Table of Contents

Coordinates ................................................................................................................................. 1
Definition ................................................................................................................................ 1
Polar co-ordinates in two dimensions ..................................................................................... 2
Cylindrical coordinate system................................................................................................. 4
Polar co-ordinates in three dimensions ................................................................................... 4
Calculation of distance by coordinates ................................................................................... 7
Worked out examples ............................................................................................................. 7
Exercise ................................................................................................................................. 13
Answers to the exercise ........................................................................................................ 14
Subjective questions.............................................................................................................. 16
Objective questions ............................................................................................................... 16
Answers to the objective questions ....................................................................................... 19

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(Madhusudan Adhikari, Malarani-8, Arghakhanchi, Nepal)
Coordinates

Definition
Coordinates are the set of linear and/or angular quantities that designate the position of a point in
a space of a given dimension in relation to a given reference frame. By dimension we mean the
minimum number of coordinates needed to specify a point in coordinate space. By reference frame
we mean the reference axes, their orientation and the origin. In a two-dimensional plane, x and y
are commonly used to designate coordinates of a point. Latitude and longitude are used together
to specify the coordinates of a precise location on the Earth. The simplest coordinate system is the
number line where the position of a point is identified on a line with real number. In a plane we
identify a point by its horizontal and vertical displacements from the origin, we write these
displacements together as an ordered pair in the form (x,y), these are what we use to know
commonly as the coordinates of the point and separately known as x-coordinate and y-coordinate
respectively. In space we locate a point by an ordered triple (x,y,z) of real numbers that represent
the displacements of the point from x-, y- and z-axes and are the x- y- and z-coordinates
respectively. So, any of a set of numbers used in specifying the location of a point on a line, on a
surface, or in space is termed as coordinate.
A line is a one-dimensional space on which we choose an origin and label it 0, also we define a
unit point and label it 1. The origin sets a starting point, and the distance between the origin and
any point on the line is termed as its coordinate obtained by the multiple and/or fraction of the
defined unit. From origin to a point in the positive x direction each point has a distance and is the
coordinate of that point represented by a positive number. Similarly, from origin to a point in the
negative x direction each point has a distance and is the coordinate of that point and represented
by a negative number. Thus, each point on the line corresponds to a real number, its coordinate,
and each real number corresponds to a single point on the line.

In practical life we can realize different applications of the concept of one-dimensional

coordinates. As for example we can determine the height of a point in one dimensional
measurement. Knowing the elevations of the intake and powerhouse of a hydropower plant we can
easily calculate the head. If the elevation of the intake
is 1587.85 m and that of powerhouse is 1315.45 the
head i.e., the vertical distance is 1587.85-
1315.45=272.4 m.
A plane is a two dimensional space on which we
define a coordinate plane and locate any point on that
plane by two-dimensional (x,y) coordinates. A plane
formed by the intersection of a vertical line called y-
axis and a horizontal line called x-axis is called a
coordinate plane. These axes are perpendicular lines
that intersect each other at zero, and this point is called
the origin. The axes cut the coordinate plane into four
equal sections, and each section is known as a
quadrant as shown in the figure. This two-dimensional
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coordinate plane is also called the Cartesian plane the axes are called the coordinate axes or x-axis
and y-axis. The horizontal line to the right of the origin is positive x-axis and the horizontal line to
the left of the origin is negative x-axis. The vertical line above the origin is positive y-axis and the
vertical line below the origin is negative y-axis. To locate a point, we define the x-coordinate or
abscissa of the point as its perpendicular distance from the y-axis measured along the x-axis and
the y-coordinate or ordinate of the point as its perpendicular distance from the x-axis measured
along the y-axis. To state the coordinate as a complete designation of the point the x-coordinate
comes first, and then the y-coordinate comes and forms the ordered pair (x,y) by convention.
In three-dimensional space, the Cartesian coordinate
system is based on three mutually perpendicular
coordinate axes: the x-axis, the y-axis, and the z-axis.
They are also known as the abscissa, ordinate and
applicate axis, respectively. The coordinates of any
point in space are determined by an order triple of three
real numbers (x, y, z). Each ordered triple (x,y,z)
specifies the location of exactly one point, and the
location of each point is given by exactly one ordered
triple (x,y,z). The x, y and z values are the coordinates
of the point (x,y,z). The Cartesian coordinates (x,y,z)
of a point P in three-dimensions specify the signed
distance from the origin along the x, y, and z-axes,
respectively, as shwon inm the figure.
In n-dimensional space, the Cartesian coordinate
system is based on n mutually perpendicular coordinate axes: the 𝑥1 -axis, the 𝑥2 -axis…...,𝑥𝑛 -axis.
A point is represented by an ordered n-tuple (𝑥1 ; 𝑥2 ; … … … … . . ; 𝑥𝑛 ), where the 𝑥𝑖 are real
numbers. We do not discuss on it as it is beyond the scope of this book.
We can see that whatever is the dimension of the coordinate system, a coordinate system consists
of four basic elements:
1) origin
2) axes
3) positive direction for each axis
4) unit vectors for each axis
Polar co-ordinates in two dimensions
Coordinate systems are really nothing more than a way to
define a point in space. For example, in a two-dimensional
Cartesian coordinate system a point is defined by the
coordinates (x, y) which are the distances measured by starting
at the origin and then moving x units horizontally followed by
y units vertically, as shown in the figure.
However, this is not the only way to define a point in two-
dimensional space. Instead of moving vertically and
horizontally from the origin to get to the point we could move
straight out of the origin until we hit the point and then determine the angle this line makes with
the positive x-axis. We could then use the distance of the point from the origin and the amount we

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needed to rotate from the positive x-axis as the coordinates of the point ss shown in the figure.
Coordinates in this form are called polar coordinates.
Unlike rectangular coordinates, the polar coordinates of a point are
multivalent, having many equivalent versions because of the ambiguity of
angles. For example, the point (x,y) = (0,1) on the positive-axis corresponds
to (r,θ) = (1,π/2), where θ=π/2 means a 1/4 turn counterclockwise from the
positive-axis. However, we could equally well get to this point by a 3/4 turn
clockwise, giving (𝑟, 𝜃) = (1, −3𝜋/2). In fact, we could get to the point
1 3
by 1 turns counterclockwise, 1 clockwise, etc. In general, we must
4 4
consider all angles that differ by a multiple of a full turn 2π as the same, meaning they define the
same point:(r,θ)=(r, θ+2nπ) for any integer n. Thus, if we allow the angle to make as many
complete rotations
about the axis system
as we want then there
are an infinite number
of polar coordinates
for the same point.
The value of r can be
positive, negative, or
zero. The sign of r is
very important in
locating the exact
position of the point. The absolute value of r, |r|, is the distance between the point and the origin.
Polar coordinates (−r,θ) means to move out along the line at angle θ, but in the opposite direction
from the positive ray, along the ray θ±π; thus: (−r,θ) = (r, θ±π). There is even more ambiguity for
the origin (x,y) = (0,0), which can be written as (r,θ) = (0,θ) for any angle at all. In polar
coordinates the origin is often called the pole.
Cartesian to Polar Conversion
Let P(x,y) be any point in two dimensional Cartesian plane
whose polar coordinates are (r,θ) as shown in the figure.
Then from figure,
𝑟 2 = (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )
∴ 𝑟 = √(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )
Again,
𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝑥
𝑦
∴ 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑥
Thus, the formulae to convert the coordinates from Cartesian to Polar are
𝑦
𝑟 = √(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑥
Polar to Cartesian Conversion
From figure,
𝑦
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑟
∴ 𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Similarly,
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𝑥
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑟
∴ 𝑥 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Thus, the formulae to convert the coordinates from Polar to Cartesian are
𝑥 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Cylindrical coordinate system

Cylindrical coordinate system is an extension of the two-
dimensional polar coordinate system to third dimension.
The two-dimensional polar coordinates of the projection
of a point on xy plane together with the vertical distance
of the point as the third coordinate form the set of
cylindrical coordinates of the point. Thus, a cylindrical
coordinate system is a three-dimensional coordinate
system that specifies point positions by the distance from
a chosen reference axis(z-axis), the direction from the
axis relative to a chosen reference direction (positive x-
direction), and the distance from a chosen reference plane
(xy-plane) perpendicular to the axis (z-axis). Thus, the
coordinates of a point are in the form (distance, angle,
distance). The latter distance is given as a positive or negative number depending on which side
of the reference plane faces the point.
From figure,
𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 
𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑧=𝑧
Again,
𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
𝑦
𝜃 = tan−1
𝑥
𝑧=𝑧
Hence the formulae to convert rectangular to polar and polar to rectangular are as follows
𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 
𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑧=𝑧
𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
𝑦
𝜃 = tan−1
𝑥
𝑧=𝑧

Polar co-ordinates in three dimensions

The three-dimensional polar coordinate system which is also called the spherical coordinate
system involves the distance from the origin and two angles as shown in the figure. The distance
ρ is the distance from the origin to the point and we will require ρ≥0. One angle θ is the angle
between the positive x-axis and the projection of ρ on xy plane as denoted by r in the figure, there
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are no restrictions on θ. The next angle φ is the angle
between the positive z-axis and the line from the origin
to the point and we will require 0≤φ≤π. Thus, in the polar
coordinates (ρ,θ,φ) ρ is the distance from the origin to the
point, φ is the angle that we need to rotate down from the
positive z-axis to get to the point and θ is how much we
need to rotate around the z-axis to get to the point.
From figure,
𝑟 = 𝜌 sin 𝜑
𝑧 = 𝜌 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
Again,
𝑥 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝜌 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝜌 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Thus, the formulae to convert the coordinates from Polar
to Cartesian are
𝑥 = 𝜌 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑦 = 𝜌 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑧 = 𝜌 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
To convert from cartesian to polar we have,
2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
  = √(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )
Again,
𝑦 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛
= = 𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝑥 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠
𝑦
 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑥
But the angle  can have different values depending up on the signs of the x and y coordinates
𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 0
𝑥
𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 +  𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 0, 𝑦 > 0
𝑥
𝑦
 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 −  𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 0, 𝑦 < 0
𝑥

𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 > 0
2

{ − 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 < 0
2
Also,
𝑟  sin √(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )
= = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 =
𝑧  cos 𝑧
2
√(𝑥 + 𝑦 ) 2
 = tan−1
𝑧
But the angle  can have different values depending up on the signs of z coordinate

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 √(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )
tan−1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧 > 0
𝑧
= −1
√(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )
tan + 𝜋 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧 < 0
𝑧
𝜋
{ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧 = 0
2
Thus, the formulae to convert the coordinates from Cartesian to polar/spherical are
 = √(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )
𝑦
 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑥
√ (𝑥 2 + 𝑦2)
 = tan−1
𝑧

The formulae to convert from cylindrical to spherical and from spherical to cylindrical coordinates
are as follows
 = √(𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 )
=
𝑧 𝑟
 = cos −1 = sin−1
√(𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 ) √(𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 )
𝑟 =  sin
=
𝑧 =  cos

We can summarize all the formulae as:

The coordinate is the most applied part of the mathematics in surveying because this is the science
and art of the collection and depiction of the locational information and the coordinate is the what
that gives this information. Simply speaking in surveying, we collect the locational information of
the features by observing the distances and angles i.e., the polar coordinates of the feature. To
make these observations easy to handle and understand we convert them to the rectangular
Cartesian coordinates. We compute distances and directions on the basis of the coordinates of the
end points of the survey lines, this is ultimately the conversion of the rectangular Cartesian
coordinates to polar coordinates. We apply different methods of surveying and different systems
of coordinates but for the sake of ease of understanding we transform them to some common
system. For this we apply the methods of projection and transformation which is another vague
topic of mathematics.

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Calculation of distance by coordinates
If we know the coordinates of the end points of a line, we can compute easily the distance
between them. Let d be the distance between two end points 𝑝2 (𝑥2 ) and 𝑝1 (𝑥1 ) then we can
compute the distance between 𝑝1 and 𝑝2 as
𝑑 = |𝑥2 − 𝑥1 |
From figure the distance of PQ is
−5 − 3 = −8 units. Distance can
never be negative so we take its absolute value 8. Similarly, the distance of RS is 9 − 1 = 8
units.
In two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, the distance
between any two points is the positive square root of the sum of
the differences of the abscissas and ordinates of the points. From
figure, we can see that 𝑃𝑅 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄𝑅 = 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 and by
Pythagoras theorem 𝑃𝑄2 = 𝑃𝑅2 + 𝑄𝑅2 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑃𝑄 =
√𝑃𝑅2 + 𝑄𝑅2 . So, the distance between any two points
(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )is
𝑑 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2
Again, in the right-angled triangle PQR let the angle of the line PQ from positive x-axis is , then
𝑄𝑅 (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )
tan  = 𝑖. 𝑒. , tan  =
𝑃𝑅 (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )
Thus, the angle of any line with positive x axis whose end points are (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )is
(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )
θ = tan−1
(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )
The value of tan is called the slope or gradient of the line. The slope plays a very important role
in surveying and engineering.

In Three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, the

distance between any two points is the positive square
root of the sum of the differences of the coordinates of
the points. From figure, we can see
∆𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 , ∆𝑦 = 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝑧 = 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
𝑟 = √∆𝑥 2 + ∆𝑦 2
𝑑 = √𝑟 2 + ∆𝑧 2 = √∆𝑥 2 + ∆𝑦 2 + ∆𝑧 2
𝑑 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2

Worked out examples

1. Change the Cartesian co-ordinates into polar co-ordinates:
a) (3, 4)
b) (−4, 3)
c) (−5, −12)
d) (2, −5)
e) (9.6, −12.4)
Solutions:
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a) A diagram representing the point (3, 4) is shown in the adjacent
figure
From Pythagoras’ theorem, 𝑟 = √(32 + 42 ) = 5. By
4 −1 4
trigonometric ratios, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = ∴ 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 53.13°=927rad.
3 3
[⸪53.13° = 53.13 × (𝜋/180) 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 0.927𝑟𝑎𝑑]
Hence (3, 4) in Cartesian co-ordinates correspond to
(5, 53.13°) 𝑜𝑟 (5, 0.927 𝑟𝑎𝑑) in polar co-ordinates.

b) A diagram representing the point (−4, 3) is shown in the adjacent

figure
From Pythagoras’ theorem, 𝑟 = √((−4)2 + 32 ) = 5. By
3 3
trigonometric ratios, tan(180 − 𝜃) = ∴ 180 − 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 =
4 4
36.87° = 0.644 rad.
𝑜𝑟, 𝜃 = (180 − 36.87)° = 143.13° = 𝜋 − 0.644 𝑟𝑎𝑑
= 2.498 𝑟𝑎𝑑]
Hence (-4, 3) in Cartesian co-ordinates correspond to (5, 143.13°) 𝑜𝑟 (5, 2.498 𝑟𝑎𝑑) in polar co-
ordinates.

c) A diagram representing the point (−5, −12) is shown in the adjacent figure
From Pythagoras’ theorem, 𝑟 = √((−5)2 + (−12)2 ) = 13. By
12 12
trigonometric ratios, tan(𝜃 − 180) = ∴ 𝜃 − 180 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 =
5 5
67.38° = 1.176 rad.
𝑜𝑟, 𝜃 = (180 + 67.38)° = 247.38° = 𝜋 + 1.176 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 4.317 𝑟𝑎𝑑]
Hence (−5, −12) in Cartesian co-ordinates correspond to
(13, 247.38°) 𝑜𝑟 (13, 4.318 𝑟𝑎𝑑) in polar co-ordinates.

d) A diagram representing the point (2, −5) is shown in the adjacent

figure
From Pythagoras’ theorem, 𝑟 = √(22 + (−5)2 ) = √29 = 5.385. By
5 5
trigonometric ratios, tan(360 − 𝜃) = ∴ 360 − 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 =
2 2
68.199° = 1.190 rad.
𝑜𝑟, 𝜃 = (360 − 68.199)° = 291.801° = 2𝜋 − 1.190 𝑟𝑎𝑑
= 5.093 𝑟𝑎𝑑]
Hence (2, −5) in Cartesian co-ordinates correspond to
(5.385, 291.801°) 𝑜𝑟 (5.385, 5.093 𝑟𝑎𝑑) in polar co-ordinates.

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e) A diagram representing the point (9.6, −12.4) is shown in the
adjacent figure
From Pythagoras’ theorem, 𝑟 = √(9.62 + (−12.4)2 ) = 15.682.
12.4
By trigonometric ratios, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (360 − 𝜃) = ∴ 360 − 𝜃 =
9.6
12.4
𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 52.253° = 0.912 rad.
9.6
𝑜𝑟, 𝜃 = (360 − 52.253)° = 307.747° = 2𝜋 − 0.912𝑟𝑎𝑑
= 5.371 𝑟𝑎𝑑]
Hence (2, −5) in Cartesian co-ordinates correspond to
(15.682, 307.747°) 𝑜𝑟 (15.682, 5.371𝑟𝑎𝑑) in polar co-ordinates.
2. Change the polar co-ordinates into Cartesian co-ordinates:
a) (4, 32°)
b) (6, 137°)
c) (4.5, 5.16rad)
d) (10.8, 210°)
e) (4, 4rad)
Solutions:
a) A diagram representing the point (4, 32°) is shown in the adjacent
figure.
Now,
𝑥 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠32° = 3.39
and
𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛32° = 2.12
Hence (4, 32°) in polar co-ordinates corresponds to (3.39, 2.12) in Cartesian co-ordinates.
b) A diagram representing the point (6, 137°) is shown in the
adjacent figure.
Now,
𝑥 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 6 𝑐𝑜𝑠137° = −4.39
and
𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 6 𝑠𝑖𝑛137° = 4.09
Hence (6, 137°) in polar co-ordinates corresponds to (−4.39, 4.09) in Cartesian co-ordinates.
c) A diagram representing the point (4.5, 5.16rad) is shown in the adjacent
figure.
Now,
𝑥 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 4.5 𝑐𝑜𝑠5.16rad = 1.95
and
𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 4.5 𝑠𝑖𝑛5.16rad = −4.06
Hence (4.5, 5.16rad) in polar co-ordinates corresponds to (1.95, -4.06) in
Cartesian co-ordinates.
d) A diagram representing the point (10.8, 210°) is shown in the
adjacent figure.
Now,
𝑥 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 10.8 𝑐𝑜𝑠210° = −9.35
and
𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 10.8 𝑠𝑖𝑛210° = −5.40
9
(Madhusudan Adhikari, Malarani-8, Arghakhanchi, Nepal)
Hence (10.8, 210°) in polar co-ordinates corresponds to (-9.35, -5.40) in Cartesian co-ordinates.
e) A diagram representing the point (4, 4rad) is shown in the adjacent
figure.
Now,
𝑥 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠4rad = −2.61
and
𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛4rad = −3.03
Hence (10.8, 210°) in polar co-ordinates corresponds to (-2.61, -3.03) in
Cartesian co-ordinates.

3. Convert the rectangular coordinates (1, −3,5) to cylindrical and spherical coordinates.
Solution
Let us use the equations to translate from rectangular to cylindrical coordinates:
We know,
𝑟 = √(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )
𝑟 = (12 + (−3)2 = √10
Again,
y
𝜃 = tan−1
𝑥
3𝜋
but y is negative and x is positive, which means we must select the value of θ between 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝜋
2
𝑦 −3 𝑦 −3
tan 𝜃 = = = ∴ 𝜃 = tan−1 ≈ 5.03 rad
𝑥 1 𝑥 1
Again, the z-coordinates are the same in both rectangular and cylindrical coordinates, so
z=5.
The point with rectangular coordinates (1, −3,5) has cylindrical coordinates approximately equal
to (√10,5.03,5) 𝑜𝑟 (√10,288.2°, 5).
Again, to convert to spherical coordinates, we have,
𝜌 = √(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 ) = √12 + (−3)2 + 52 = √35 = 5.92
y −3
𝜃 = tan−1 = tan−1 ≈ 5.03 rad = 288.2°
𝑥 1
√(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) √10
𝜑 = tan−1 = tan−1 ≈ 0.564 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 32.312°
𝑧 5
The point with rectangular coordinates (1, −3,5) has spherical coordinates approximately equal to
(5.92,5.03𝑟𝑎𝑑, 0.564𝑟𝑎𝑑) 𝑜𝑟 (5.92,288.2°, 32.312°).
4. Convert the point (2,4/3,8) from cylindrical to rectangular and spherical coordinates.
Solution,
We have,
4
𝑟 = 2,  = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = 8
3
Let us use the equations to translate from cylindrical to rectangular coordinates:
We know,
4 −1
𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 2 cos =2× = −1
3 2
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 4 √3
𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 2 sin =2×− = −1.73
3 2
Again,
𝑧=𝑧=8
Thus, the point is (−1, −1.73,8) in rectangular coordinates.
Again, to convert to the spherical coordinates, we have,
𝜌 = √(𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 ) = √22 + 82 = √68 = 8.25
4
𝜃=𝜃=
3
𝑧 8
𝜑 = cos −1 = cos −1 ≈ 0.247𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 14.14°
√(𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 ) 8.25
Thus, the point is (8.25, 4/3,0.247) in spherical coordinates
5. Convert the point (4, π/4, π/6) from spherical to rectangular and cylindrical coordinates.
Solution,
We have,
 𝜋
𝜌 = 4,  = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜑 =
4 6
Let us use the equations to translate from cylindrical to rectangular coordinates:
We know,
  1 1
𝑥 = 𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 = 4 cos sin = 4 × × = √2
4 6 √2 2
  1 1
𝑦 = 𝜌𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 = 4 sin sin = 4 × × = √2
4 6 √2 2
 √3
𝑧 = 𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 = 4 × = 2√3
6 2
Thus, the point is (√2, √2, 2√3) in rectangular coordinates.
Again, to convert into cylindrical coordinates, we have,
 1
r = 𝜌𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 = 4 × sin = 4 × = 2
6 2

==
4
 √3
z = 𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 = 4 × cos = 4 × = 2√3
6 2
𝜋
Thus, the point is (2, , 2√3) in polar coordinates.
4

6. Calculate the distance between the following points in one dimensional space
a) p2(4260.5) and p1(3236)
Solution
x2 = 4260.5 x1=3236
d = |x2- x1| = |4260.5-3236| = 1024.5
b) p2(1536) and p1(1396)
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(Madhusudan Adhikari, Malarani-8, Arghakhanchi, Nepal)
Solution
x2 = 1536 x1=1396
d = |x2- x1| = |1536-1396| = 140
c) p2(-273) and p1(100)
Solution
x2 = -273 x1=100
d = |x2- x1| = |-273-100| = 373
7. Calculate the distance between the following points in two-dimensional space
a) p2(-1,1) and p1(3,4)
Solution
x2 = -1, x1=3; y2 = 1, y1=4
𝑑 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 ,

=√(−1 − 3)2 + (1 − 4)2

=√25
=5
b) p2(-4, -3) and p1(5,7)
Solution
x2 = -4, x1=5; y2 -3, y1=7
𝑑 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 ,

=√(−4 − 5)2 + (−3 − 7)2

=√181
c) p2(3,8) and p1(5,4)
Solution
x2 = 3, x1=5; y2 = 8, y1=4
𝑑 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 ,

=√(3 − 5)2 + (8 − 4)2

=√20
=25
8. Calculate the distance between the following points in three-dimensional space
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(Madhusudan Adhikari, Malarani-8, Arghakhanchi, Nepal)
a) p2(1,2,3) and p1(7,8,9)
Solution
x2 = 1, x1=7; y2 = 2, y1=8, z2 = 3, z1=9
𝑑 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2 ,

=√(1 − 7)2 + (2 − 8)2 + (3 − 9)2

=√108
=63
b) p2(3,2,1) and p1(7,8,9)
Solution
x2 = 3, x1=7; y2 = 2, y1=8, z2 1, z1=9
𝑑 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2 ,

=√(3 − 7)2 + (2 − 8)2 + (1 − 9)2

=√116
=229
c) p2(1,2,3) and p1(9,8,7)
Solution
x2 = 1, x1=9; y2 = 2, y1=8, z2 = 3, z1=7
𝑑 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2 ,

=√(1 − 9)2 + (2 − 8)2 + (3 − 7)2

=√116
=229
Exercise
1. Change the Cartesian co-ordinates into polar co-ordinates
a) (15, 19)
b) (-30, 11)
c) (-14, -17)
d) (17, -29)
e) (-12, 10)
2. Change the polar co-ordinates into Cartesian co-ordinates
a) (29, 1.9382rad)
b) (25, 3.0561rad)
c) (33, 3.7127rad)
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(Madhusudan Adhikari, Malarani-8, Arghakhanchi, Nepal)
 d) (36, 289.71°)
e) (18, 49.08°)
3. Convert the following rectangular coordinates to cylindrical and spherical coordinates
a) (9, -11, -2)
b) (13, -15, -1)
c) (-8, 13, 10)
d) (-11, 3, -6)
e) (-12, 7, 12)
4. Convert the following point from cylindrical to rectangular and spherical coordinates
a) (9, 6.1024rad, -7)
b) (20, 4.0983rad, -5)
c) (32, 5.1912rad, -7)
d) (21, 91.58°, 7)
e) (28, 187.11°, -2)
5. Convert the following points from spherical to rectangular and cylindrical coordinates
a) (8, 1.8997rad, 2.1753rad)
b) (28, 0.8086rad, 0.0501rad)
c) (8, 2.5771rad, 2.5231rad)
d) (15, 123°, 144.58°)
e) (10, 299.8°, 155.24°)
6. Calculate the distance between the following points in one dimensional space
a) 𝑃2 (1729) and 𝑃1 (855)
b) 𝑃2 (914) and 𝑃1 (1336)
c) 𝑃2 (2252) and 𝑃1 (2680)
d) 𝑃2 (2830) and 𝑃1 (1756)
e) 𝑃2 (3242) and 𝑃1 (5644)
7. Calculate the distance between the following points in two-dimensional space
a) 𝑃2 (8, 80) and 𝑃1 (38, 17)
b) 𝑃2 (9, 66) and 𝑃1 (70, 100)
c) 𝑃2 (21, 13) and 𝑃1 (38, 55)
d) 𝑃2 (7, 6) and 𝑃1 (56, 55)
e) 𝑃2 (46, 63) and 𝑃1 (76, 87)
8. Calculate the distance between the following points in three-dimensional space
a) 𝑃2 (4, 16,40) and 𝑃1 (10, 96,31)
b) 𝑃2 (4, 59,6) and 𝑃1 (85, 58,82)
c) 𝑃2 (19, 99,16) and 𝑃1 (1, 55,23)
d) 𝑃2 (28, 14,35) and 𝑃1 (67, 93,85)
e) 𝑃2 (14, 30,25) and 𝑃1 (87, 71,70)
Answers to the exercise
1. a) (24.21, 0.9025 rad)
b) (31.95, 2.7901 rad)
c) (22.02, 4.0235 rad)
d) (33.62, 300.38 °)
e) (15.62, 140.19 °)
2. a) (-10.42, 27.06)
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 b) (-24.91, 2.13)
c) (-27.76, -17.84)
d) (12.14, -33.89)
e) (11.79, 13.6)
3. cylindrical
a) (14.21, 5.3981rad, -2)
b) (19.85, 5.4265rad, -1)
c) (15.26, 2.1225rad, 10)
d) (11.4, 164.74°, -6)
e) (13.89, 149.74°, 12)
spherical
a) (14.35, 5.3981rad, 3.0031rad)
b) (19.87, 5.4265rad, 3.0913rad)
c) (18.25, 2.1225rad, 0.5013rad)
d) (12.88, 164.74°, 155.02°)
e) (18.36, 149.74°, 33.17°)
4. rectangular
a) (8.85, -1.62, -7)
b) (-11.52, -16.35, -5)
c) (14.74, -28.4, -7)
d) (-18.69, -9.58, 7)
e) (5.16, -27.52, -2)
spherical
a) (11.4, 6.1024rad, 2.5909rad)
b) (20.62, 4.0983rad, 2.9037rad)
c) (32.76, 5.1912rad, 2.9311rad)
d) (22.14, 91.58°, 17.55°)
e) (28.07, 187.11°, 175.92°)
5. rectangular
a) (-2.13, 6.23, -4.55)
b) (0.97, 1.01, 27.96)
c) (-3.92, 2.48, -6.52)
d) (-0.89, -0.46, 14.97)
e) (2.12, 9.4, -2.66)
cylindrical
a) (6.58, 1.8997rad, -4.55)
b) (1.4, 0.8086rad, 27.96)
c) (4.64, 2.5771rad, -6.52)
d) (1, 123°, 14.97)
e) (-9.64, 299.8°, -2.66)
6. a) 874, b) 422, c) 428, d) 1074, e) 2402;
7. a) 69.78, b) 69.84, c) 45.31, d) 69.3, e) 38.42
8. a) 80.73, b) 111.08, c) 48.05, d) 101.3, e) 95.05

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(Madhusudan Adhikari, Malarani-8, Arghakhanchi, Nepal)
Subjective questions
1. Define coordinates in one-, two- and three-dimensional space.
2. Discuss in coordinate systems both rectangular and polar in two-dimensional space.
3. What do you mean by cylindrical coordinate system?
4. Discuss on Cartesian and spherical coordinate in three-dimensional space.
5. Discuss on conversion of coordinates in Cartesian, polar and spherical coordinate.
Objective questions
1. The set of quantities that designate the position of a point in a space of a given dimension is
called
a) coordinates
b) reference frame
c) dimension
d) location
2. Coordinates are the set of
a) linear and angular quantities
b) linear and/or angular quantities
c) either linear or angular quantities
d) all of the above
3.The reference axes, their orientation and the origin form
a) dimension
b) coordinates
c) reference frame
d) position
4.The simplest form coordinate system is
a) the latitude longitude system
b) Cartesian coordinate system
c) polar coordinate system
d) a number line
5. Each real number corresponds to a single point on the line and each point on the line
corresponds to
a) a real number
b) a rational number
c) a natural number
d) a complex number
6. If the set of number (x,y) represent the location of a point the coordinate system is
a) one-dimensional
b) two-dimensional
c) three-dimensional
d) n-dimensional
7.The rectangular coordinate system in two dimensions has coordinates that are
a) one linear and one angular
b) both angular
c) both linear
d) any of the above
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(Madhusudan Adhikari, Malarani-8, Arghakhanchi, Nepal)
8. In the coordinates of a point (-3,2) the abscissa is
a) 3
b) 2
c) -2
d) -3
9. Which one is ordinate in (5,6)?
a) 6
b) 5
c) -6
d) -5
10. if the ordered pair (a, b) represents the location of a point
a) a is ordinate
b) a is abscissa
c) b is abscissa
d) both a and b are ordinates
11.The axes cut the coordinate plane into four equal sections, and each section is known as
a) a direction
b) a reference axis
c) a quadrant
d) a section
12. if the ordered pair (a, b) represents the location of a point then b is called
a) abscissa
b) ordinate
c) y-coordinate
d) both b and c
13. In three-dimensional space, the Cartesian coordinate system is based on three mutually
perpendicular coordinate axes: the x-axis, the y-axis, and the z-axis they are also respectively
known as
a) abscissa-, ordinate- and applicate- axis
b) applicate-, ordinate- and abscissa- axis
c) ordinate-, abscissa- and applicate- axis
d) abscissa-, applicate- and ordinate- axis
14. Which of the following is not the basic element of a coordinate system?
a) origin
b) point position
c) axes
d) orientation of each axis
15. In a polar coordinate system the pole means
a) the end point of the radial line
b) the length of the redial line
c) the origin of the coordinate system
d) the angle of the radial line
16. Unlike rectangular coordinates, the polar coordinates of a point are
a) both angular
b) both linear
c) unique

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 d) multivalent
17. What makes the polar coordinates multivalent?
a) different measure of the angle of the same line
b) different measure of the distance of the same line
c) different origins of the coordinate system
d) different orientation of the coordinate-axes
18. which of the following represents the origin in a polar coordinate system
a) (r, θ)
b) (0, θ)
c) (θ, 0)
d) none of the above
19 If (−r, θ) be the coordinates of a pint then the equivalent coordinates of the same point are
a) (r, θ+π)
b) (r, θ-π)
c) (r, θ±π)
d) none of the above
20. if (r,θ) be the polar coordinates of a point whose rectangular coordinates are (a,b) then r
equals
𝑏
a) tan−1
𝑎
𝑎
b) tan−1
𝑏
c) √(𝑏 2 − 𝑎2 )
d) √(𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 )
21. If (r,θ) be the polar coordinates of a point whose rectangular coordinates are (a,b) then θ
equals
𝑏
a) tan−1
𝑎
−1 𝑎
b) tan
𝑏
𝑎
c) tan−1 2 2
√(𝑎 +𝑏 )
𝑏
d) tan−1 2 2
√(𝑎 +𝑏 )
22.If (r,θ) be the polar coordinates of a point whose rectangular coordinates are (x,y) then x
equals
a) r 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
b) r 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
c) r 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
d) r 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃
23.If (r,θ) be the polar coordinates of a point whose rectangular coordinates are (x,y) then y
equals
a) r 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
b) r 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃
c) r 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
d) r 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
24. If the ordinate of the rectangular coordinates of a point is negative and the abscissa is positive
then the θ of its polar coordinate will measure in between
a) 0 − 𝜋/2
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(Madhusudan Adhikari, Malarani-8, Arghakhanchi, Nepal)
 b) 𝜋/2 − 𝜋
c) 𝜋 − 3𝜋/2
d) 3𝜋/2 − 2𝜋
25. If the abscissa of the rectangular coordinates of a point is negative and the ordinate is positive
then the θ of its polar coordinate will measure in between
a) 𝜋/2 − 𝜋
b) 𝜋 − 3𝜋/2
c) 3𝜋/2 − 2𝜋
d) 2𝜋 − 5𝜋/2
26. If the abscissa and the ordinate both of the rectangular coordinates of a point are negative
then the θ of its polar coordinate will measure in between
a) 𝜋/2 − 𝜋
b) 𝜋 − 3𝜋/2
c) 3𝜋/2 − 2𝜋
d) 2𝜋 − 5𝜋/2
27. What distinguishes the cylindrical coordinate system from polar coordinate system?
a) r the radial distance
b) θ the rotation with x axis
c) z the third dimension
d) all of the above
28. What is the distance between 𝑃1 (1227) and 𝑃2 (2326)
a) 2199
b) 1299
c) 1199
d) 1099
29. What is the distance between 𝑃1 (7,8) and 𝑃2 (13,16)
a) 10
b) 12
c) 13
d) 16
30.What is the distance between 𝑃1 (1, 2, 3) and 𝑃2 (4,5,6)
a) 3
b) 33
c) 9
d) 27
Answers to the objective questions
01. a) 02. b) 03. c) 04. d) 05. a)
06. b) 07. c) 08. d) 09. a) 10. b)
11. c) 12. d) 13. a) 14. b) 15. c)
16. d) 17. a) 18. b) 19. c) 20. d)
21. a) 22. b) 23. c) 24. d) 25. a)
26. b) 27. c) 28. d) 29. a) 30. b)

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