)²
2
2 2 a 2
then (x – ae) + (y-0) = e  x  
 e

or (1 – e2) x2 - y2 = a2 ( e2-1)
x2 y2
or  1
a 2 a 2 (e 2  1)

x 2 y2
  1 ……. (4) where b² = a2 (e2-1)
a 2 b2

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we get the equation of the hyperbola in the standard
form.
Second Focus and the Second Directrix of Hyperbola
Similarly as ellipse it can be shown that the hyperbola
x 2 y2
2
 2  1 where b² = a2 (e2-1) has econd focus S’ (-ae,0)
a b
and second directrix Z’K’ having equation
a
x
e

x 2 y2
Terms used in context of the Hyperbola  1
a 2 b2
1. VERTICES: The points A(a,0) and A’(-a,0) in Fig 3(a)
where the curve meets the line joining the foci S
and S’ are called the vertices of the hyperbola.
2. FOCI: The points S(ae,0) and S’(-ae,0) in Fig 3(a) are
the foci of the hyperbola.
3. TRANSVERSE AND CONJUGATE AXES: in Fig 3(a),
the straight line joining the vertices Aand A’ is
called transverse axes of the hyperbola. So AA’ = 2a
and the straight line through the centre which is
perpendicular to the transverse axes does not meet
the hyperbola in real points, but if B, B’ be the

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 points on this line such that CB = CB’ = b then BB’
=2b is called the conjugate axes of the hyperbola.
4. DIRECTRICES: ZK and ZK’ are two directrices of the
hyperbola and their equations are respectively
a a
x and x  
e e

5. CENTRE: in Fig 3 (a), C(0,0) is centre of the

hyperbola ,which is mid point of AA’.
6. ECCENTRICITY: Equation of hyperbola
x 2 y2
 1
a 2 b2

As b² = a2 (e2 - 1)
On solving for ‘e’ we get
(2b)² (Conjugateaxes)²
e²  1  e  [1  ]
(2a )² (Transverseaxis )²

7. LATUS RECTUM: In Fig 3 (a), LSL’ is Latus Rectum

and LS is semi latus rectum .TS’T’ is also a Latus
Rectum
The co-ordinates of L are (ae , SL).
x 2 y2
As L lies on the hyperbola  1,
a 2 b2
b2
Therefore (ae) 2

SL2
1 On solving, SL =
a2 b2 a

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 2b 2
So length of Latus Rectum = = 2a(e²- 1)
a

9. FOCAL DISTANCES: The distances of any point on

the hyperbola from its foci are called its focal
distances.
CONJUGATE HYPERBOLA
The hyperbola whose transeverse and conjugate axes
are respectively the conjugate and transverse axes of the
given hyperbola [Fig 3(b)], so equation of conjugate
x 2 y2
hyperbola is   1
a 2 b2

Fig 3(b)

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So all points given above can be summarized as
HYPERBOLA x 2 y2
 1 
x 2 y2
 1
a 2 b2 a 2 b2

Centre (0,0) (0,0)

Vertices (a,0) and (-a,0) (0,b) and (0,-b)
Foci (ae,0) and (- (0,be) and (0,-
ae,0) be)
Length of 2a/2b 2b/2a
transverse/conjugate
axes
Equation of y=0 / x=0 x=0 / y = 0
transverse/conjugate
axes
Equations of x
a
x
b
directrices e e

Eccentricity e  [1 
(b)²
] e  [1 
(a )²
]
(a )² (b)²

Length of Latus 2b2 2a 2

Rectum a b

Focal distances of a ex ± a ey ± b
point(x,y)

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SOME STANDARD RESULTS FOR HYPERBOLA:
1. The Parametric equations of hyperbola or the
coordinates of any point on the hyperbola are
x = a sec θ, y = b tan θ. The point is denoted “θ”.
2. An equation of the tangent at the above point “θ” is
x y 
 sec   tan   1
a b 

3. An equation of the normal at the same point “θ” is

 ax by 
   a 2  b2 
 sec tan  

4. An equation of the tangent (which is also the

equation of chord of contact) at the point P (x’,y’)
xx ' yy'
on the hyperbola is  1
a 2 b2

5. The condition that the line y = mx + c touches the

hyperbola is c² = a2 m² - b², so that the equation of
any tangent to the hyperbola (not parallel to the y –
axis) can be written as y = mx  a 2m2  b2
6. An equation of the polar of (x’y’) w.r.t. the
xx ' yy'
hyperbola is  1
a 2 b2

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Examples:
1. Find the length of transverse and conjugate axes
of hyperbola 3x² - 6y² = -18
1. 2√3, 2√6 2. 3√3, 2√6
3. 2√3, 3√3 4. None of these
Ans: Option 1
x 2 y2
Solution: 3x² - 6y² = -18 can be written as   1 or
6 3
x 2 y2
  1
6 3
Where a² = 6 and b² = 3 => a = √6 and b = √3
So length of transverse axis = 2b = 2√3 and length
conjugate axis is 2a = 2√6
2. Find length of latus rectum of hyperbola 16x² - 9y²
= 144
32 32 19 32
1. 2. 3. 4.
9 3 3 5
Ans: Option 2
x 2 y2
Solution: 16x² - 9y² = 144 can be written as   1
9 16
So a² = 9 and b² = 16 => a = 3 and b = 4

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 2b 2 2( 4) 2 32
Latus rectum = = =
a 3 3
3. Find the equation of hyperbola if vertices are at
(±5,0) and foci at (±7,0)
x 2 y2 x 2 y2
1.  1 2.   1
9 16 24 16
x 2 y2 x 2 y2
3.   1 4.  1
24 25 25 24
Ans: Option 4
Solution: since the vertices lie on x-axis, so equation of
hyperbola
x2 y 2
 1
a 2 b2
The co ordinates of vertices are (±5, 0) and foci are (±7,0)
So a = 5 and ae = 7 => e = 7/5
Now b² = a²(e² -1)
On putting values of a and e we get b² = 24
x 2 y2
So equation of hyperbola =  1
25 24

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