8/24/2022

Chapter 1:

 stress and strain, elastic limit, hooke's law, factor of

safety
shear stress, shear strain, relationship between elastic
constants
stresses in stepped bars, uniformly varying sections,
By
composite bars due to axial force
Dr H ai l u S hi m e l s
F o r 2 n d ye a r st ud e n t s lateral strain, poison's ratio, volumetric strain, changes in
dimensions and volume
thermal stresses and impact loading.

Course content General concept

The strength of a material is the ability of that material to withstand
Chapter 1: Stress - Strain, Axial loading an applied stress without failure.
Chapter 2: Torsion Different types of stress can be defined within this field like tensile
Chapter 3: Transverse loading on beams and stresses in beam stress, compressive stresses beside shear stresses.
Chapter 4: Deflection of beams In addition materials could be failed by another types of failures like
Chapter 5: Principal Stresses (Bi-axial stress) fatigue stress, thermal stress and/or creep failure.
These all within the so called the strength of materials or mechanics
of materials will be included to clarify how to deal with applied loads.
Hence, strength of materials is a subject which deals with loads,
deformations and the forces acting on the material.
 8/24/2022

stress and strain

Brainstorming
The externally applied “P” forces are termed as loads. These externally applied forces may be due
Define to any one or more of the followings:
1. Stress (i) due to service conditions
2. Strain (ii) due to environment in which the component works
(iii) through contact with other members
(iv) due to fluid pressures
(v) due to gravity or inertia forces (Self weight of the structure).

Stress is the internal resistance offered by a unit area of the material from Let us consider a rectangular bar of some
which a member is made to an externally applied load. Normal stress is cross–sectional area and subjected to some
determined using the following equation: load or force (in Newton ).
𝜎=
Let us imagine that the same rectangular bar
Where 𝜎 is stress is assumed to be cut into two halves at
section XX. Each portion of this rectangular
𝑃 is applied load bar is in equilibrium under the action of
𝐴 is a cross sectional area where the load is applied load P and the internal forces acting at the Here we are using an assumption that the total
section XX has been shown. force or total load carried by the bar is
uniformly distributed over its cross_section.
 8/24/2022

Normal Stress
The basic units of stress in S.I units i.e. (International System) are N / The resisting area is perpendicular to the applied force, thus normal.
m2 (or Pa , Pascal)
There are two types of normal stresses; tensile stress and compressive
MPa = 106 Pa , GPa = 109 Pa , KPa = 103 Pa stress. Tensile stress applied to bar tends the bar to elongate while
compressive stress tend to shorten the bar.

Simple stress can be classified as normal stress, shear stress, and bearing stress. Example 1: A hollow steel tube with an inside diameter of 100 mm must carry a
Normal stress develops when a force is applied perpendicular to the cross- tensile load of 400 kN. Determine the outside diameter of the tube if the stress is
sectional area of the material. If the force is going to pull the material, the stress is limited to 120 MN/m2.
said to be tensile stress and compressive stress develops when the material is
being compressed by two opposing forces.
Shear stress is developed if the applied force is parallel to the resisting area. Example is the bolt
that holds the tension rod in its anchor. Another condition of shearing is when we twist a bar along
its longitudinal axis.
 8/24/2022

Example 2 A homogeneous 800 kg bar AB is supported at either end by a cable

as shown in Fig. P-105. Calculate the smallest area of each cable if the stress is
not to exceed 90 MPa in bronze and 120 MPa in steel. Example 3 An aluminum rod is rigidly attached between a steel rod and a bronze
rod as shown in Fig. P-108. Axial loads are applied at the positions indicated. Find
the maximum value of P that will not exceed a stress in steel of 140 MPa, in
aluminum of 90 MPa, or in bronze of 100 MPa.
 8/24/2022

Strain ( 𝜀 ) is the ratio of the change in length caused by the applied force,
to the original length.(Also known as unit deformation).
 8/24/2022

Metallic engineering materials are

classified as either ductile or brittle
materials. A ductile material is one Elastic Limit
having relatively large tensile strains up
to the point of rupture like structural
The elastic limit is the limit beyond which the material will no longer go back to its
steel and aluminum, whereas brittle original shape when the load is removed, or it is the maximum stress that may be
materials has a relatively small strain up developed such that there is nonpermanent (or residual) deformation when the
to the point of rupture like cast iron and load is entirely removed.
concrete. An arbitrary strain of 0.05
mm/mm is frequently taken as the
dividing line between these two classes.

Proportional Limit (Hooke's Law) Elastic and Plastic Ranges

The region in stress-strain diagram from O to P is called the elastic range. The region from P to R
From the origin o to the point called proportional limit, the stress-strain curve is a is called the plastic range.
straight line. This linear relation between elongation and the axial force causing was
first noticed by Sir Robert Hooke in 1678 and is called Hooke's Law that within Yield Point
the proportional limit, the stress is directly proportional to strain or: Yield point is the point at which the material will have an appreciable elongation or yielding
without any increase in load.
Ultimate Strength
The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain diagram is the ultimate strength or tensile strength.
Rupture Strength
Rupture strength is the strength of the material at rupture. This is also known as the breaking
strength.
 8/24/2022

The stress and deformation of length

caused in each of the sections of the
bar are different, even if the axial load
Analysis of Bars of Varying Sections acting on the bar is the same. The
derivation is followed by the principle Example
that,
Consider a bar of different
length, area of cross- Total Change in length,
dL = Sum of Change in length of
section and diameter,
Section 1, Section 2 and Section 3.
subjected to a axial load of
'P' as shown in figure
dL = dL1 + dL2 +dL3

1. Analysis of Section-1 2. Analysis of Section-2 3. Analysis of Section-3

Stress in Section 1, Stress in Section 2, Stress in Section 3,
f1 = Load/Area of Section-1 f2 = Load/Area of Section-2 f3 = Load/Area of Section-3 =
= P/A1 = P/A2 P/A3
Strain in Section 1, e3 = Change in length/Original
e2 = Change in
e1 = Change in Length = dL3/L3 = f3/E=P/(A3E)
length/Original Length = length/Original Length = Hence, Change in Length dL3=
dL1/L1 = f1/E = P/(A1E) dL2/L2 = f2/E =P/(A2E) PL3/(A3E) ----------
Hence, Change in Length Hence, Change in Length
dL1=PL1/(A1E) ----------Eq.3 dL2= PL2/(A2E) ----------Eq.4

dL = dL1 + dL2 +dL3

8/24/2022
 8/24/2022

Example 2 What force is required to punch a 20-mm-diameter hole in a plate that is

Shearing Stress 25 mm thick? The shear strength is 350 MN/m2
Forces parallel to the area resisting the
force cause shearing stress.
It differs to tensile and compressive
stresses, which are caused by forces
perpendicular to the area on which they
act.
Shearing stress is also known as
tangential stress.

Single Shear Double Shear

Example 1 : What force is required to punch a 20-mm-diameter hole in a plate that

is 25 mm thick? The shear strength is 350 MN/m2.
 8/24/2022

Example 106 Find the smallest diameter bolt that can be used in the clevis shown
in Fig. 1-11b if P = 400 kN. The shearing strength of the bolt is 300 MPa.

The faces of the element parallel to the plane of the paper

are assumed to be load free. Since there are no normal
stresses acting on the element, the lengths of the sides of
the rectangular element will not change when the
shearing stresses assume the value t. However, there will
be a distortion of the originally right angles of the
Deformations Due to Shear element, and after this distortion due to the shearing
Stresses Let us consider the stresses the element assumes the configuration shown by
deformation of a plane rectangular the dashed lines
element cut from a solid where the
forces acting on the element are
known to be shearing stresses t in
the directions

The change of angle at the corner of an originally rectangular

element is defined as the shear strain. It must be expressed in
radians and is denoted by
 8/24/2022

Shear Modulus The ratio of the shear stress t to the shear strain g is
called the shear modulus and is denoted by G.
Thus G = τ/ γ
G is also known as the modulus of rigidity. The units of G are the
same as those of the shear stress, i.e., N/m2 , since the shear strain
is dimensionless.
Stress-strain diagrams for various materials may be drawn for
shearing loads, just as they were drawn for normal loads

Working Stress, Allowable Stress, And Factor Of Safety

Working stress is defined as the actual stress of a material under a given

loading. The maximum safe stress that a material can carry is termed as
the allowable stress.
The allowable stress should be limited to values not exceeding the
proportional limit. However, since proportional limit is difficult to
determine accurately, the allowable stress is taken as either the yield point
or ultimate strength divided by a factor of safety.
The ratio of this strength (ultimate or yield strength) to allowable
strength is called the factor of safety.
 8/24/2022

Stress and Strain

Compound bars
Factor of safety considerations:
Structural members or machines must
be designed such that the working
stresses are less than the ultimate • influence on machine function
strength of the material. • uncertainty in material properties
• uncertainty of loadings
• uncertainty of analyses
FS  Factor of safety • number of loading cycles
• types of failure
 ultimate stress
• maintenance requirements and
deterioration effects
 allowable stress
• risk to life and property

Stress and Strain

Compound bars
• For a slender bar subjected to axial loading:
x
x  y z  0
E

• The elongation in the x-direction is

accompanied by a contraction in the other
directions. Assuming that the material is
isotropic (no directional dependence),
y  z  0

• Poisson’s ratio is defined as

lateral strain y 
   z
axial strain x x
 8/24/2022

Stress and Strain Stress and Strain

Compound bars Compound bars

Stress and Strain

Compound bars
 8/24/2022

Stress and Strain Stress and Strain

Compound bars Compound bars

Stress and Strain

Compound bars
 8/24/2022

Temperature changes cause the body to expand or contract. The amount δT, is given by :

where (σ) is the thermal stress in MPa and E is the modulus of elasticity of the rod in MPa.

In some cases where temperature deformation is not permitted, an internal stress is

created. The internal stress created is termed as thermal stress.

Take note that as the temperature rises above the normal, the rod will be in compression,
and if the temperature drops below the normal, the rod is in tension.
8/24/2022
 8/24/2022

Net Torque Due to Internal Stresses

• Net of the internal shearing stresses is an internal

torque, equal and opposite to the applied torque,
T    dF    dA

• Although the net torque due to the shearing stresses is known,

the distribution of the stresses is not
• Distribution of shearing stresses is statically indeterminate
– must consider shaft deformations
• Unlike the normal stress due to axial loads, the distribution of
shearing stresses due to torsional loads can not be assumed
uniform.

3 - 67

Torsional Loads on Circular Shafts Axial Shear Components

• Torque applied to shaft produces shearing stresses on the faces
• Interested in stresses and strains of circular perpendicular to the axis.
shafts subjected to twisting couples or
torques • Conditions of equilibrium require the existence of equal stresses on
the faces of the two planes containing the axis of the shaft
• Turbine exerts torque T on the shaft
• The existence of the axial shear components is demonstrated by
• Shaft transmits the torque to the
considering a shaft made up of axial slats.
generator
• Generator creates an equal and opposite The slats slide with respect to each other when equal and opposite
torques are applied to the ends of the shaft.
torque T’

3 - 66 3 - 68
 8/24/2022

Shaft Deformations Stresses in Elastic Range

• From observation, the angle of twist of the shaft is proportional to the
applied torque and to the shaft length.
T
J  12  c 4
L
• When subjected to torsion, every cross-section of a circular shaft
remains plane and undistorted.
• Cross-sections for hollow and solid circular shafts remain plain and
undistorted because a circular shaft is axisymmetric.
• Cross-sections of noncircular (non- axisymmetric) shafts are

J  12  c24  c14 
distorted when subjected to torsion.

3 - 69 3 - 71

Normal Stresses
Shearing Strain • Elements with faces parallel and perpendicular
to the shaft axis are subjected to shear stresses
only. Normal stresses, shearing stresses or a
• Consider an interior section of the shaft. As a
combination of both may be found for other
torsional load is applied, an element on the
orientations.
interior cylinder deforms into a rhombus.
• Consider an element at 45o to the shaft axis,
• Since the ends of the element remain planar, F  2 max A0 cos 45   max A0 2
the shear strain is equal to angle of twist. F  A 2 
 45 o   max 0 max
A A0 2
• It follows that
 • Element a is in pure shear.
L   or  
L • Element c is subjected to a tensile stress on
two faces and compressive stress on the other
• Shear strain is proportional to twist and radius two.
 max  c and     max • Note that all stresses for elements a and c have
L c
the same magnitude

3 - 70 3 - 72
 8/24/2022

Torsional Failure Modes

MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
• Ductile materials generally fail in
shear. Brittle materials are weaker in
tension than shear.

• When subjected to torsion, a ductile

specimen breaks along a plane of
maximum shear, i.e., a plane
perpendicular to the shaft axis.

• When subjected to torsion, a brittle

specimen breaks along planes
perpendicular to the direction in
which tension is a maximum, i.e.,
along surfaces at 45o to the shaft
axis.
 8/24/2022

Sample Problem 3.1 Sample Problem 3.1

• Apply elastic torsion formulas to • Given allowable shearing stress and
SOLUTION: find minimum and maximum applied torque, invert the elastic torsion
MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
• Cut sections through shafts AB stress on shaft BC formula to find the required diameter
and BC and perform static
equilibrium analysis to find
torque loadings
• Apply elastic torsion formulas to
find minimum and maximum
Shaft BC is hollow with inner and outer
stress on shaft BC J

2
c24  c14  2 0.0604  0.0454  max 
Tc Tc

J  c4
65MPa 
6kN  m
 c3
2 2
diameters of 90 mm and 120 mm, • Given allowable shearing stress  13.92106 m 4
respectively. Shafts AB and CD are solid and applied torque, invert the c  38.9103 m
TBC c2 20kN  m 0.060 m 
of diameter d. For the loading shown, elastic torsion formula to find the  max   2   d  2c  77.8mm
J 13.92106 m 4
determine (a) the minimum and maximum required diameter
 86.2MPa
shearing stress in shaft BC, (b) the
required diameter d of shafts AB and CD  min  c1  min  45 mm
if the allowable shearing stress in these  max c2 86.2MPa 60 mm  max  86.2MPa
shafts is 65 MPa.  min  64.7 MPa  min  64.7 MPa
3 - 79

Sample Problem 3.1

SOLUTION: Transverse Loading on Beams and
• Cut sections through shafts AB and BC
and perform static equilibrium analysis
Stresses in Beam
to find torque loadings
Beams - structural members supporting loads
at various points along the member.

Transverse loadings of beams are classified

as concentrated loads or distributed loads.

 M x  0  6 kN  m  TAB  M x  0  6 kN  m  14 kN  m  TBC

Applied loads result in internal forces
T AB  6 kN  m  TCD TBC  20 kN  m consisting of a shear force (from the shear
stress distribution) and a bending couple
(from the normal stress distribution).
3 - 78
 8/24/2022

Classification of Beams: TYPES OF LOADING

1- Statically Determinate Beams: Loads applied to the beam may consist of a concentrated load (load
Statically determinate beams are those beams in which the reactions of the supports applied at a point), uniform load, uniformly varying load, or an
may be determined by the use of the equations of static equilibrium. The beams shown applied couple or moment. These loads are shown in the following
below are examples of statically determinate beams. figures.

Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams

Classification of Beams:
2- Statically Indeterminate Beams: Shear Force and Bending
If the number of reactions exerted upon a beam exceeds the number of equations in Moment Diagrams are plots of
static equilibrium, the beam is said to be statically indeterminate. In order to solve the the shear forces and bending
reactions of the beam, the static equations must be supplemented by equations based
moments, respectively, along
upon the elastic deformations of the beam.
the length of a beam. The
purpose of these plots is to
clearly show maximum of the
shear force and bending
moment, which are important
in the design of beams.
 8/24/2022

Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams

The most common sign convention for the shear force and
bending moment in beams is shown
 8/24/2022

Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams

One method of determining the shear and moment diagrams is by the

following steps:
1. Determine the reactions from equilibrium of the entire beam.
2. Cut the beam at an arbitrary point.
3. Show the unknown shear and moment on the cut using the positive sign
convention shown in the previous figure
4. Sum forces in the vertical direction to determine the unknown shear.
5. Sum moments about the cut to determine the unknown moment.

Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams

We first determine the reactions at the supports from the free-body diagram of the entire
beam; we find that the magnitude of each reaction is equal to P/2. Next we cut the beam at
a point D between A and C and draw the free-body diagrams of AD and DB.
 8/24/2022

Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams
Assuming that shear and bending moment are positive, we direct the internal forces V
and V’ and the internal couples M and M’ as indicated in Fig. Considering the free
body AD and writing that the sum of the vertical components and the sum of the
moments about D of the forces acting on the free body are zero, we find: The determination of the maximum absolute values of the shear and of the bending
V =+P/2 and M =+Px/2. moment in a beam are greatly facilitated if V and M are plotted against the distance
x measured from one end of the beam. Besides, as you will see later, the
knowledge of M as a function of x is essential to the determination of the
deflection of a beam.

Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams
Cutting, now, the beam at a point E between C and B and considering the free body EB (Fig. c), (i) A Cantilever beam with a concentrated load ‘P’ at its free end.
we write that the sum of the vertical components and the sum of the moments about E of the
forces acting on the free body are zero. We obtain: At a section a distance x from free end consider the forces
V = - P/2 and M =P(L -x)/2. to the left, then (Vx) = - P (for all values of x) negative in
The shear is therefore negative and the bending moment positive; this can be checked by sign i.e. the shear force to the left of the x-section are in
downward direction and therefore negative.
observing that the reaction at B bends the beam at E as indicated in Fig. c but tends to shear it
off in a manner opposite to that shown in Fig. b. Note that the shear has a constant value V = -
P/2 between C and B, while the bending moment decreases linearly from M = PL/4 at x = L/2 to Bending Moment:
M = 0 at x = L. Taking moments about the section gives (obviously to the
left of the section) Mx = -P.x (negative sign means that the
moment on the left hand side of the portion is in the
anticlockwise direction and is therefore taken as negative
according to the sign convention) so that the maximum
bending moment occurs at the fixed end i.e. Mmax = - PL (at x
= L)
 8/24/2022

Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams
(ii) A Cantilever beam with uniformly distributed load over the whole length Example (4): For the beam shown, plot the shear and moment
When a cantilever beam is subjected to a uniformly distributed load whose intensity is diagram.
given w /unit length. Solution:
Shear force: First, solve for the unknown reactions using the free-body diagram of the beam shown in
Consider any cross-section XX which is at a distance of x from the free end. If we just Fig, (a). to find the reactions, sum moments about the left end which gives:
take the resultant of all the forces on the left of the X-section, then 6R2 − (3)(2) = 0 or R2 = 6/6 = 1 kN
Sum forces in the vertical direction to get:
R1 + R2 = 3 = R1 + 1 or R1 = 2 kN
Cut the beam between the left end and the load as shown in (b). Show the unknown moment
and shear on the cut using the positive sign convention. Sum the vertical forces to get:
At x = L, Vx = -wL (i.e. Maximum at fixed end) Plotting the equation Vx = -w.x, we V = 2 kN (independent of x)
get a straight line because it is a equation of a straight line y (Vx) = m(- w) .x Sum moments about the cut to get:
M = R1x = 2x
Repeat the procedure by making a cut between the right end of the beam and the 3-kN load,
as shown in (c). Again, sum vertical forces and sum moments about the cut to get:
V = 1 kN (independent of x ), and M = 1x
The plots of these expressions for shear and moment give the shear and moment diagrams
(as shown in Fig.(d) and (e).

Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams

In the examples and sample problems of this section, the shear and bending-moment
diagrams will be obtained by determining the values of V and M at selected points of
the beam. These values will be found in the usual way, i.e., by passing a section
through the point where they are to be determined (Fig. a) and considering the
equilibrium of the portion of beam located on either side of the section (Fig. b).
Since the shear forces V and V have opposite senses, recording the shear at point C
with an up or down arrow would be meaning less, unless we indicated at the same
time which of the free bodies AC and CB we are considering.
 8/24/2022

Solution
Part 1
The determination of the expressions for V and M for each of the three beam
segments (AB,BC, and CD) is explained below.
 8/24/2022

Shear Force and Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams

Bending Moment
Diagrams
Example
For the timber beam and loading
shown, draw the shear and
bending-moment diagrams and
determine the maximum normal
stress due to bending.

Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams
 8/24/2022

Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams

Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams

Problem 3. A Beam 25 m. long is supported at A and B and is

BENDING STRESSES IN
loaded as shown. Sketch the SF and BM diagrams and find (a)
the position and magnitude of the maximum Bending Moment
and (b) the position of the point of contra flexure

The Shearing Force Starting at A, F = 7.25. As the

section moves away from A F decreases at a uniform
BEAMS.
rate of w per unit length (i.e. f = 7.25 – w x) and
reaches a value of - 2.75 at E. Between E and D, F is
constant (There is no load on Ed) and at D it suffers a
sudden decrease of 2 kN (the load at D). Similarly
there is an increase at B of 7.75 k N (the reaction at
B). This results in a value of F = 3k N at B which
remains constant between B and C. Note this value
agrees with the load at C
 8/24/2022

Stresses in Beams – Bending and Shear

After the end of this lesson students will able to; • Internal bending moment
causes beam to deform.
• Top fibers in compression,
State the theory of simple bending. bottom in tension.
Explain bending stresses. • Neutral surface – no change in
Identify position of neutral axis. length.
Define moment of resistance. • Neutral Axis – Line of
intersection of neutral surface
Define section modulus.
with the transverse section.
Solve problems related to bending stresses in beam.
• All cross-sections remain plane
and perpendicular to
longitudinal axis.

Stresses in Beams – Bending and Shear Stresses in Beams – Bending and Shear
• If a specific length of a
beam is subjected to a
• Assumptions in simple (pure) bending theory:
constant bending moment – Material of beam is homogenous and isotropic (same
& shear force is zero, then composition & constant E in all directions).
the stresses set up in that – Young’s modulus is constant in compression and tension.
length of the beam are – Transverse section which are plane before bending remain
known as bending stresses. plain after bending (Eliminate effects of strains in other
The length of the beam direction).
under constant bending – Beam is initially straight and all longitudinal filaments bend
moment is said to be in in circular arcs.
pure bending. – Radius of curvature is large compared with dimension of
cross sections.
– Each layer of the beam is free to expand or contract.
 8/24/2022

Derivation of Relationship Between Bending Derivation of Relationship Between Bending

Stress and Radius of Curvature Stress and Radius of Curvature
Let, R = Radius of curvature of neutral layer N’-N’.
• Consider a small
• θ = Angle subjected at O by A’B’ and C’D’ produced.
length δx of a beam • y = Distance from the neutral layer.
subjected to a simple • Original length of the layer = EF = δx = NN = N’N’
bending as shown in • From figure (b), N’N’ = R θ
the figure (a). • Change (Increase) in length of the EF = E’F’ –EF = (R + y) θ – R θ
• Due to action of =yθ
• Strain in the layer EF = Increase in length / original length
bending, the length
=yθ/Rθ=y/R
δx will be deformed
• According to linear elasticity, σ α ϵ,.That is, ϵ = σ / E.
as shown in the figure
(b).
• oα
y

Derivation of Relationship Between Bending Derivation of Relationship Between Bending Stress and Radius
Stress and Radius of Curvature of Curvature (Moment of Resistance of a Section)
• The stresses induced in the layers of the beam create
• Due to the decrease in length of the layers compressive and tensile forces.
above N-N, these layers will be subjected to • These forces will have moment about NA.
compressive stresses. • The total moment of these forces about NA for a section
• Due to the increase in length of the layers is known as moment of resistance of that section.
above N-N, these layers will be subjected to • Consider a cross section of a beam as shown:
tensile stresses.
• The amount by which a layer increases or
decreases in length, depends upon the position
of the layer w.r.t. N-N. This theory of bending is
known as theory of simple bending.
 8/24/2022

Derivation of Relationship Between Bending Stress and Radius Section Modulus (Z)
of Curvature (Moment of Resistance of a Section)
1. Rectangular Section

Euler – Bernoulli Bending Equation

Section Modulus (Z) Section Modulus (Z)

• It is the ratio of moment of inertia of a section 2. Rectangular Hollow Section
about the neutral axis to the distance of the
outermost layer from the neutral axis.

I = Moment of Inertia about neutral axis.

ymax = Distance of the outermost layer from the neutral axis.
Hence,
• Thus, moment of resistance offered by the section is
maximum when Z is maximum. Hence, Z represents the
strength of the section.
 8/24/2022

Section Modulus (Z) Problems

3. Circular Section A cantilever of length 2m fails when a load of 2 kN
is applied at the free end. If the section of the beam
is 40 mm X 60 mm, find the stress at the failure.
Solution:
Problem Sketch:

Section Modulus (Z)

4. Circular Hollow Section • Let, σmax = Stress at failure (Maximum stress)
• Since R is not given, we cannot use
• Instead, use M = σmax x I/ymax OR
• M = σmax x Z, where

and,
Hence,
 8/24/2022

Problem Maximum stress in beam of rectangular c/s.:

A square beam 20mm X 20mm in section and 2m M = σmax x Z, where
long is simply supported at the ends. The beam
fails when a point load of 400N is applied at the Maximum bending moment for a cantilever beam
centre of the beam. What uniformly distributed loaded with UDL for the entire span is given by
load per meter length will break a cantilever of Mmax = wL2 / 2
the same material 40mm wide, 60mm deep and
3m long?
Solution: Mmax =
Hence,
Square c/s.: 20 mm x 20 mm; L = 2m; W = 400 N
Rectangular c/s.: 40 mm x 60 mm; L = 3m; w = ? Mmax = 4500 w N-mm
Equate the maximum stress in the two cases.

Maximum stress in beam of square c/s.:

M = σmax x Z, where
 8/24/2022

Problem • Find the reaction forces at the supports

A timber beam of rectangular section of length 8m • Find the shear force at all the points of interest
is simply supported. The beam carries a U.D.L. of • Find the maximum bending moment where SF is zero.
12 kN/m run over the entire length and a point
load of 10 kN at 3m from the left support. If the
depth is two times the width and the stress in the
timber is not to exceed 8 N/mm2, find the suitable
dimensions of the section.
Solution: Problem sketch Shear Forces:
FB = - RB = - 51750 N; FC = +18250 N; FA = +54250 N
Shear force changes its sign between B and C.
Let D be the point where SF = 0. Let x be the distance (in meters)
of this point on the beam from B.
By calculation, x = 4.3125 m

Given Data: • Find the BM at D.

• Find the Moment of Inertia (I) or section modulus (Z) of the
beam’s cross section
• Use the equation, M = σmax x Z

Find the maximum bending moment in the beam

and use M = σmax x Z to find b and d.
Hence,
b = 275.5 mm
d = 551 mm
 8/24/2022

Deflection of Beams Deflection of Beams

Deflection of Beams Deflection of Beams

Methods of Solution

1. Double integration
method
2. Macaulay’s method
3. Moment area method
4. Conjugate beam method
 8/24/2022

Deflection of Beams Deflection of Beams

Deflection of Beams Deflection of Beams

 8/24/2022

Deflection of Beams Deflection of Beams

UDL on whole span

Deflection of Beams Deflection of Beams

 8/24/2022

Deflection of Beams Deflection of Beams

Deflection of Beams Deflection of Beams

 8/24/2022

Deflection of Beams

Deflection of Beams
 8/24/2022

Macaulay’s Method Macauly’s Method

In this method, the moment function only will be considered at end of the section  Again we must write a function for the beam moment that can
describe the moment for the beam wholly from the left side.
This beam have 2 span. Macauly’sMethod will use the moment
function to the very right with only x function as distance. Where
here for example:

Macauly’s Method
Macauly’s Method
Let us again consider a simply supported beam AB of length L and carrying
concentrated load P at mid span,C as shown below. EI is constant. This
example are going to show how to find the equation of elastic curve for the
beam by ‘turn off’ part of a function using Macauly’s Method.
 8/24/2022

Macauly’s Method Macauly’s Method

Macauly’s Method Macauly’s Method

 8/24/2022

Macauly’s Method
Macauly’s Method

Macauly’s Method
Macauly’s Method
 8/24/2022

Macauly’s Method Macauly’s Method

Macauly’s Method Macauly’s Method

 8/24/2022

Macauly’s Method Macauly’s Method

Macauly’s Method Macauly’s Method

 8/24/2022

Macauly’s Method Macauly’s Method

Macauly’s Method Macauly’s Method

 8/24/2022

Macauly’s Method Macauly’s Method

Macauly’s Method
Macauly’s Method
 8/24/2022

Macauly’s Method Macauly’s

Method

Macauly’s Method Macauly’s Method

 8/24/2022

Macauly’s Method Macauly’s Method

Macauly’s Method Macauly’s Method

 8/24/2022

Macauly’s Method Macauly’s Method

Macauly’s Method Macauly’s Method

 8/24/2022

ANALYSIS OF STRESS
Macauly’s Method
For this topic, the stresses to be considered are not on the perpendicular
and parallel planes only but also on other inclined planes.

Overview ANALYSIS OF STRESS

Introduction
Plane stress – how uniaxial normal stress creates a shear
component

Problem solving example

Principal stresses and max shear stress – will the material break
under loading?

Problem solving example

 8/24/2022

ANALYSIS OF STRESS

ANALYSIS OF STRESS

Stresses on an element can be transformed using

2 methods:
(i)Equations Method
(ii)Mohr Circle
8/24/2022
8/24/2022
8/24/2022
8/24/2022
8/24/2022
8/24/2022
8/24/2022
8/24/2022