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Xenobiotics Assignment
INTRODUCTION→ The term xenobiotic is derived from the Greek words (xenos) = foreigner, stranger and (bios) = life
Xenobiotics are compounds foreign to an organism's normal
biochemistry. It can also cover substances that are present in much higher concentrations than are usual. These substances typically include chemicals such as drugs, environmental pollutants, pesticides, and various compounds not naturally produced or expected to be present within an organism's system. They can impact biological systems, potentially causing toxicity or changes in normal physiological functions.
Xenobiotics may be grouped as carcinogens, drugs, environmental
pollutants, food additives, hydrocarbons, and pesticides.
CLASSIFICATION OF XENOBIOTICS→
A) Based on their origin:-
1) Exogenous xenobiotics- Exogenous xenobiotics originate from external sources outside an organism. These include pharmaceuticals, pollutants, pesticides, and other chemicals introduced into the body through various means like ingestion, inhalation, or skin contact e.g.drugs, food additives, pollutants, chemical carcinogens.
2) Endogenous xenobiotics- endogenous xenobiotics are internally
produced compounds that, while normally present within the organism, might be foreign to a specific system. These can include metabolites or breakdown products of various substances produced internally or externally and can sometimes have unintended effects on biological systems e.g. Bilirubin, bile acid, Steroids. B) Based on their nature→
1) Halocarbons- • Halogens in various concentrations, such as iodine, fluorine, chlorine, or bromine, in place of hydrogen atoms. • Applied as propellants in solvents like chloroform and spray cans of paints, cosmetics, and other products. • They are also utilized in cooling system condenser units (freons, CCI;F, CCI,F, etc.). • Chloroform and freons, which are essentially volatile substances that are discharged into the atmosphere and destroy the ozone layer, increasing UV radiation.
2) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)-
These complexes are covalently linked with two Benzene rings have halogen in place of hydrogen. They are basically utilized as coolants in transformer or as exchange fluids for heat.
3) Synthetic polymers- Synthetic polymers are those which are human- made polymers. Polymers are those which consist of repeated structural units known as monomers. Polyethylene is one of the simplest polymers, it has ethylene as the monomer unit. Example: Nylon, Polyvinyl chloride, and Polypropylene.
4) Alkyl benzyl Sulphonates-
Alkyl benzyl sulphonates, recognized as potent surface-active detergents, surpass traditional soaps in performance. They are classified as "hard" detergents because of their resilience against biological breakdown. However, their usage has been linked to persistent foam formation in sewage treatment plants, streams, and rivers, leading to environmental challenges.
5) Oil Mixtures- Oil is considered recalcitrant primarily because it lacks solubility in water, and some of its compounds are toxic. Biodegradation is a viable method for addressing small oil spills. However, in the case of large spills, these compounds become recalcitrant, posing challenges for effective biodegradation processes. A) Based on their effect →
1. Toxicity: Many xenobiotics exhibit toxic effects on aquatic organisms.
These substances can interfere with vital biological processes such as respiration, reproduction, and metabolism. Fish, invertebrates, and algae are particularly vulnerable to the toxic effects of certain xenobiotics.
2. Bioaccumulation: Xenobiotics can accumulate in the tissues of aquatic
organisms through a process known as bioaccumulation. This is particularly problematic in cases where the xenobiotics are persistent and not easily broken down. The substances may move up the food chain, with top predators accumulating higher concentrations of these pollutants.
3. Mutagenicity and Genotoxicity: Some xenobiotics can cause genetic
mutations in aquatic organisms, leading to harmful effects on the population's health and potentially causing long-term genetic damage. Genotoxic effects can disrupt the normal functioning of cells and impact the reproductive success of organisms.
4. Disruption of Endocrine Systems: Certain xenobiotics, known as
endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), can interfere with the endocrine systems of aquatic organisms. This disruption can lead to reproductive problems, altered behavior, and changes in growth patterns.
5. Habitat Destruction: Xenobiotics can contribute to the degradation of
aquatic habitats. For example, some pollutants can lead to oxygen depletion in water bodies, causing "dead zones" where aquatic life cannot survive. Contamination of sediments can also have long-lasting effects on benthic organisms.
6. Altered Community Structure: The presence of xenobiotics can lead to
shifts in the abundance and diversity of aquatic communities. Certain species may be more resistant to the pollutants, leading to imbalances in the ecosystem.
7. Long-term Ecological Effects: The cumulative impact of xenobiotics
over time can result in long-term ecological changes. Some species may decline or disappear, leading to a cascading effect on other species that depend on them. Biodegradation:-
o Microorganisms on constant exposure to xenobiotics develop the
capability to degrade the same. o Mutation results in modifications of gene in microorganisms in order that the active site of enzyme is altered to show enhanced affinity for xenobiotics. o 'Biodegradation' involves the breakdown of organic compounds by microorganisms, into biomass and less complex compounds, and ultimately to water, carbon dioxide, and the oxides or mineral salts of other elements present.
Requirement for biodegrading xenobiotics:-
1. Availability of xenobiotic complex to microorganisms 2. Entry of a compound into an organism 3. Induction of catabolic enzymes 4. Aerobic or anaerobic environments
Biotransformation of Xenobiotic:- Biotransformation reaction occurs by two phases of reactions :-
A) Phase 1 reaction:-
1) Oxidation 2) Reduction 3) Hydrolysis reactions
B) Phase 2 reactions:-
1)Glucuronidaon 2)Sulfation 3)Acetylation 4)Methylation 5)Conjugation with Amino acids
Hazards caused by xenobiotic compounds:-
These compounds are known to pose health risks to humans through various means, including skin issues, disruptions to the reproductive system, and potential links to cancer.
• Due to their persistence in the environment over extended periods, these
substances exhibit the characteristics of bioaccumulation or biomagnification.
• Moreover, these compounds are present in food chains, with concentrations
observed to be unusually high even in organisms not directly exposed to xenobiotics.
1. Carcinogenic Effects:
• Liver Cancer: Exposure to certain carcinogenic xenobiotics has been associated
with an increased risk of liver cancer. • Melanoma: Some xenobiotics are linked to an elevated risk of melanoma, a type of skin cancer.
2. Effects on the Immune System:
• Suppressed Immune System: Exposure to certain xenobiotics can suppress the
immune system, making individuals more susceptible to infections and diseases. • Swollen Thymus Gland in Infants: Xenobiotics may cause enlargement of the thymus gland in infants, potentially affecting the development and function of their immune system.
3. Reproductive System Effects:
• Reduced Birth Weight: Exposure to certain xenobiotics has been associated
with reduced birth weight in newborns. • Decrease in Gestational Ages and Abortions: Xenobiotics can contribute to premature births and an increased risk of abortions.
4. Effects on the Nervous System:
• Short-term Memory: Some xenobiotics may impact short-term memory
function, affecting cognitive abilities. • Learning: Exposure to certain xenobiotics can interfere with the learning process. • Infant Neurological Functions: Xenobiotics may have adverse effects on the neurological development of infants.
5. Effects on the Endocrine System:
• Thyroid Health: Certain xenobiotics can disrupt thyroid function, affecting hormone production and overall thyroid health.
Effects on aquatic ecosystem:-
• Aquatic organisms are particularly important targets, as they are
exposed through wastewater residues over their entire life. • Pharmaceuticals after their application in their indigenous form are excreted or else as metabolites and penetrate marine life through diverse pathways. • They may also enter marine system through fertilizer application in fields and then through runoff or they are directly applied during fish farming. • Inhibits plankton growth and photosynthesis affecting the food chain.
(Cambridge Solid State Science Series) D. I. Bower, W. F. Maddams-The Vibrational Spectroscopy of Polymers (Cambridge Solid State Science Series) - Cambridge University Press (1989)
(Cambridge Solid State Science Series) D. I. Bower, W. F. Maddams-The Vibrational Spectroscopy of Polymers (Cambridge Solid State Science Series) - Cambridge University Press (1989)
