M.E.

(Power Electronics) Semester: II

LAB MANUAL

“Digital Control of power electronics systems”

(3722915)

POWER ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

LUKHDHIRJI ENGINEERING COLLEGE

MORBI-363642.

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 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that

Mr. SAURABH SHUKLA

Enrollment No. 220310729002

of ME (Semester-II) (Power Electronics) has satisfactorily performed the laboratory

experiments assigned in the subject entitled ...................................................and
completed the term work of the same within four walls of Lukhdhirji Engineering
College, Morbi.

Date of submission Staff in charge

/ /20

Head of the Department

Power Electronics Engineering Department

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 INDEX

Sr. Date Title of Experiment Pg. Sign.

No. No.

1 To simulate diode modelling

2 To simulate gate/base drive circuit for power device

3 To study and simulate state space modelling of linear

system
4
To simulate single phase and three phase uncontrolled
rectifier with different loads
5 To simulate single phase and three phase-controlled
rectifiers with different loads.
6 To simulate various chopper circuits.

7 To simulate converter fed DC motor drive.

8 To simulate chopper fed DC motor drive.

9 To simulate single phase inverter using SCR.

10 To simulate three phase inverter using SCR.

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 Experiment :1
Aim: To simulate diode modelling.
Theory:

The diode terminal characteristics is now followed by the analysis of circuits

employing forward conducting diodes. Figure alongside shows such circuit. It
consists of a dc source VDD, a resistor R, and a diode. We wish to analyze this circuit
to determine the diode voltage VD and current ID.

The most accurate description of the diode operation in the forward region is
provided by the exponential model. However, its severely nonlinear nature makes
this model the most difficult to use. Assuming that VDD > 0.5V, the diode current
will be much greater than IS, and we can represent the diode i-v characteristic by the
exponential relationship, resulting in:
𝑖𝐷=𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑣 𝐷/𝜂𝑉𝑇 … (i)
The other equation that governs circuit operation is obtained by Kirchhoff’s loop
equation, resulting in:
𝑖𝐷=(𝑉𝐷𝐷−𝑉𝐷)/𝑅 … (ii)
Assuming that the diode parameters IS and η are known, these equations give two
unknown quantities: ID and VD. This can be find using two alternative ways: (a)
Graphical Analysis and (b) Iterative (algebraic) Analysis.

Graphical Analysis

Graphical analysis is performed by plotting the relationships of equations (i) and (ii)
on the i-v plane. The solution can then be obtained as the coordinates of the point of
intersection of the two graphs. A sketch of the graphical construction is shown
alongside. The curve represents the exponential diode equation and the straight line
represents the load line. The load line intersect the diode curve at point Q which
represents the operation point of the circuit. Its coordinates give the value of ID and
VD.
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Conclusion:

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 Experiment: 2
Aim: To simulate gate/base drive circuit for power device

Theory:

Simple Gate Trigger Circuits for Thyristors

Simple trigger circuits can be realized by R or RC network. They are cheap and
consume little power. However, the control and hence the load output voltage (vo),
are susceptible to the device temperature variations. Moreover, feedback control
cannot easily be incorporated. A step dc voltage, a slow rising dc signal, or a rectified
positive half-wave signal can be used to trigger thyristors.

When the voltage applied to the gate terminal exceeds the VGT level, triggering takes
place. Figure 18.5 shows a trigger circuit and waveforms for an ac circuit. Before
conduction of the SCR, the input supply voltage (v) appears across the SCR.
Neglecting R2 and the voltage drop across D1, the gate voltage is given by VG .
RGKR1 . RGK . Rmin v .18:4. where v . Vm sinot denotes the supply voltage, and
RGK is forward gate-to-cathode resistance.

As soon as VG reaches the VGT level and supplies the required gate current,
conduction of SCR takes place. The voltage vAK collapses and therefore vG also
reduces to almost zero level, and v appears across the load. Now, R1 can be increased
to reduce vR2 and thus to increase a. However, with a larger R1, eventually the
circuit fails to trigger the device as shown by curve 3. Here, the control of a is
restricted to 90_ only (curve 2 of VG in Fig.).

Similarly, IG should not exceed the IGM level. Therefore, the minimum value of the
resistor Rmin is given by VmRmin _ IGM .18:5. This circuit is further improvedby
adding a resistor R2 across G and K terminals of the SCR. Then the worst-case
voltage across R2 should not exceed the VGM level. Therefore, the maximum value
of the resistor R2 is given by R2 Rmin . R2 Vm _ VGM .18:6. The same circuit also
is applicable for Triac. However, diode D1 has to be removed such that a trigger
signal will be available at the gate terminal during both half-cycles. Because the gate
of a Triac is not equally sensitive in all four of its modes ofswitching, a and hence
vo are usually different in the positive and negative ha f-cycles of the supply voltage.

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Gate Drive Circuits for Power MOSFETs

The input gate characteristics of a MOSFET differ from its bipolar counterparts. The
gate is isolated electrically from the source by a layer of silicon dioxide. Ideally, no
current flows into the gate when a dc voltage is applied.

However, a small leakage current (of the order of 10ÿ10 A) flows to maintain the
gate voltage and also during the transition periods (off-to on and on-to-off).
Therefore, a small current is enough to charge and discharge the device capacitances.
However, the device capacitances and gate-drive source impedance determine the
device switching speed. There are three capacitances and they are nonlinear and
voltage-dependent (Fig. 18.14). If the gate voltage is reduced to zero for turn-off
operation, VDS attains the supply voltage magnitude (VDD), the potential at D
swings from 0 to VDD and Cgd is charged up to to VDD (say, 100 V) through a low
gate source impedance (Rg ) as shown in Fig.
18.15a. Now if a gate drive signal is applied (higher than the threshold value), the
device will be on. Ideally, the voltage across D and S reduces to zero (neglecting
small VDS) and terminal D will swing to ground potential (which earlier was at
VDD. 100 V).
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 The decreasing VDS produces a feedback current (i . Cgd _ dVDS=dt) through Cgd
to the gate circuit as shown in Fig. b. This feedback mechanism is called the‘‘Miller
effect.’’ Thus, the source and sink capabilities of the gate drive are required: (i) due
to the charging and discharging of Cgs ; and (ii) due to the large swing in the gate-
to-drain voltage.

Although Cgs is an important parameter, Cgd is more significant due to the Miller
effect. As the source resistance (Rg ) is in series with Cgs and Cgd , the turn-on time
and the turn-off time are affected by this resistance. Therefore, both periods can be
controlled independently (Fig.). Similarly, a bipolar gate drive signal allows rapid
turn-on and turn-off. Low-power digital logic circuits (TTL or CMOS) can easily be
used to drive directly the gate of power MOSFET Fig. Because CMOS has limited
source current and sink current capabilities (2 and 4mA @ VDD . 12 V
respectively),the modest delay in rise time and fall time are expected due to the Miller
effect (charging and discharging current requirements). However, the CMOS IC can
directly drive the gate with required magnitude of the drive voltage. For a TTL device
with a totem pole output, the output voltage available is approximately
3.5 V (when Vcc . 5 V). This voltage (3.5 V) may be insufficient to drive the
MOSFET into the conduction mode. However, TTL has better source and sink
capabilities than its counterpart CMOS, which speeds up the switching

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Gate Drive Circuits for Power IGBTs

For inverter circuits and the like, it is necessary to electrically isolate the IGBT from
the control circuit. An example of a drive circuit using this principle, is shown below.
Fig.7-7 shows an example of a drive circuit using a high speed opto-coupler. By
using the opto-coupler, the input signal and the module are isolated from each other.
Also, since the opto-coupler does not limit the output pulse width, it is suitable for
changing pulse widths or PWM controllers, to wide ranges. It is currently the most
widely used. Furthermore, this way the turn-on and turn-off characteristics
determined by gate resistance can be set separately, so it commonly used to ensure
the best settings. Aside from the above, there is also a signal isolation method using
a pulse transformer. With this method the signal as well as the gate drive power can
both be supplied simultaneously from the signal side, thereby allowing circuit
simplification. However, this method has the limitations of an on/(off+on) time ratio
of max. 50%, and reverse bias cannot be set, so its usefulness as a control method
and switching frequency regulator is limited.

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Opto-coupler noise ruggedness
As IGBTs are high speed switching elements, it is necessary to select a opto-
coupler for drive circuit that has a high noise ruggedness (e.g. HCPL4504). Also, to
prevent malfunctions, make sure that the wiring from different sides doesn’t cross.
Furthermore, in order to make full use of the IGBT’s a high speed switching
capabilities, we recommend using a opto-coupler with a short signal transmission
delay.

Wiring between drive circuit and IGBT

If the wiring between the drive circuit and the IGBT is long, the IGBT may
malfunction due to gate signal oscillation or induced noise. A countermeasure for
this is shown below in Fig.7-8.
(1) Make the drive circuit wiring as short as possible and finely twist the gate and
emitter wiring. (Twist wiring)
(2) Increase RG. However, pay attention to switching time and switching loss.
(3) Separate the gate wiring and IGBT control circuit wiring as much as possible,
and set the layout so that they cross each other (in order to avoid mutual induction).
(4) Do not bundle together the gate wiring or other phases.

*1 RGE
If the gate circuit is bad or if the gate circuit is not operating (gate in open state)*2
and a voltage is applied to the power circuit, the IGBT may be destroyed. In order
to prevent this destruction, we recommend placing a 10kΩ resistance RGE between
the gate and emitter.
*2 Switch-on
When powering up, first switch on the gate circuit power supply and then when it is
fully operational, switch on the main circuit power supply.

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 Gate overvoltage protection
It is necessary that IGBT modules, like other MOS based elements, are sufficiently
protected against static electricity. Also, since the G-E absolute maximum rated
voltage is ±20V, if there is a possibility that a voltage greater than this may be
applied, then as a protective measure it is necessary to connect a zenner diode
between the gate and emitter as shown in Fig.

Conclusion:

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 Experiment: 3
Aim: To study state space modelling of linear systems.

Theory:

A number of ac converter modeling techniques have appeared in the literature,

including the current injected approach, circuit averaging, and the state-space
averaging method. Although the proponents of a given method may prefer to express
the end result in a specific form, the end results of nearly all methods are equivalent.
And everybody will agree that averaging and small-signal linearization are the key
steps in modeling PWM converters.

The state-space description is a canonical form for writing the differential equations
that describe a system. For a linear network, the derivatives of the state variables are
expressed as linear combinations of
the system independent inputs and the state variables themselves. The physical state
variables of a system are usually associated with the storage of energy, and for a
typical converter circuit, the physical state variables are the independent inductor
currents and capacitor voltages. Other typical state variables include the position and
velocity of a motor shaft. At a given point in time, the values of the state variables
depend on the previous history of the system, rather than on the present values of the
system inputs.

To solve the differential equations of the system, the initial values of the state
variables must be specified. So if we know the state of a system, that is, the values
of all of the state variables, at a given time and if we additionally know the system
inputs, then we can in principle solve the system state equations to find the system
waveforms at any future time.

Here, the state vector x(t) is a vector containing all of the state variables, that is, the
inductor currents, capacitor voltages, etc. The input vector u(t) contains the

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independent inputs to the system, such as theinput voltage source The derivative of
the state vector is a vector whose elements are equal to the derivatives of the
corresponding elements of the state vector:

In the standard form of Eq. , K is a matrix containing the values of capacitance,

inductance, and mutual inductance (if any), such that Kdx(t)/dt is a vector containing
the inductor winding voltages and
capacitor currents. In other physical systems, K may contain other quantities such as
moment of inertia or mass. Equation . states that the inductor voltages and capacitor
currents of the system can be expressed as linear combinations of the state variables
and the independent inputs. The matrices A and B contain constants of
proportionality.
It may also be desired to compute other circuit waveforms that do not coincide with
the elements of the state vector x(t) or the input vector u(t). These other signals are,
in general, dependent waveforms that can be expressed as linear combinations of the
elements of the state vector and input vector. The vector y(t) is usually called the
output vector. We are free to place any dependent signal in this vector, regardless of
whether the signal is actually a physical output. The converter input current is often
chosen to be an element of y(t). In the state equations , the elements of y(t) are
expressed as a linear combination of the elements of the x(t) and u(t) vectors. The
matrices C and E contain constants of proportionality.

As an example, let us write the state equations of the circuit of Fig.. This circuit
contains two capacitors and an inductor, and hence the physical state variables are
the independent capacitor voltages and as well as the inductor current i(t). So we can
define the state vector as

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The capacitor current is given by the node equation

It is also necessary to express the elements of as linear combinations of the

elements of x ( t ) and u(t).

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Conclusion:

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 Experiment: 4
Aim: To study modelling of various electrical machines.

Theory:

An ac drive is a device that is used to control the speed of an electrical motor. The
speed is controlled by changing the frequency of the electrical supply to the motor.
The three-phase voltage in the national electrical grid connected to a motor creates a
rotating magnetic field in it. The rotor of the electrical motor will follow this rotating
magnetic field.

An ac drive converts the frequency of the network to anything between 0 to 300Hz

or even higher, and thus controls the speed of motor proportionally to the frequency.
AC drives basic working principle:

1. AC drives are used to stepless speed control of squirrel cage induction motors
mostly used in process plants due to its ruggedness and maintenance free long
life.
2. AC drive control speed of ac motor by varying output voltage and frequency
through sophisticated microprocessor-controlled electronics device.
3. AC drive consists of Rectifier and inverter units. Rectifier converts AC in DC
voltage and inverter converts DC voltage back in AC voltage

As the AC drive provides the frequency and voltage of output necessary to

control the speed of an AC motor, this is done through PWM VFDs. PWM
drives produce pulses of varying widths which are combined to build the
required waveform. A diode bridge is used in some converters to reduce
harmonics. PWM drives produce a current waveform that more closely
matches a line source, which reduces undesired heating. PWM VFD have
almost constant power factor at all speeds which is closely to unity.

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 Thus the carrier frequency is derived from the speed of the power device
switch remains ON and OFF. It is also called switching frequency. Therefore
higher the carrier frequency higher the resolution for PWM contains. The
typical carrier frequency ranges from 3KHz to 4 KHz or 3000 to 4000 times
per second as compared with older SCR based carrier frequency which ranges
from 250 to 500 times per second. Thus it is clear as much as higher the carrier
frequency higher will be the resolution of output waveform. It is also noted
that the carrier frequency decreases the efficiency of the VFD because it led
to increase the heat of the VFD circuit.

The technology consists of:

- Rectifier unit: The ac drive is supplied by the electrical network via a rectifier. The
rectifier unit can be uni- or bidirectional. When unidirectional, the ac drive can
accelerate and run the motor by taking energy from the network. If bidirectional, the
ac drive can also take the mechanical rotation energy from the motor and process and
feed it back to the electrical network.

- Dc circuit: The dc circuit will store the electrical energy from the rectifier for the
inverter to use. In most cases, the energy is stored in high-power capacitors.
- Inverter unit: The inverter unit takes the electrical energy from the dc circuit and
supplies it to the motor. The inverter uses modulation techniques to create the needed
three-phase ac voltage output for the motor. The frequency can be adjusted to match
the need of the process. The higher the frequency of the output voltage is, the higher
the speed of the motor, and thus, the output of the process.

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The types of motors that ac drives control are normally operating at constant speed.
Enabling the user to control the speed of motor potentially gives him various benefits
in terms of process control, system stress and energy savings.
- Process control: controlling the process output to match the need; synchronising
different parts of the main process to secure smooth flow between subprocesses;
easily changing the setup when the process requirements change.
- In system stress: Reducing the start-up current, which allows use of smaller fuses
and supply connections and reduces peak loads on the electrical network; Reducing
the mechanical shock in start and stop situations.
- Energy: Saving electrical energy compared to traditional methods of process
control. For instance in pump and fan applications, energy savings are typically 20-
50 per cent.

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<Rotor speed (wm)>

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Conclusion:

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 Experiment: 4

Aim: To simulate single phase and three phase uncontrolled rectifiers with
different loads.

Theory:

Rectification converts an oscillating sinusoidal AC voltage source into a constant

current DC voltage supply by means of diodes, thyristors, transistors, or
converters. This rectifying process can take on many forms with half-wave, full-
wave, uncontrolled and fully-controlled rectifiers transforming a single-phase or
three-phase supply into a constant DC level. In this tutorial we will look at single-
phase rectification and all its forms.
Rectifiers are one of the basic building blocks of AC power conversion with half-
wave or full-wave rectification generally performed by semiconductor diodes.
Diodes allow alternating currents to flow through them in the forward direction
while blocking current flow in the reverse direction creating a fixed DC voltage
level making them ideal for rectification.
However, direct current which has been rectified by diodes is not as pure as that
obtained from say, a battery source, but has voltage changes in the form of ripples
superimposed on it as a result of the alternating supply.

This bridge configuration of diodes provides full-wave rectification because at

any time two of the four diodes are forward biased while the other two are reverse
biased. Thus there are two diodes in the conduction path instead of the single one
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for the half-wave rectifier. Therefore there will be a difference in voltage
amplitude between V IN and VOUT due to the two forward voltage drops of the
serially connected diodes. Here as before, for simplicity of the maths we will
assume ideal diodes.
So how does the single phase full-wave rectifier work. During the positive half
cycle of VIN, diodes D1 and D4 are forward biased while diodes D 2 and D3 are
reverse biased. Then for the positive half cycle of the input waveform, current
flows along the path of: D1 – A – RL – B – D4 and back to the supply.
During the negative half cycle of VIN, diodes D3 and D2 are forward biased while
diodes D4 and D1 are reverse biased. Then for the negative half cycle of the input
waveform, current flows along the path of: D 3 – A – RL – B – D2 and back to the
supply.
In both cases the positive and negative half-cycles of the input waveform produce
positive output peaks regardless of polarity of input waveform and as such the
load current, ialways flows in the SAME direction through the load, R L between
points or nodes A and B. Thus the negative half-cycle of the source becomes a
positive half-cycle at load.
So whichever set of diodes are conducting, node A is always more positive than
node B. Therefore the load current and voltage are unidirectional or DC giving us
the following output waveform.

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Conclusion:

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 Experiment: 5

Aim: To simulate single phase and three phase-controlled rectifiers with different
loads.

Theory:

The three phase fully controlled bridge converter has been probably the most widely used
power electronic converter in the medium to high power applications. Three phase circuits
are preferable when large power is involved. The controlled rectifier can provide
controllable out put dc voltage in a single unit instead of a three phase autotransformer
and a diode bridge rectifier. The controlled rectifier is obtained by replacing the diodes
of the uncontrolled rectifier with thyristors. Control over the output dc voltage is obtained
by controlling the conduction interval of each thyristor. This method is known as phase
control and converters are also called “phase controlled converters”. Since thyristors can
block voltage in both directions it is possible to reverse the polarity of the output dc
voltage and hence feed power back to the ac supply from the dc side. Under such
condition the converter is said to be operating in the “inverting mode”. The thyristors in
the converter circuit are commutated with the help of the supply voltage in the rectifying
mode of operation and are known as “Line commutated converter”.

The same circuit while operating in the inverter mode requires load side counter emf. for
commutation and are referred to as the “Load commutated inverter”. In phase controlled
rectifiers though the output voltage can be varied continuously the load harmonic voltage
increases considerably as the average value goes down. Of course the magnitude of
harmonic voltage is lower in three phase converter compared to the single phase circuit.
Since the frequency of the harmonic voltage is higher smaller load inductance leads to
continuous conduction. Input current wave shape become rectangular and contain 5th and
higher order odd harmonics.

The displacement angle of the input current increases with firing angle. The frequency
of the harmonic voltage and current can be increased by increasing the pulse number of
the converter which can be achieved by series and parallel connection of basic 6 pulse
converters. The control circuit become considerably complicated and the use of coupling
transformer and / or interphase reactors become mandatory. With the introduction of high
power IGBTs the three phase bridge converter has all but been replaced by dc link voltage
source converters in the medium to moderately high power range. However in very high
power application (such as HV dc transmission system, cycloconverter drives, load
commutated inverter synchronous motor drives, static scherbius drives etc.) the basic B
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phase bridge converter block is still used. In this lesson the operating principle and
characteristic of this very important converter topology will be discussed in source depth.

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Conclusion:

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 Experiment: 6

Aim: To simulate various chopper circuits.

Theory:

DC to DC converter is very much needed nowadays as many industrial applications

are dependent upon DC voltage source. The performance of these applications will
be improved if we use a variable DC supply. It will help to improve controllability
of the equipments also. Examples of such applications are subway cars, trolley
buses, batteryoperated vehicles etc. We can control and vary a constant DC voltage
with the chopper.
Chopper is a basically static power electronics device which converts fixed DC
voltage/power to variable DC voltage or power. It is nothing but a high speed switch
which connects and disconnects the load from source at a high rate to get variable
or chopped voltage at the output.

Chopper can increase or decrease the DC voltage level at its opposite side. So,
chopper serves the same purpose in DC circuit transfers in case of ac circuit. So it is
also known as DC transformer.

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31
• First Quadrant
During the first quadrant operation the chopper CH4 will be on . Chopper CH3 will
be off and CH1 will be operated. AS the CH1 and CH4 is on the load voltage
v0 will be equal to the source voltage V s  and the load current i0  will begin to
flow . v 0 and i0 will be positive as the first quadrant operation is taking place. As
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soon as the chopper CH1 is turned off, the positive current freewheels through
CH4 and the diode D2 . The type E chopper acts as a step- down chopper in the
first quadrant.

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• Second Quadrant

In this case the chopper CH2 will be operational and the other three are kept off.
As CH2 is on negative current will starts flowing through the inductor L . CH2
,E and D4. Energy is stored in the inductor L as the chopper CH2 is on. When CH2
is off the current will be fed back to the source through the diodes D1 and D4.Here
(E+L.di/dt) will be more than the source voltage Vs  . In second quadrant the
chopper will act as a step-up chopper as the power is fed back from load to source

• Third Quadrant

In third quadrant operation CH1 will be kept off , CH2 will be on and CH3 is
operated. For this quadrant working the polarity of the load should be reversed. As
the chopper CH3 is on, the load gets connected to the source Vs and v0 and
i0 will be negative  and the third quadrant operation will takes place. This chopper
acts as a step-down chopper

• Fourth Quadrant

CH4 will be operated and CH1, CH2 and CH3 will be off. When the chopper CH4
is turned on positive current starts to flow through CH4, D2 ,E and the inductor L
will store energy. As the CH4 is turned off the current is feedback to the source
through the diodes D2 and D3 , the operation will be in fourth quadrant as the load
voltage is negative but the load current is positive. The chopper acts as a step up
chopper as the power is fed back from load to source.

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35
Conclusion :-

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 Experiment: 7
Aim: To simulate converter fed DC motor drive.

Theory:

If the source of supply is d.c. (for example in a battery vehicle or a rapid transit system) a
chopper-type converter is usually employed. The basic operation of a single-switch chopper
was discussed in Chapter 2, where it was shown that the average output voltage could be
varied by periodically switching the battery voltage on and off for varying intervals. The
principal difference between the thyristor-controlled rectifier and the chopper is that in the
former the motor current always flows through the supply,whereas in the latter, the motor
current only flows from the supply terminals for part of each cycle.

A single-switch chopper using a transistor, MOSFET or IGBT can only supply positive
voltage and current to a d.c. motor, and is therefore restricted to quadrant 1 motoring
operation. When regenerative and/or rapid speed reversal is called for, more complex
circuitry is required, involving two or more power switches, and consequently leading
to increased cost.

Many different circuits are used and it is not possible to go into detail here, though it
should be mentioned that the chopper circuit discussed in Chapter 2 only provides an
output voltage in the range 0 < E, where E is the battery voltage, so this type of chopper
is only suitable if the motor voltage is less than the battery voltage. Where the motor
voltage is greater than the battery voltage, a 'step-up' chopper using an additional
inductance as an intermediate energy store is used.

Performance of chopper-fed d.c. motor drives

We saw earlier that the d.c. motor performed almost as well when fed from a phase-
controlled rectifier as it does when supplied with pure d.c. The chopper-fed motor is,
if anything, rather better than the phase-controlled, because the armature current ripple
can be less if a high chopping frequency is used.

Typical waveforms of armature voltage and current are shown in Figure 4.13(c): these
are drawn with the assumption that the switch is ideal. A chopping frequency of around
100 Hz, as shown in Figure 4.13, is typical of medium and large chopper drives, while
small drives often use a much higher chopping frequency, and thus have lower ripple
current. As usual, we have assumed that the speed remains constant despite the slightly
pulsating torque, and that the armature current is continuous.

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The shape of the armature voltage waveform reminds us that when the transistor is
switched on, the battery voltage V is applied directly to the armature, and during this
period the path of the armature current is indicated by the dotted line in Figure 4.13(a).
For the remainder of the cycle the transistor is turned 'off ' and the current freewheels
through the diode, as shown by the dotted line in Figure 4.13(b). When the current is
freewheeling through the diode, the armature voltage is clamped at (almost) zero.

The speed of the motor is determined by the average armature voltage, (Vdc), which in
turn depends on the proportion of the total cycle time (T) for which the transistor is
'on'. If the on and off times are defined as Ton= kT and Toff = (1 - k)T, where 0 < k < 1,
then the average voltage is simply given by

Vdc = kV

from which we see that speed control is effected via the on time ratio, k.
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39
Conclusion:

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 Experiment: 8
Aim: To simulate chopper fed DC motor drive.

Theory:

A DC shunt motor (also known as a shunt wound DC motor) is a type of self-

excited DC motor where the field windings are shunted to or are connected in
parallel to the armature winding of the motor. Since they are connected in parallel,
the armature and field windings are exposed to the same supply voltage. Though
there are separate branches for the flow of armature current and field current – as
shown in the figure of below.

A very important and interesting fact about the DC shunt motor, is in its ability to
self-regulate its speed on the application of the load to the shaft of the rotor
terminals. This essentially means that on switching the motor running condition
from no load to loaded, surprisingly there is no considerable change in speed of
running, as would be expected in the absence of any speed regulating modifications
from outside. Let us see how?
Let us do a step-wise analysis to understand it better.

1. Initially considering the motor to be running under no load or lightly loaded

condition at a speed of N rpm.
2. On adding a load to the shaft, the motor does slow down initially, but this is
where the concept of self regulation comes into the picture.
3. At the very onset of load introduction to a shunt wound DC motor, the
speed definitely reduces, and along with speed also reduces the back emf,
Eb. Since Eb 𝖺 N, given by,

4.
This can be graphically explained below.

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DC drive technology is efficient, reliable, cost effective, operator friendly and
relatively easy to implement. DC drive provides many advantages over AC drives,
especially for regenerative and high power applications. DC drives have been
widely used in industrial drive applications in order to offer very precise control.

DC drive is basically a DC motor speed control system that supplies the voltage to
the motor to operate at desired speed. Earlier, the variable DC voltage for the speed
control of an industrial DC motor was generated by a DC generator.

By using an induction motor, the DC generator was driven at a fixed speed and by
varying the field of the generator, variable voltage was generated. Soon after this
Ward Leonard set was replaced by a mercury arc rectifier and later by thyristor
converters. Nowadays, the thyristor family of devices is used widely to control the
speed of the DC motor

The main components of a DC drive system are

DC Drive Input: Some thyristor based DC drives operate on a single phase supply
and use four thyristors for full wave rectification. For larger motors, three phase
power supply is needed because the waveforms are much smoother. In such cases,
six thyristors are needed for full wave rectification.

Rectifier Bridge: The power component of a controlled DC drive is a full wave

bridge rectifier which can be driven by three phase or single phase supply. As
mentioned above the number of thyristor may vary depends on the supply voltage.
A six-thyristor bridge (in case of three phase converter) rectifies the incoming AC
supply to DC supply to the motor armature. The firing angle control of these
thyristors varies the voltage to the motor.
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Field Supply Unit: The power to be applied to the field winding is much lower
than the armature power, so, most often single phase supply is provided. A separate
thyristor bridge or diode rectifier is used for supplying the power to the field
winding of the motor.
In many cases a two-phase supply is drawn from the three phase input (that supplies
power to the armature) and hence the field exciter is included in the armature supply
unit.

The function of the field supply unit is to provide a constant voltage to the field
winding to create a constant field or flux in the motor. In some cases, this unit is
supplied with thyristors to reduce the voltage applied to the field so as to control
the speed of the motor above the base speed.

In case of permanent magnet DC motors, the field supply unit is not included in the
drive.

Speed Regulation unit: It compares the operator instruction (desired speed) with
feedback signals and sends appropriate signals to the firing circuit. In analog drives,
this regulator unit consists of both voltage and current regulators. The voltage
regulator accepts the speed error as input and produces the voltage output which is
then applied to the current regulator.

The current regulator then produces required firing current to the firing circuit. If
more speed is required, additional current is called from the voltage regulator and
hence thyristors conducts for more periods. Generally, this regulation (both voltage
and current) is accomplished with proportional-integral-derivative controllers.

The field current regulator is also provided where speed greater than the base speed
is required.

In modern digital microprocessor based drives, the speed control is achieved with
a lookup table to determine the current for the firing circuit with additional digital
circuitry.

Firing Circuit: It supplies the gate pulses to thyristors so that they turned ON for
particular periods to produce variable armature voltage. Isolation is also provided
in this gate drive circuit.
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44
Conclusion:

45
 Experiment: 9
Aim: To simulate single phase inverter using SCR.

Theory:

A single phase bridge DC-AC inverter is shown in Figure below. The analysis of the
single phase DC-AC inverters is done taking into account following assumptions and
conventions.
1) The current entering node a in Figure 8 is considered to be positive.
2) The switches S1, S2, S3 and S4 are unidirectional, i.e. they conduct current in one
direction.

When the switches S1 and S2 are turned on simultaneously for a duration 0 ≤ t ≤ T1 ,

the the input voltage Vin appears across the load and the current flows from point a to
b.

Q1 – Q2 ON, Q3 – Q4 OFF ==> ν o = Vs

If the switches S3 and S4 turned on duration T1 ≤ t ≤ T2, the voltage across the load
the load is reversed and the current through the load flows from point b to a. Q1
– Q2 OFF, Q3 – Q4 ON ==> ν o = -Vs
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The output RMS voltage

The fundamental RMS output voltage obtained from

Fourier series of output voltage

47
Conclusion:

48
 Experiment: 10
Aim: To simulate three phase inverter using SCR.

Theory:

The 3-phase bridge type VSI with square wave pole voltages has been considered. The
output from this inverter is to be fed to a 3-phase balanced load. Figure below shows
the power circuit of the three-phase inverter. This circuit may be identified as
three single-phase half-bridge inverter circuits put across the same dc bus. The
individual pole voltages of the 3-phase bridge circuit are identical to the square pole
voltages output by single-phase half bridge or full bridge circuits. The three pole
voltages of the 3-phase square wave inverter are shifted in time by one third of the
output time period.

As in a single-phase square-wave inverter, switches in each leg of the three-phase

inverter operate in a complementary manner. When upper switch of a leg is on the
lower switch will need to block the entire dc bus voltage and vice versa. Thus the
switches must be rated to block the worst-case instantaneous magnitude of dc bus
voltage. Hence the switches must be rated to withstand the peak expected magnitude
of instantaneous load-phase current.

For a non-unity power factor load, the diode connected in anti-parallel with the switch
will conduct part of the switch current. The distribution of current between the diode
and the controlled switch will depend on the load power factor at the operating
frequency. In general both diode as well as the controlled switch should be rated to
carry the peak load current. These diodes also need to block a peak reverse voltage
equal to worst case voltage across the switches.

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Applications of a 3-phase square wave inverter

(i) A low cost solid-state frequency changer circuit: This circuit converts the 3-
phase ac (input) voltages of one frequency to 3-phase ac (output) voltages of the
desired frequency. The input ac is first converted into dc and then converted back to
ac of new frequency. The square wave inverter discussed in this lesson may be used
for dc to ac conversion. Such a circuit may, for example, convert 3-phase ac voltages
of 50 Hz to 3-phase ac voltages of 60 Hz. The input to this circuit could as well have
come from a single-phase supply, in which case the single-phase ac is first converted
into dc and then converted back to 3-phase ac of the desired frequency.
(ii) An uninterrupted power supply circuit: Uninterrupted power supply circuits are
used to provide uninterrupted power to some critical load. Here a critical loadrequiring
3-phase ac supply of fixed magnitude and frequency has been considered. Incase ac
mains supply fails, the 3-phase load may be electronically switched, within few
milliseconds, to the output of the 3-phase square wave inverter. Input dc supply of the
inverter often comes from a battery bank.

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Conclusion:

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