Transportation Systems Engineering 1.

Trip Distribution

Chapter 1

Trip Distribution

1.1 Overview
The decision to travel for a given purpose is called trip generation. These generated trips
from each zone is then distributed to all other zones based on the choice of destination. This
is called trip distribution which forms the second stage of travel demand modeling. There
are a number of methods to distribute trips among destinations; and two such methods are
growth factor model and gravity model. Growth factor model is a method which respond only
to relative growth rates at origins and destinations and this is suitable for short-term trend
extrapolation. In gravity model, we start from assumptions about trip making behavior and
the way it is influenced by external factors. An important aspect of the use of gravity models is
their calibration, that is the task of fixing their parameters so that the base year travel pattern
is well represented by the model.

1.2 Definitions and notations

1.2.1 Trip matrix
The trip pattern in a study area can be represented by means of a trip matrix or origin-
destination (O-D)matrix. This is a two dimensional array of cells where rows and columns
represent each of the zones in the study area. The notation of the trip matrix is given in
figure 1:1.
The cells of each row i contain the trips originating in that zone which have as destinations
the zones in the corresponding columns. Tij is the number of trips between origin i and
destination j. Oi is the total number of trips between originating in zone i and Dj is the total
number of trips attracted to zone j. The sum of the trips in a row should be equal to the total
number of trips emanating from that zone. The sum of the trips in a column is the number
of trips attracted to that zone. These two constraints can be represented as: Σj Tij = Oi

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Transportation Systems Engineering 1. Trip Distribution

Σi Tij = Dj If reliable information is available to estimate both Oi and Dj , the model is said
to be doubly constrained. In some cases, there will be information about only one of these
constraints, the model is called singly constrained.

1.2.2 Generalized cost

One of the factors that influences trip distribution is the relative travel cost between two zones.
This cost element may be considered in terms of distance, time or money units. It is often
convenient to use a measure combining all the main attributes related to the dis-utility of a
journey and this is normally referred to as the generalized cost of travel. This can be represented
as
cij = a1 tvij + a2 tw t
ij + a3 tij + a4 tnij + a5 Fij + a6 φj + δ (1.1)
where tvij is the in-vehicle travel time between i and j, tw
ij is the walking time to and from stops,
t
tij is the waiting time at stops, Fij is the fare charged to travel between i and j, φj is the
parking cost at the destination, and δ is a parameter representing comfort and convenience,
and a1 ,a2 ,.... are the weights attached to each element of cost function.

1.3 Growth factor methods

1.3.1 Uniform growth factor
If the only information available is about a general growth rate for the whole of the study area,
then we can only assume that it will apply to each cell in the matrix, that is a uniform growth

Zones 1 2 ... j ... n Oi

1 T11 T12 ... T1j ... T1n O1
2 T21 T22 ... T2j ... T2n O2
.. ..
. ... ... ... ... ... ... .
where Dj = Σi Tij , Oi = Σj Tij , and T = Σij Tij .
Ti1 Ti2 ... Tij ... Tin Oi
.. ..
. ... ... ... ... ... ... .
n Tni Tn2 ... Tnj ... Tnn On
Dj D1 D2 ... Dj ... Dn T

Figure 1:1: Notation of a trip matrix

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Transportation Systems Engineering 1. Trip Distribution

rate. The equation can be written as:

Tij = f × tij (1.2)

where f is the uniform growth factor tij is the previous total number of trips, Tij is the expanded
total number of trips. Advantages are that they are simple to understand, and they are useful
for short-term planning. Limitation is that the same growth factor is assumed for all zones as
well as attractions.

1.3.2 Example
Trips originating from zone 1,2,3 of a study area are 78,92 and 82 respectively and those
terminating at zones 1,2,3 are given as 88,96 and 78 respectively. If the growth factor is 1.3
and the cost matrix is as shown below, find the expanded origin-constrained growth trip table.

1 2 3 oi
1 20 30 28 78
2 36 32 24 92
3 22 34 26 82
dj 88 96 78 252

Solution Given growth factor = 1.3, Therefore, multiplying the growth factor with each of
the cells in the matrix gives the solution as shown below.

1 2 3 Oi
1 26 39 36.4 101.4
2 46.8 41.6 31.2 119.6
3 28.6 44.2 33.8 106.2
Dj 101.4 124.8 101.4 327.6

1.3.3 Doubly constrained growth factor model

When information is available on the growth in the number of trips originating and terminating
in each zone, we know that there will be different growth rates for trips in and out of each zone
and consequently having two sets of growth factors for each zone. This implies that there are
two constraints for that model and such a model is called doubly constrained growth factor
model. One of the methods of solving such a model is given by Furness who introduced balancing
factors ai and bj as follows:
Tij = tij × ai × bj (1.3)

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Transportation Systems Engineering 1. Trip Distribution

In such cases, a set of intermediate correction coefficients are calculated which are then
appropriately applied to cell entries in each row or column. After applying these corrections to
say each row, totals for each column are calculated and compared with the target values. If the
differences are significant, correction coefficients are calculated and applied as necessary. The
procedure is given below:

1. Set bj = 1

2. With bj solve for ai to satisfy trip generation constraint.

3. With ai solve for bj to satisfy trip attraction constraint.

4. Update matrix and check for errors.

5. Repeat steps 2 and 3 till convergence.

Here the error is calculated as: E = Σ|Oi − Oi1 | + Σ|Dj − Dj1 | where Oi corresponds to the
actual productions from zone i and Oi1 is the calculated productions from that zone. Similarly
Dj are the actual attractions from the zone j and Dj1 are the calculated attractions from that
zone.

1.3.4 Advantages and limitations of growth factor model

The advantages of this method are:

1. Simple to understand.

2. Preserve observed trip pattern.

3. useful in short term-planning.

The limitations are:

1. Depends heavily on the observed trip pattern.

2. It cannot explain unobserved trips.

3. Do not consider changes in travel cost.

4. Not suitable for policy studies like introduction of a mode.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 1. Trip Distribution

Example

The base year trip matrix for a study area consisting of three zones is given below.

1 2 3 oi
1 20 30 28 78
2 36 32 24 92
3 22 34 26 82
dj 88 96 78 252

The productions from the zone 1,2 and 3 for the horizon year is expected to grow to 98, 106,
and 122 respectively. The attractions from these zones are expected to increase to 102, 118, 106
respectively. Compute the trip matrix for the horizon year using doubly constrained growth
factor model using Furness method.

Solution The sum of the attractions in the horizon year, i.e. ΣOi = 98+106+122 = 326. The
sum of the productions in the horizon year, i.e. ΣDj = 102+118+106 = 326. They both are
found to be equal. Therefore we can proceed. The first step is to fix bj = 1, and find balancing
factor ai . ai = Oi /oi , then find Tij = ai × tij
So a1 = 98/78 = 1.26
a2 = 106/92 = 1.15
a3 = 122/82 = 1.49 Further T11 = t11 × a1 = 20 × 1.26 = 25.2. Similarly T12 = t12 × a2 =
36 × 1.15 = 41.4. etc. Multiplying a1 with the first row of the matrix, a2 with the second row
and so on, matrix obtained is as shown below.

1 2 3 oi
1 25.2 37.8 35.28 98
2 41.4 36.8 27.6 106
3 32.78 50.66 38.74 122
d1j 99.38 125.26 101.62
Dj 102 118 106

Also d1j = 25.2 + 41.4 + 32.78 = 99.38

In the second step, find bj = Dj /d1j and Tij = tij × bj . For example b1 = 102/99.38 = 1.03,
b2 = 118/125.26 = 0.94 etc.,T11 = t1 1 × b1 = 25.2 × 1.03 = 25.96 etc. Also Oi1 = 25.96 + 35.53 +
36.69 = 98.18. The matrix is as shown below:

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Transportation Systems Engineering 1. Trip Distribution

1 2 3 oi Oi
1 25.96 35.53 36.69 98.18 98
2 42.64 34.59 28.70 105.93 106
3 33.76 47.62 40.29 121.67 122
bj 1.03 0.94 1.04
Dj 102 118 106

1 2 3 Oi1 Oi
1 25.96 35.53 36.69 98.18 98
2 42.64 34.59 28.70 105.93 106
3 33.76 47.62 40.29 121.67 122
dj 102.36 117.74 105.68 325.78
Dj 102 118 106 326

Therefore error can be computed as ; Error = Σ|Oi − Oi1| + Σ|Dj − dj |

Error = |98.18 − 98| + |105.93 − 106| + |121.67 − 122| + |102.36 − 102| + |117.74 − 118| +
|105.68 − 106| = 1.32

1.4 Gravity model

This model originally generated from an analogy with Newton’s gravitational law. Newton’s
gravitational law says, F = GM1 M2 /d2 Analogous to this, Tij = COiDj /cij n Introducing some
balancing factors, Tij = Ai Oi Bj Dj f (cij ) where Ai and Bj are the balancing factors, f (cij ) is
the generalized function of the travel cost. This function is called deterrence function because
it represents the disincentive to travel as distance (time) or cost increases. Some of the versions
of this function are:
f (cij ) = e−βcij (1.4)
f (cOJ ) = c−n
ij (1.5)
f (cij ) = c−n
ij × e
−βcij
(1.6)
The first equation is called the exponential function, second one is called power function where
as the third one is a combination of exponential and power function. The general form of these
functions for different values of their parameters is as shown in figure.
As in the growth factor model, here also we have singly and doubly constrained models.
The expression Tij = Ai Oi Bj Dj f (cij ) is the classical version of the doubly constrained model.
Singly constrained versions can be produced by making one set of balancing factors Ai or Bj

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Transportation Systems Engineering 1. Trip Distribution

equal to one. Therefore we can treat singly constrained model as a special case which can
be derived from doubly constrained models. Hence we will limit our discussion to doubly
constrained models.
As seen earlier, the model has the functional form, Tij = Ai Oi Bj Dj f (cij )
Σi Tij = Σi Ai OiBj Dj f (cij ) (1.7)
But
Σi Tij = Dj (1.8)
Therefore,
Dj = Bj Dj Σi Ai Oi f (cij ) (1.9)
From this we can find the balancing factor Bj as
Bj = 1/Σi Ai Oif (cij ) (1.10)
Bj depends on Ai which can be found out by the following equation:
Ai = 1/Σj Bj Dj f (cij ) (1.11)
We can see that both Ai and Bj are interdependent. Therefore, through some iteration proce-
dure similar to that of Furness method, the problem can be solved. The procedure is discussed
below:
1. Set Bj = 1, find Ai using equation 1.11

2. Find Bj using equation 1.10

3. Compute the error as E = Σ|Oi − Oi1 | + Σ|Dj − Dj1 | where Oi corresponds to the actual
productions from zone i and Oi1 is the calculated productions from that zone. Similarly
Dj are the actual attractions from the zone j and Dj1 are the calculated attractions from
that zone.

4. Again set Bj = 1 and find Ai , also find Bj . Repeat these steps until the convergence is
achieved.

Example

The productions from zone 1, 2 and 3 are 98, 106, 122 and attractions to zone 1,2 and 3 are
102, 118, 106. The function f (cij ) is defined as f (cij ) = 1/c2ij The cost matrix is as shown
below  
1.0 1.2 1.8
 
 1.2 1.0 1.5 
  (1.12)
1.8 1.5 1.0

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Transportation Systems Engineering 1. Trip Distribution

Solution The first step is given in Table 1:1 The second step is to find Bj . This can be

Table 1:1: Step1: Computation of parameter Ai

1
i j Bj DJ f (cij ) Bj Dj f (cij ) ΣBj Dj f (cij ) Ai = ΣBj Dj f (cij )
1 1.0 102 1.0 102.00
1 2 1.0 118 0.69 81.42 216.28 0.00462
3 1.0 106 0.31 32.86
1 1.0 102 0.69 70.38
2 2 1.0 118 1.0 118 235.02 0.00425
3 1.0 106 0.44 46.64
1 1.0 102 0.31 31.62
3 2 1.0 118 0.44 51.92 189.54 0.00527
3 1.0 106 1.00 106

found out as Bj = 1/ΣAi Oi f (cij ), where Ai is obtained from the previous step. The detailed
computation is given in Table 1:2. The function f (cij ) can be written in the matrix form as:

Table 1:2: Step2: Computation of parameter Bj

j i Ai Oi f (cij ) Ai Oi f (cij ) ΣAi Oi f (cij ) Bj = 1/ΣAi Oi f (cij )
1 0.00462 98 1.0 0.4523
1 2 0.00425 106 0.694 0.3117 0.9618 1.0397
3 0.00527 122 0.308 0.1978
1 0.00462 98 0.69 0.3124
2 2 0.00425 106 1.0 0.4505 1.0458 0.9562
3 0.00527 122 0.44 0.2829
1 0.00462 98 0.31 0.1404
3 2 0.00425 106 0.44 0.1982 0.9815 1.0188
3 0.00527 122 1.00 0.6429

 
1.0 0.69 0.31
 
 0.69 1.0 0.44 
  (1.13)
0.31 0.44 1.0
Then Tij can be computed using the formula

Tij = Ai Oi Bj Dj f (cij ) (1.14)

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Transportation Systems Engineering 1. Trip Distribution

Table 1:3: Step3: Final Table

1 2 3 Ai Oi Oi1
1 48.01 35.24 15.157 0.00462 98 98.407
2 32.96 50.83 21.40 0.00425 106 105.19
3 21.14 31.919 69.43 0.00527 122 122.489
Bj 1.0397 0.9562 1.0188
Dj 102 118 106
Dj1 102.11 117.989 105.987

For eg, T11 = 102 × 1.0397 × 0.00462 × 98 × 1 = 48.01. Oi is the actual productions from the
zone and Oi1 is the computed ones. Similar is the case with attractions also. The results are
shown in table 1:3. Oi is the actual productions from the zone and Oi1 is the computed ones.
Similar is the case with attractions also.
Therefore error can be computed as ; Error = Σ|Oi − Oi1| + Σ|Dj − Dj1 | Error = |98 −
98.407|+|106−105.19|+|122−122.489|+||102−102.11|+|118−117.989|+|106−105.987| = 2.03

1.5 Summary
The second stage of travel demand modeling is the trip distribution. Trip matrix can be used
to represent the trip pattern of a study area. Growth factor methods and gravity model are
used for computing the trip matrix. Singly constrained models and doubly constrained growth
factor models are discussed. In gravity model, considering singly constrained model as a special
case of doubly constrained model, doubly constrained model is explained in detail.

1.6 Problems
The trip productions from zones 1, 2 and 3 are 110, 122 and 114 respectively and the trip
attractions to these zones are 120,108, and 118 respectively. The cost matrix is given below.
The function f (cij ) = c1ij
 
1.0 1.2 1.8
 
 1.2 1.0 1.5 
 
1.8 1.5 1.0
Compute the trip matrix using doubly constrained gravity model. Provide one complete itera-
tion.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 1. Trip Distribution

Solution The first step is given in Table 1:4 The second step is to find Bj . This can be

Table 1:4: Step1: Computation of parameter Ai

1
i j Bj DJ f (cij ) Bj Dj f (cij ) ΣBj Dj f (cij ) Ai = ΣBj Dj f (cij )
1 1.0 120 1.0 120.00
1 2 1.0 108 0.833 89.964 275.454 0.00363
3 1.0 118 0.555 65.49
1 1.0 120 0.833 99.96
2 2 1.0 108 1.0 108 286.66 0.00348
3 1.0 118 0.667 78.706
1 1.0 120 0.555 66.60
3 2 1.0 108 0.667 72.036 256.636 0.00389
3 1.0 118 1.00 118

found out as Bj = 1/ΣAi Oif (cij ), where Ai is obtained from the previous step. The function
f (cij ) can be written in the matrix form as:
 
1.0 0.833 0.555
 
 0.833
 1.0 0.667 
 (1.15)
0.555 0.667 1.0

Then Tij can be computed using the formula

Tij = Ai Oi Bj Dj f (cij ) (1.16)

For eg, T11 = 102 × 1.0397 × 0.00462 × 98 × 1 = 48.01. Oi is the actual productions from the
zone and Oi1 is the computed ones. Similar is the case with attractions also. This step is given
in Table 1:6 Oi is the actual productions from the zone and Oi1 is the computed ones. Similar
is the case with attractions also.
Therefore error can be computed as ; Error = Σ|Oi − Oi1 | + Σ|Dj − Dj1 | Error = |110 −
109.57| + |122 − 121.17| + |114 − 115| + |120 − 119.876 + |108 − 107.95| + |118 − 117.92| = 2.515

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Transportation Systems Engineering 1. Trip Distribution

Table 1:5: Step2: Computation of parameter Bj

j i Ai Oi f (cij ) Ai Oi f (cij ) ΣAi Oi f (cij ) Bj = 1/ΣAi Oi f (cij )
1 0.00363 110 1.0 0.3993
1 2 0.00348 122 0.833 0.3536 0.9994 1.048
3 0.00389 114 0.555 0.2465
1 0.00363 110 0.833 0.3326
2 2 0.00348 122 1.0 0.4245 1.05 0.9494
3 0.00389 114 0.667 0.2962
1 0.00363 110 0555 0.2216
3 2 0.00348 122 0.667 0.2832 0.9483 1.054
3 0.00389 114 1.00 0.44346

Table 1:6: Step 3: Final Table

1 2 3 Ai Oi Oi1
1 48.01 34.10 27.56 0.00363 110 109.57
2 42.43 43.53 35.21 0.00348 122 121.17
3 29.53 30.32 55.15 0.00389 114 115
Bj 1.048 0.9494 1.054
Dj 120 108 118
Dj1 119.876 107.95 117.92

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 1.11 August 8, 2011