FORCES NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

Stability Sir Isaac Newton's three laws of motion describe the motion of
Stability is the quality, state, or degree of being stable: such as massive bodies and how they interact.
 the strength to stand or endure: firmness
 the property of a body that causes it when disturbed from a  The First Law of Motion states, "A body at rest will remain at rest,
condition of equilibrium or steady motion to develop forces or and a body in motion will remain in motion unless it is acted upon
moments that restore the original condition by an external force." This simply means that things cannot start,
 resistance to chemical change or to physical disintegration stop, or change direction all by themselves. It takes some force
acting on them from the outside to cause such a change.
Force of Gravity
Gravity is one of the fundamental forces of physics. The most  The Second Law of Motion describes what happens to a massive
important aspect of gravity is that it is universal: all objects have a body when it is acted upon by an external force. It states, "The
gravitational force that attracts other objects to them. The force of force acting on an object is equal to the mass of that object times
gravity acting on any object is dependent upon the masses of both its acceleration." This is written in mathematical form as F = ma,
objects and the distance between them. where F is force, m is mass, and a is acceleration. The bold letters
indicate that force and acceleration are vector quantities, which
Centre of Gravity means they have both magnitude and direction. The force can be a
Centre of gravity, in physics, an imaginary point in a body of matter single force, or it can be the vector sum of more than one force,
where, for convenience in certain calculations, the total weight of the which is the net force after all the forces are combined.
body may be thought to be concentrated. The concept is sometimes
useful in designing static structures (e.g., buildings and bridges) or in  The Third Law of Motion states, "For every action, there is an
predicting the behaviour of a moving body when it is acted on by equal and opposite reaction." This law describes what happens to a
gravity. In a uniform gravitational field, the centre of gravity is body when it exerts a force on another body. Forces always occur
identical to the centre of mass, a term preferred by physicists. The two in pairs, so when one body pushes against another, the second
do not always coincide, however. For example, the Moon’s centre of body pushes back just as hard. For example, when you push a cart,
mass is very close to its geometric centre (it is not exact because the the cart pushes back against you.
Moon is not a perfect uniform sphere), but its centre of gravity is
slightly displaced toward Earth because of the stronger gravitational ELECTRICITY
force on the Moon’s near side Circuit Symbols

Instability
Instability is the quality or state of being unstable.

Equilibrium
A state in which opposing forces or influences are balanced.
 WAVES
Every sound we hear, every photon of light that hits our eyes, the  Transverse waves - movement of the particles are at right angles
movement of grass blown by the wind and the regular beat of the tides (perpendicular) to the motion of the energy. Movement of a wave
are all examples of waves. They are all around us. Visible, physical through a solid object like a stretched rope or a trampoline is an
waves such as those we see when a rock is thrown into water are what example of this type of wave. Plucked guitar string, waves in
many people think about when they first began to think about waves. water, the motion created by waving a string are other examples of
These waves have distinct properties specific to their type but also transverse waves.
exhibit characteristics in common with more abstract waves such as
sound waves and light (electromagnetic) waves. A second way that waves are characterized is by the types of matter
they are able to travel through. Electromagnetic waves (including
At the simplest level, waves are a disturbance that propagate energy light) can move through a vacuum. Physical waves require matter
through a medium. Propagation of the energy depend on interactions through which to propagate. Physical waves are further distinguished
between the particles that make up the medium. Particles move as the by the phases of matter through which they can move. Longitudinal
waves pass through but there is no net motion of particles. This means, waves can pass through liquids and gasses while transverse waves
once a wave has passed the particles return to their original position. require a material to be solid to propagate.
As a result, energy, not matter, is propagated by waves.

Different types of waves exhibit specific characteristics. These

characteristics are used to distinguish between wave types.

 Crest - the high point (top) of the wave

 Trough - the lowest point (bottom) of the wave
 Wavelength - A wavelength is the shortest distance between two
adjacent crests or troughs of a transverse wave. For longitudinal
waves, it is the distances between two adjacent compressions or
rarefactions. Wavelength is measured in meter (m).
 Amplitude - The amplitude of a wave is the mixture distance of the
particles of the medium from the rest position. We can also say
 Longitudinal waves - Movement of the particles are parallel to the that it is the height of the crest or depth of a trough (transverse
motion of the energy. Sound waves moving through the air is an wave) measured from the rest position. Amplitude is measured in
example of this type of wave, another example is Primary waves, meters (m).
known as P waves, in earthquakes.
Frequency –
The number of vibrations produced by a vibrating body in one second
is called its frequency. Frequency is measured in units called hertz
(Hz). When one wave passes in one second its frequency is 1 wave per Refraction of Waves
second or 1 Hertz. Reflection involves a change in
direction of waves when they
Speed – bounce off a barrier. Refraction
Imagine watching a flash of lightning and thundering of the cloud. of waves involves a change in
First, we see the flash of lighting. A few seconds later we hear thunder. the direction of waves as they
This happens because sound and light travel at different speeds. Light pass from one medium to
travels much faster than sound. Different waves travel at a different another. Refraction, or the bending of the path of the waves, is
speed. This distance a wave covers in units time are called its speed. accompanied by a change in speed and wavelength of the waves. If a
Speed is measured in meter per second. Sound travels at a different pane of glass is placed in the bottom of the tank, one part of the tank
speed in different mediums. will be deep and the other part of the tank will be shallow. Waves
traveling from the deep end to the shallow end can be seen to refract
(i.e., bend), decrease wavelength (the wavefronts get closer together),
Reflection, Refraction and Diffraction of Waves. and slow down (they take a longer time to travel the same distance).
When traveling from deep water to shallow water, the waves are seen
Reflection of Waves: to bend in such a manner that they seem to be traveling more
If a linear object attached to an oscillator bobs back and forth within perpendicular to the surface. If traveling from shallow water to deep
the water, it becomes a source of straight waves. These straight waves water, the waves bend in the opposite
have alternating crests and troughs. These waves will travel through direction.
the water until they encounter an obstacle - such as the wall of the tank
or an object placed within the water. The diagrams depict a series of Diffraction of Waves
straight waves approaching a long barrier extending at an angle across Reflection involves a change in direction
the tank of water. The direction that these wavefronts (straight-line of waves when they bounce off a barrier;
crests) are traveling through the water is represented by the blue arrow. refraction of waves involves a change in
The blue arrow is called a ray and is drawn perpendicular to the the direction of waves as they pass from
wavefronts. Upon reaching the barrier placed within the water, these one medium to another; and diffraction
waves bounce off the water and head in a different direction. The involves a change in direction of waves as they pass through an
diagram below shows the reflected wavefronts and the reflected ray. opening or around a barrier in their path. Water waves have the ability
Regardless of the angle at which the wavefronts approach the barrier, to travel around corners, around obstacles and through openings.
one general law of reflection holds Diffraction of water waves is observed in a harbor as waves bend
true: the waves will always reflect in around small boats and are found to disturb the water behind them.
such a way that the angle at which The same waves however are unable to diffract around larger boats
they approach the barrier equals the since their wavelength is smaller than the boat. Diffraction of sound
angle at which they reflect off the waves is commonly observed; we notice sound diffracting around
barrier. This is known as the law of corners, allowing us to hear others who are speaking to us from
reflection. adjacent rooms. Many forest-dwelling birds take advantage of the
diffractive ability of long-wavelength sound waves. Owls for instance heat, solar is one of the most promising alternative energy sources on
are able to communicate across long distances due to the fact that their the market today.
long-wavelength hoots are able to diffract around forest trees and carry
farther than the short-wavelength tweets of songbirds. Diffraction is Wind Power
observed of light waves but only when the waves encounter obstacles For thousands of years, humans have harnessed the wind to push sails,
with extremely small wavelengths (such as particles suspended in our mill grain, and pump water. Today, windmills use turbines to convert
atmosphere). rotational energy into electricity that can reliably flow into to a grid.

Biomass
Sound waves: Biomass and biodiesel are among the most widely used renewable
Two aspects of any sound are its energy sources. In stark contrast to fossil fuels which are produced by
loudness and pitch. Loudness and pitch geological processes that can take millions of years, biomass typically
are subjective quantities and depend refers to biofuels that are obtained through biological processes such
upon the consciousness of the listener. as agriculture and anaerobic digestion. Fuels like bioethanol from corn
 Loudness is related to the energy in or biodiesel from transesterification of plant oils burn cleaner than
the sound wave and its frequency. conventional fossil fuels and can help countries stay within their
 Pitch is related to frequency and changes in energy and refers to carbon budgets.
whether the sound is high (violin) or low (bass drum). The higher
the frequency the higher the pitch. Tidal Power
The rise and fall of the tides are steady and predictable, making tidal
The human ear responds to the audible range of frequencies from power a viable alternative source of energy for regions where high
about 20 Hz to less than 20 kHz. As we get older, we lose the ability tidal ranges are available.
to hear the higher frequency components of any sound. Some people
with hearing problems can only hear frequencies less than about 8 Geothermal
kHz. Roughly 1.4 x 1021 joules of heat energy flows to the Earth's surface
Sounds are longitudinal wave that can propagate through any medium every year. Regions with high levels of geothermal activity like
which can be compressed such as a gas, liquid or solid. Iceland and Indonesia can tap into this geothermal energy available in
Frequencies less than 20 Hz are called infrasound. Animals have been magma conduits and hot springs to spin turbines that generate
known to perceive the infrasonic waves going through the Earth electricity or provide natural heating to homes.
caused by natural disasters and can use these as an early warning.
Frequencies above 20 kHz are called ultrasound. Many animals can CONSERVATION OF FOREST RESOURCES
hear ultrasound frequencies: dogs hear sounds as high as 50 kHz and Forests cover 1/3 of the earth’s surface and contain an estimated 3
but can detect frequency as high as 100 kHz. trillion trees. Forests exist in dry, wet, bitterly cold, and swelteringly
hot climates. These different forests all have special characteristics that
ALTERNATIVE SOURCE OF ENERGY allow them to thrive in their particular climate.
Solar Power
Solar power involves harnessing the power of our sun. From Broadly speaking, there are three major forest zones that are separated
photovoltaic (PV) cells that capture photons and convert them into according to their distance from the equator. These are:
electricity, to solar thermal energy (STE) that makes use of the sun’s  the tropical
Tropical rain forests grow around the equator in South America,
Africa, and Southeast Asia. They have the highest species diversity per Forest conservation is the practice of planning and maintaining
area in the world, containing millions of different species. Even though forested areas for the benefit and sustainability of future generations.
they cover only a small part of the earth, they house at least one half of Forest conservation involves the upkeep of the natural resources
all species. The temperature is stable year-round, around 27°C (60° within a forest that are beneficial to both humans and the ecosystem.
Fahrenheit). As you can tell from the name, it rains a lot in these Forest conservation acts to maintain, plan, and improve forested areas.
forests. Most tropical forests receive at least 200 cm (80 inches) of rain Forests provide wildlife with a suitable habitat for living along with
in a year. Tropical forests generally have a rainy and dry season. filtering groundwater and preventing runoff.
Different subcategories within tropical rain forests
1. Evergreen: rain year-round, no dry season Some of the steps we can take to conserve our forest resources are as
2. Seasonal: vegetation evergreen, short dry season, follows:
3. Dry: long dry season in which trees lose leaves 1. Regulated and Planned Cutting of Trees
4. Montane: most precipitation from mist or fog that rises (also 2. Control over Forest Fire
called cloud forests), mostly conifers 3. Reforestation and Afforestation
5. Tropical and subtropical coniferous: dry and warm climate 4. Proper Utilization of Forest and Forests Products
with conifers adapted to variable weather 5. Forest Management
6. Sub-tropical: north and south of tropical forests, trees adapted
to resist summer drought. ECO-TOURISM
Around the world, ecotourism has been hailed as a panacea: a way to
 Temperate fund conservation and scientific research, protect fragile and pristine
Temperate forests occur in the next latitude ring, in North America, ecosystems, benefit rural communities, promote development in poor
northeastern Asia, and Europe. There are four well-defined seasons in countries, enhance ecological and cultural sensitivity, instill
this zone including winter. environmental awareness and a social conscience in the travel
Subcategories within temperate forests industry, satisfy and educate the discriminating tourist, and, some
1. Moist conifer and evergreen broad-leaved: mild wet winters claim, build world peace.
and dry summers Ecotourism is a form of tourism which attempts to minimize its impact
2. Dry conifer: at higher elevations, little rainfall upon the environment, is ecologically sound, and avoids the negative
3. Mediterranean: located south of temperate regions around impacts of many large-scale tourism developments undertaken in the
coast, almost all trees evergreen areas which have not previously been developed.
4. Temperate broad-leaved rainforest: mild, frost-free winters,
lots of rain throughout the whole year, evergreen.

 and boreal forests (taiga)

Boreal forests, also called taiga, are found between 50 and 60 degree
of latitude in the sub-Arctic zone. This area contains Siberia,
Scandinavia, Alaska, and Canada. Trees are coniferous and evergreen.
There are two seasons here: a short, moist, mildly-warm summer and a
long cold dry winter.