DIPLOMA IN ARCHITECTURE

MODULE III: UNIT: ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING & MANAGEMENT

TOPIC 4: PLANNING OF HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
LECTURER:
A) Introduction:

Human settlement refers to an organized human habitation. It can be a single home or a bustling
metropolis. A settlement, locality or populated place is a community in which people live. A
settlement can range in size from a small number of dwellings grouped together to the largest of
cities with surrounding urbanized areas. Settlements may include hamlets, villages, towns and
cities. To distinguish between different types of settlements, people often classify settlements as
either urban or rural.

Urban settlements are usually large. That is, they are densely populated with many people. Rural
settlements, on the other hand, are generally small. That is, they are sparsely populated. There's a
low density of population, so there are few people in rural settlements. Often, urban settlements
have mostly non-agricultural occupations, while rural settlements have mostly agricultural
occupations. For example, many farmers live in a sparsely populated area, and far fewer of them
live in a densely populated city.

Urbanization is a process of town formation and growth, which is occasioned by population

increase, both natural and migratory, and spatial expansion of settlements to accommodate
increasing population. Urbanization process is unstoppable, irreversible, and is taking place
largely in developing world. In 2003 the global urban population was estimated to be at 3 billion,
while half of the world population or 3.3 billion people lived in urban areas in 2008.
B) Land use and zoning structure:
-Zoning:

Zoning is the process of dividing land in a municipality into zones (e.g. residential, industrial) in
which certain land uses are permitted or prohibited. The type of zone determines whether
planning permission for a given development is granted. Zoning may specify a variety of
outright and conditional uses of land. It may also indicate the size and dimensions of land area as
well as the form and scale of buildings. These guidelines are set in order to guide urban growth
and development. Zoning is the primary tool that guides land use in most urban areas. It should
be flexible to accommodate the needs of a dynamic society.

The zoning process considers: nature of development e.g. residential, industrial, the suitability of
the area in which the development is to be undertaken, the impact of the development to the
public health and to the environment, the market demand for the land uses. Zoning can be in

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terms of performance that developments are expected to meet before they are allowed to take
place in a given area. Zoning can also offer restrictions to certain areas to only accommodate
certain land uses e.g. industrial, residential. Zoning can also offer segregation to developments
based on heights of buildings that are allowed, permitted to be put up in certain areas.

Areas of land are divided by appropriate authorities into zones within which various uses are
permitted. Thus, zoning is a technique of land-use planning as a tool of urban planning used by
local governments in most developed countries. The word is derived from the practice of
designating mapped zones which regulate the use, form, design and compatibility of
development. Legally, a zoning plan is usually enacted as a by-law with the respective
procedures. There are a great variety of zoning types, some of which focus on regulating
building form and the relation of buildings to the street with mixed-uses, known as form-based,
others with separating land uses, known as use-based or a combination thereof. Similar urban
planning methods have dictated the use of various areas for particular purposes in many cities
from ancient times

The primary purpose of zoning is to segregate uses that are thought to be incompatible. In
practice, zoning also is used to prevent new development from interfering with existing uses
and/or to preserve the "character" of a community. However, it has not always been an effective
method for achieving this goal. Zoning is commonly controlled by local governments such as
counties or municipalities, though the nature of the zoning regime may be determined or limited
by state or national planning authorities or through enabling legislation. Zoning may include
regulation of the kinds of activities which will be acceptable on particular lots (such as open
space, residential, agricultural, commercial or industrial), the densities at which those activities
can be performed (from low-density housing such as single family homes to high-density such as
high-rise apartment buildings), the height of buildings, the amount of space structures may
occupy, the location of a building on the lot (setbacks), the proportions of the types of space on a
lot, such as how much landscaped space, impervious surface, traffic lanes, and whether or not
parking is provided. Most zoning systems have a procedure for granting variances (exceptions to
the zoning rules), usually because of some perceived hardship caused by the particular nature of
the property in question.

Aims/benefits of zoning:

• Ensures orderly and efficient development.

• Ensures stability of values of development/property. For example putting up of flats in
Lavington forcing some people out thereby leading to stagnation of land values.
• Environmental protection.
• Ensure public convenience and comfort e.g. public spaces like parks.
• Lessen congestion and overloading of physical facilities e.g. sewerage system, transport
channels.
• Enhances environmental quality through provision of adequate lighting and air
circulation.
• Enhances public health and safety by isolating causes of hazards.

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Problems/pitfalls of zoning
It should be appreciated that zoning is not a solution for all a cities land use problems. Overly
restrictive zoning can lead to many problems e.g.
• Stagnant development climate and economic decline.
• Promote social and economic segregation by making housing expensive.
• Arbitrary and unreasonable e.g. regulation on architecture.
• Enforcement problem-capacity limitation of enforcing agencies leading to residential and
other developments encroaching on transportation areas.
• Complex nature of land uses-what may be applied in one place may not be applicable in
another area as there may be conflicts.
Types of land uses:
There are many types of land uses that are considered in zoning. The types include recreational,
transport, agricultural, residential, and commercial.
• Residential: land is used for housing. This can be low density housing like suburban
homes, or high density housing, like an apartment complex with dozens of floors. The
key is that these areas are specifically for providing people with places to live.

• Commercial areas: This category includes all types of wholesale, retail and service
activities serving areas larger than neighborhoods. The following are in this category.
-Major Central Business Districts in urbanized areas
-Minor Central Business District in less urbanized areas
-Highway Service Centers or Commercial Strips such as highway gas stations,
traveler's inn and restaurants.

• Institutional Areas: It covers the major public and semi-public uses like educational,
cultural, religious, health, protective and government services. Institutional land uses are
mostly associated with land that is occupied by public buildings such as schools,
universities, government office buildings, art galleries, and museums.
• Industrial uses: It includes manufacturing, refining, fabricating, assembly, storage,
parking and other incidental uses including food processing, cottage industry, sawmills,
rice mills, steel mills, chemical processing plants, etc. Also included are the proposed
industrial estates/subdivision. Industrial land uses are extremely varied, depending on
the nature of the industry being considered. Urban-industrial land usage generally refers
to the siting of factories or petroleum refineries, and of utilities such as electricity
generating stations, and water- and sewage-treatment facilities. Industrial land use in
rural areas can include mines, smelters, and mills for the production of ores and metals;
mines and wellfields for the production of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas;
and large water-holding reservoirs for the production of hydroelectricity.

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 • Agricultural land, which is used for growing crops and rearing animals, is the oldest
human use of land. All humans need food, so this is vital. With increased efficiency, less
land and fewer people are needed to produce our food, but we also have more people to
provide for.

• Recreational land is used for human pleasure. This mostly includes parks, museums,
sports grounds, and the sites of other activities that aren't essential to life but are
pleasurable. Cities often specifically plan these things to make sure their cities are attractive
to people - both visitors and residents.

• Open Space: The so called “non-functional open spaces” and includes lands reserved for
greenbelts and buffer zones; and other vacant lands reserved for specific or functional
purposes.

• Transport land is used for roads, railways, subways, or airports: anything that transports
people or goods. These are like the circulatory system of the modern world, and
necessary for all the other land uses to operate effectively.

Development control:
"Development" means carrying out any works on land or making any material change in the use
of any structures on the land. "Development control" means the process of managing or
regulating the carrying out of any works on land or making of any material change in the use of
any land or structures and ensuring that operations on land conform to spatial development plans
as well as policy guidelines, regulations and standards issued by the planning authority from time
to time in order to achieve a purposeful utilization of land in the interest of the general welfare of
the public.
The objectives of development control according to The Physical Planning Bill, 2015 to
are:
(a) To ensure orderly physical development;
(b) To ensure optimal land use;
(c) To ensure the proper execution and implementation of approved physical development plans;
(d) To protect and conserve the environment;
(e) To promote public participation in physical development decision-making.
(f) To ensure orderly and planned building development, planning, design, construction,
operation and maintenance.

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Development control guidelines
• Plot size: According to the Physical Planning Bill (CAP 286), the plot size affects the
housing density. It states that:

-The size of plot within the area shown on any structure plan, development plan, advisory
plan, zoning plan, subdivision plan approved by the Minister and adopted by the local
authority shall not be subdivided into smaller sub-plots than the minimum specified
thereon for the area within which the plot is situated without the consent of the Director.

-The minimum size of the plot or sub-plot prescribed for any area may be increased to a
satisfactory extent if such minimum size is inconsistent with the amenity of the environs
of any plot or portion of the area or if such increase is necessary for the proper
development of the plot or sub-plot and if the nature of the ground necessitates large plots
or sub-plots to obtain good hygienic conditions.

The justification for regulating density is similar to that for the regulation of height and coverage.
Indirectly, the control of density may insure adequate light and air, may eliminate congestion
with its attendant fire and traffic hazards, and may contribute to the creation of a neighborhood
of pleasing homogeneity. A more positive reason for controlling density is that such control
permits adequate planning of community facilities and utilities on the basis of the number of
families per acre. Where density is regulated, it is often more possible to predict the future
requirements for school facilities, for sewer and water system capacities, and for the many other
facilities affected by population density.
Although the right to control density is securely held and is seldom questioned, certain standards
of density have been questioned. How large a minimum lot area per family may a community
require and still have its zoning ordinance sustained as reasonable

• Plot coverage ratio/Lot coverage ratio: Plot coverage is the extent of plot covered by
the building(s) or structure and this is expressed in terms of percentage. It is actually a
ratio of the built-up area over plot area. The concept behind imposing a ceiling on the
footprint of the proposed construction is to ensure that every plot gets sufficient sunlight,
air, privacy and rainwater. Rain water harvesting will facilitate recharge of aquifer and
help in promoting greenery around. The plot coverage is computed by taking into account
all the projections at upper levels. Broadly speaking, it is the area of the shadow of the
proposed building at noon, which is expressed in percentage of the plot area. It is to be
noted that the plot coverage restriction has no bearing on the profile of a building.
Lot Coverage Percentage: lot coverage is the percentage of lot area that is covered by impervious
cover. It includes all the impervious cover/surfaces e.g. pools, sidewalks, driveways, building
coverage. Impervious cover is Any structure, surface or improvement that reduces and/or prevents

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absorption of storm water into land. Porous paving, paver blocks, gravel, crushed stone, crushed
shell, elevated structures (including boardwalks), and other similar structures, surfaces or
improvements are considered impervious cover. Grass, lawns or any other vegetation are not
considered impervious cover.

Lot Coverage Percentage =

(Total Lot Coverage) / (Lot Area) X (100%)

• Building coverage – The percentage of the lot area that is covered by building area,
which includes the total horizontal area when viewed in plan.

Building Coverage Percentage =

(Total Building Coverage) / (Lot Area) X (100%)

Floor coverage ratio: Floor area ratio (FAR) is the measurement of a building’s floor area in
relation to the size of the lot/parcel that the building is located on. FAR is expressed as a decimal
number, and is derived by dividing the total area of the building by the total area of the parcel
(building area ÷ lot area). FAR is an effective way to calculate the bulk or mass of building
volume on a development site, and is often used in conjunction with other development
standards such as building heights, lot coverage and lot area to encourage a community’s desired
arrangement and form of development.

Purpose and role in planning: FAR is most often used to express development intensity of non-
residential land uses, and integrated into a community’s zoning and other land development
controls. FAR can be used to either limit the intensity of land use to lessen the environmental
impacts of development or to control the mass and scale of development. In addition, by
referencing characteristics for a given land use such as number of employees and number of
vehicle or transit trips per square foot of building space, FARs can estimate the potential impact
of a proposed development scenario. FAR is sometimes used as an analytical tool for projecting
the impact of different land use and development intensity scenarios.

• Building height: Building height is used as a zoning tool in terms of vertical zoning.
This involves segregation of developments based on their height. This is done to ensure
adequate space for basic requirements e.g. privacy, light, sewerage disposal, air
circulation.

• Set back rules: Line setbacks are areas of land which act as reserves within which certain
land uses mainly constructions are not allowed to take place. They are left along

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 streets/highways and water bodies. They are referred to as setbacks or building lines if they
are left along streets/highways. They are referred to as riparian reserves if found along
waterbodies. When applied to built up areas they refer to the area of the lot/plot within
which a building may not be put up.

Aims of setbacks include:

-Reduce density hence prevent congestion by limiting the area of the lots which are to be
utilized.
-Reduce pollution from vehicles in form of noise, dust, smoke that would reach the
buildings.
-Provide sidewalks in commercial districts.
-Ensure adequate natural lighting, air circulation.
-Reduce pollution of water bodies by human settlements e.g., through direct surface runoff.
-Prevent the destruction of wildlife habitat along rivers and other water bodies and thus
enhance ecosystems.

For a special building, the mandatory regulations in terms of the spaces to be left between the
proposed construction and the boundary of the plot/The setback spaces ensure sufficient light, air
and privacy not only for the occupants of the proposed building but also to the immediate
neighbours. They also facilitate movement of vehicles around the building including fire tenders
in case of an emergency. Besides, they provide spaces for parking vehicles. In some cases, they
promote landscaping around the building. In addition, sewer lines with necessary inspection
chambers are normally laid out in the open spaces around the building.
Side Set Backs are spaces to be left at the sides of a building and are governed by the height of a
building proposed. The rules stipulate that they shall be a minimum of one-third the height of the
building subject to a minimum of 3.5m. The Side Set Back need not be necessarily the same on
both sides. Example: For a building of 15m height, the side Set Back can be 3.5m on one side
and 6.5m on the other side. By this option, a developer would be able to accommodate vehicles
parking on the side having more width.
“building line” means a line drawn across a plot such that no building or permanent structure,
except a wall of approved design enclosing the plot, may be within the area contained between
that line and the nearest road on which the plot has frontage;

Development application:
A development application is a request for permission from the local authority e.g. county
government in order for one to undertake development. The application may involve change of
user, extension of user, subdivision, amalgamation, building plans, processing of easements, way

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leaves for provision of utility service infrastructure, advertisements and any other development
that involves material change on land. The request for the development may be granted or
rejected. The following require a development permission before they are carried out.

• Subdivision: This refers to parceling/dividing of land into two or more portions.

• Amalgamation: Entails combination of two or more parcels of land into one.
• Change of use: A change of use is any alteration in the use, purpose or level of activity
within any land or building that involves material change which does not conform to the
existing plans and policies. This change requires a development permission.
• Extension of use: This refers to introduction of a new user in addition to the existing use
within the same building or site while maintaining the dominance of the existing use. The
additional use should be compatible with the existing use and neighborhood character.
• Extension of lease/renewal of lease: An application foe extension/renewal of lease will
be prepared by a registered physical planner.
• Temporary use permits: This category includes applications that entail for example
closing a road for a marathon, using a park for social, religious or political event etc.

• Easements and way-leaves:

A way-leave is a means of providing rights to a utility provider to install and retain
cabling or piping across private land in return for annual payment to the land owner. It is
normally a temporary arrangement and does not automatically transfer to a new owner or
occupier.

An easement provides similar access rights for installing and maintaining infrastructure
equipment but for a one-off payment and it provides permanent access. An easement can
be registered at a land registry in order to ensure future owners of the land adhere to it.
The services that provide essential services that require easements and way leaves include
telecommunications, electric power supply, water and sewerage networks, oil and gas
pipelines.
• Building plans: Building plans are drawings used to guide construction of new
buildings, major repairs, alterations, redevelopments.
The Director of Physical Planning shall refuse to recommend any new building or proposed
development, or alteration or addition to any existing building if:
(a) The proposal is not in conformity with approved development plans.
(b) Such plan discloses a contravention of these Rules or the provisions of any written law.
(c) The plans are not correctly drawn or omit to show information required under these Rules.
(d) On such being required, a separate application accompanied by sets of plans has not been
lodged in respect of buildings on separate plots or sub-plots.

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(e) The land or the proposed building or structure is to be used for any purpose or purposes
which might be calculated to depreciate the value of the neighbouring property or interfere with
the convenience or comfort of neighbouring occupants.
(f) The proposed building or land use is unsuitable, injurious to amenities or detrimental in
respect of appearance or dignity or fails to comply with physical planning requirements in regard
to siting, design, height, elevation, size shape, structure or appearance.
(g) The building is likely to become objectionable on any environmental grounds.
(h) Roads of access, parking bays, vehicular and pedestrian circulation spaces or other services to
the plot or premises are inadequate.
(i) The building is not sited in a satisfactory position.
(j) The site on which it is proposed to build is unfit or unsuitable for the erection thereon of the
building proposed to be erected.
k) The system of drainage including soil, waste and surface water of the plot or sub-plot upon
which the building is to or stands, is not satisfactory.
(l) Provision has not been made for adequate natural light and ventilation.
(m) Any other physical planning issue is not addressed.
Role of county governments in planning and development control

County Governments are responsible for development control. Subject to the provisions of the
Physical Planning Bill, 2015 Act and the Urban Areas and Cities Act, 20l1, and the County
Governments Act, 2012, each county government may, in the area under its jurisdiction-

(a) Control or prohibit the use or development of land or buildings for the proper and orderly
development of the area;
(b) Control or prohibit the sub-division of land or existing parcels of property.
(c) Consider and approve applications all development
(d) Grant development permissions to applicants;
(e) Ensure compliance with the provisions of this Act or any other relevant written law.
(f) Protect and preserve all land reserved or open spaces, parks, urban forests and green belts.

Any development permission which requires change of user, extension of use, extension of,lease,
land re-adjustment, amalgamation, subdivision into more than two plots or which involves
multiple uses should be carried out by a registered physical planner.

Aspects of development control.

According to the Physical Planning Bill, 2015, development control process and procedures may
relate to any of the following-
(a) Change of user
(b) Extension of users
(c) Extension of lease

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(d) Subdivision scheme and amalgamation proposals
(e) Building Plans
(f) Processing of easements and way-leaves
(g) Siting of education institutions, base transmission station, petrol stations, eco lodges, camp
sites, power generation Plants, factories
(h) Advertisement.

Consideration of change/extension of user

The following factors shall be considered in the determination of change and extension of user-
(a) Provisions of an approved physical development Plan
(b) Probable effects on the character of the neighborhood
(c) Effects on vehicular and pedestrian safety
(b) Visual impact
(c) Effect on the right to a view
(d) Defined location and size of the land
(e) Current user
(0 Area zoning regulations
(g) Infrastructure availability and adequacy

Consideration of extension of lease.

(a) Whether the land is required for public purpose
(b) Whether special conditions in the lease were adhered to
(c) Whether the land is developed
(d) Whether the buildings on the land have been well maintained
(e) Provisions of relevant approved physical development Plans
(f) Defined location and size of the land
(e) Current user of the land
(g) Infrastructure availability and adequacy

Considerations for subdivision and amalgamation

(a) The design of the Plan
(b) Provisions of relevant approved physical development Plans
(c) Land reference number, Size and shape of land
(d) The location Plan/inset
(e) Resultant subplots, their access and adequate truncations.
(f) The owner of the property, name, signature, identification and telephone number;
(g) Linkage and indication of classified roads, and other Infrastructure availability and adequacy
(h) Surrender of land for public utilities
(i) Change of user considering the minimum size of sub-plots
(j) Consent from the relevant agency in case of agricultural land.

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Where the development involves the erection of a building, the Planning authority will
consider the following-
(a) The use of the building
(b) The sitting of the building within the plot
(c) The elevations of the building, plinth area, canopies and height of buildings
(d) The design, shape, civic design and facade and appearance of the building;
(e) The set back and the building line;
(f) Access to and parking on land which the building is to be erected;
(g) Loading bay
(h) Density
(i) Plot coverage
(j) Provision for rainwater harvesting facilities and water storage tanks in every building
(k) Landscaping
(l) Character
(m) Ventilation and lighting
(n) Infrastructure adequacy
(o) Environmental, health and cultural considerations
(p) Any other matter that the planning authority considers necessary for purposes of planning.

Considerations for Easements and Way-leaves

The following services require easements and ways leaves-
(a) Telecommunications
(b) Electrical power supply
(c) Water and sewerage networks
(d) Oil Pipeline
(e) Fibre optic
(f) Base transmission stations.

Informal Settlements
The essence of ‘informal’ or ‘spontaneous’ or ‘squatter’ settlements is that it is without secure
tenure and/or is unplanned. The problems of ‘squatters’ and ‘informal’ settlements continue to
present a challenge for development in Kenya. A large proportion of Kenya’s population has no
decent homes, and live as ‘squatters’ or in slums and other squalid places.

To deal with the ‘squatters’ and informal settlements, the Government shall:
a) Create a regime of secondary land rights as a means of improving security in
informal/spontaneous settlements.
b) Recognize and protect the rights of informal land occupiers and guarantee their security of
tenure.
c) Establish a legal framework and put in place procedures for transferring unutilized land and
land belonging to absentee landlords to ‘squatters’ and landless people.

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Informal settlements shall be dealt with through implementation of the following principles:
a) Development of a slum upgrading and resettlement programme under secure system of tenure
for existing slums.
b) Putting in place measures to prevent further slum development.

Planning for infrastructure services

Infrastructure is vital to the creation of sustainable cities, and proper planning is vital to the
creation of sustainable infrastructure. Urban form and structure are the patterns and spatial
arrangements of land use, transportation systems, and urban design elements, including the
physical urban extent, layout of streets and buildings, as well as the internal configuration of
settlements. Infrastructure comprises services and built-up structures that support the functions
and operations of cities, including transport infrastructure, water supply systems, sanitation and
wastewater management, solid waste management, drainage and flood protection,
telecommunications, and power generation and distribution.

There is a strong connection between infrastructure and urban form. Transport, energy, and water
infrastructure are powerful instruments in shaping where urban development occurs and in what
forms. The absence of basic infrastructure often — but not always — inhibits urban
development.

Impact of settlement structure on the state of the environment

There are several advantages to urbanization and urban development and it is an inevitable
process link to the economic growth of the country. International experience shows that residents
in urban settlements generally have a higher level of education, higher income and higher levels
of access to services. The negative impacts of the settlements however have to be managed and
addressed by integrated planning.
Negative Impacts on the environment include:
• Destruction of ecologically important land and high potential agricultural land due to
expansion of settlements;
• Threatening of biodiversity due to the destruction or fragmentation of important habitats;

• Increased pollution from motor vehicles:

-Nitrous dioxide and VOC which damages respiratory systems and injures plants; and,
-Greenhouse gases, which contributes to global warming; and,

• Increased run-off of polluted water, reduced recharge of aquifers and increased

downstream flooding due to impervious surfaces.

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Requirements for infrastructure services:
Cities are hubs for ideas, commerce, culture, science, productivity, social, human and economic
development. Urban planning, transport systems, water, sanitation, waste management, disaster
risk reduction, access to information, education and capacity-building are all relevant issues to
sustainable urban development. Transport, sanitation, water, solid waste, waste water are some
of the issues that need planning.
a) Transport
The purpose ‘transportation’ and ‘mobility’ is to gain access to destinations, activities, services
and goods. Thus access is the ultimate objective of transportation. As a result, urban planning
and design should focus on how to bring people and places together, by creating cities that focus
on accessibility, rather than simply increasing the length of urban transport infrastructure or
increasing the movement of people or goods.
Urbanization has been one of the dominant contemporary processes as a growing share of the
global population lives in cities. Considering this trend, urban transportation issues are of
foremost importance to support the passengers and freight mobility requirements of large urban
agglomerations. Transportation in urban areas is highly complex because of the modes involved,
the multitude of origins and destinations, and the amount and variety of traffic. Traditionally, the
focus of urban transportation has been on passengers as cities were viewed as locations of utmost
human interactions with intricate traffic patterns linked to commuting, commercial transactions
and leisure/cultural activities. However, cities are also locations of production, consumption and
distribution, activities linked to movements of freight. Conceptually, the urban transport system
is intricately linked with urban form and spatial structure. Urban transit is an important
dimension of mobility, notably in high density areas.
Transport is an important element in the sustainability of human settlements. It imposes a cost on
the environment through carbon dioxide emissions and water pollution. It also consumes large
amounts of energy. Transport is the second highest sectoral consumer of energy. This energy
consumption has a direct impact on the local and global natural resource base, predominantly
through the ‘waste’ products: greenhouse gas emissions, local air pollution and radioactive
waste.
The mode of transportation is intrinsically linked with settlement forms and population density.
The argument being that dense mixed-use developments reduce the need for travel and increases
the viability of public and non-motorized transport. There is a direct link between population
density and mode of transport. Private transport is the dominant mode of transport at low
densities. For local scale transport, non-motorized transport (e.g. walking and cycling) is the
most sustainable as it does not consume non-renewable resources and does not pollute. This is
followed by rail and road-based public transport, with road-based private transport being the
least sustainable and most polluting.

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 b) Sanitation
Access to sanitation services is important, not only for human dignity, but also because of its
direct link with disease control and the potential impact on water resources. In many cities in
developing countries, the most widely used sanitary facilities in the poor neighbourhoods are pit
latrines, occasionally supplemented with flushing toilets and septic tanks. Conventional pit
latrines provide a cheap way to handle human waste and require little maintenance; however,
they provide limited comfort, attract flies and spread diseases such as diarrhoea and dysentery
through contamination of the environment.
c) Solid waste management:
In our rapidly urbanizing global society, solid waste management will be a key challenge facing
all the world’s cities. The struggle for achieving the Millennium Development Goals and related
targets for water and sanitation are being waged in our cities, towns and villages where solid
wastes are generated. It is at this level that policy initiatives on solid waste management become
operational reality and an eminently political affair: conflicts have to be resolved and consensus
found amount competing interest and parties.
Municipal solid waste (MSW), commonly known as trash or garbage in the United States and as
refuse or rubbish in Britain, is a waste type consisting of everyday items that are discarded by the
public. "Garbage" can also refer specifically to food waste, as in a garbage disposal; the two are
sometimes collected separately. Although the waste may originate from a number of sources that
has nothing to do with a municipality, the traditional role of municipalities in collecting and
managing these kinds of waste have produced the particular etymology 'municipal'.
The functional element of collection includes not only the gathering of solid waste and
recyclable materials, but also the transport of these materials, after collection, to the location
where the collection vehicle is emptied. This location may be a materials processing facility, a
transfer station or a landfill disposal site. Waste handling and separation involves activities
associated with waste management until the waste is placed in storage containers for collection.
Handling also encompasses the movement of loaded containers to the point of collection.
Separating different types of waste components is an important step in the handling and storage
of solid waste at the source. Municipal solid waste can be used to generate energy. Several
technologies have been developed that make the processing of MSW for energy generation
cleaner and more economical than ever before, including landfill gas capture, combustion,
pyrolysis, gasification.
Solid waste management is a challenge for the cities’ authorities in developing countries mainly
due to the increasing generation of waste, the burden posed on the municipal budget as a result of
the high costs associated to its management, the lack of understanding over a diversity of factors
that affect the different stages of waste management and linkages necessary to enable the entire
handling system functioning.

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Methods of solid waste disposal:
Several methods can be used in the disposal of solid wastes. They include landfill, composting,
incineration, pyrolysis, open dumping, recycling etc.

a) Landfill/Sanitary landfill: A landfill site (also known as a tip, dump, rubbish dump, garbage
dump or dumping ground and historically as a midden is a site for the disposal of waste materials
by burial and the oldest form of waste treatment (although the burial part is modern; historically,
refuse was just left in piles or thrown into pits). Historically, landfills have been the most
common method of organized waste disposal and remain so in many places around the world.

Today, the disposal of wastes by land filling or land spreading is the ultimate fate of all solid
wastes, whether they are residential wastes collected and transported directly to a landfill site,
residual materials from materials recovery facilities, residue from the combustion of solid waste,
compost, or other substances from various solid waste processing facilities. A modern sanitary
landfill is not a dump; it is an engineered facility used for disposing of solid wastes on land
without creating nuisances or hazards to public health or safety, such as the problems of insects
and the contamination of ground water. The base is prepared of a protective lining, which serves
as a barrier between wastes and ground water, and prevents the separation of toxic chemicals into
the water zone. Waste layers are subjected to compaction and subsequently coated with an earth
layer. Soil that is non-porous is preferred to mitigate the vulnerability of accidental leakage of
toxic chemicals. Landfills should be created in places with low groundwater level and far from
sources of flooding. However, a sufficient number of skilled manpower is required to maintain
sanitary landfills.

Landfills are created by land dumping. Land dumping methods vary, most commonly it involves
the mass dumping of waste into a designated area, usually a hole or side hill. After the waste is
dumped, it is then compacted by large machines. When the dumping cell is full, it is then
"sealed" with a plastic sheet and covered in several feet of dirt. This is the primary method of
dumping in the United States because of the low cost and abundance of unused land in North
America. Landfills pose the threat of pollution, and can intoxicate ground water. The signs of
pollution are effectively masked by disposal companies and it is often hard to see any evidence.
Usually landfills are surrounded by large walls or fences hiding the mounds of debris. Large
amounts of chemical odor eliminating agent are sprayed in the air surrounding landfills to hide
the evidence of the rotting waste inside the plant. The bottom of the pit also has a liner that helps
in preventing the liquid waste (that comes out from the solid waste mostly if rainwater is soaked
in the landfill) from leaking through, as it could contaminate the water supply. This liquid waste
that gets collected is called leachate. The refuse is then added to the landfill in the form of
organized layers (layers of refuse alternating with those of soil). This is done for the elimination
of any unpleasant odors and to expedite the rotting or decomposition process. When the landfill
is fully covered, it is further sealed by a layer of compacted clay.

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Some landfills are also used for waste management purposes, such as the temporary storage,
consolidation and transfer, or processing of waste material (sorting, treatment, or recycling).
Unless they are stabilized, these areas may experience severe shaking or soil liquefaction of the
ground during a large earthquake. Typically, operators of well-run landfills for non-hazardous
waste meet predefined specifications by applying techniques to.

• confine waste to as small an area as possible

• compact waste to reduce volume
• cover waste (usually daily) with layers of soil or other types of material such as
woodchips and fine particles

Landfills are often the most cost-efficient way to dispose of waste, especially in countries like
the United States with large open spaces. While resource recovery and incineration both require
extensive investments in infrastructure, and material recovery also requires extensive manpower
to maintain, landfills have fewer fixed—or ongoing—costs, allowing them to compete favorably.
In addition, landfill gas can be upgraded to natural gas—landfill gas utilization—which is a
potential revenue stream. Another advantage is having a specific location for disposal that can be
monitored, where waste can be processed to remove all recyclable materials before tipping.

Landfills have the potential to cause a number of issues. Infrastructure disruption, such as
damage to access roads by heavy vehicles, may occur. Pollution of local roads and water courses
from wheels on vehicles when they leave the landfill can be significant and can be mitigated by
wheel washing systems. Pollution of the local environment, such as contamination of
groundwater or aquifers or soil contamination may occur, as well. Extensive efforts should be
made to capture and treat leachate from landfills before it reaches groundwater aquifers, but
engineered liners always have a lifespan, though it may be 100 years or more. Eventually, every
landfill liner will leak, allowing the leachate to contaminate the groundwater. Installation of
composite liners with flexible membrane and soil barrier should be enforced to ensure that
leachate is withheld.
Gases e.g. methane are produced in landfills due to the anaerobic digestion by microbes. If this is
not managed effectively, the methane gas can explode, thus adding to global warming.
Furthermore, the methane gas in most places is collected for use in generating electricity. In a
properly managed landfill this gas is collected and used. Its uses range from simple flaring to the
landfill gas utilization and generation of electricity. Landfill gas monitoring alerts workers to the
presence of a build-up of gases to a harmful level. Landfills can be regarded as a viable and
abundant source of materials and energy. In the developing world, waste pickers often scavenge
for still-usable materials. In a commercial context, landfill sites have also been discovered by
companies, and many have begun harvesting materials and energy

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Countries including Germany, Austria, Sweden, Denmark, Belgium, the Netherlands, and
Switzerland, have banned the disposal of untreated waste in landfills. In these countries, only
certain hazardous wastes, fly ashes from incineration or the stabilized output of mechanical
biological treatment plants may still be deposited. Poorly run landfills may become nuisances
because of vectors such as rats and flies which can cause infectious diseases. The occurrence of
such vectors can be mitigated through the use of daily cover. Other potential issues include
wildlife disruption, dust, odor, noise pollution, and reduced local property values.

Summary: A sanitary landfill: refers to the land site designed for waste management, is an
organized way for disposal of waste, is regulated by the government, are less hazardous to the
environment, The whole process is carefully monitored, thus preventing foul odor. As a result,
pests are avoided, Leachate collection and other treatment systems, as well as liners are involved,
and Setting up a landfill requires a fixed type of location. That is, while choosing the location,
certain factors need to be considered for maximum level of protection. For example, it has to be
away from a residential area.

b) Incineration: Incineration is a waste treatment process that involves the combustion of

organic substances contained in waste materials. Incineration and other high-temperature waste
treatment systems are described as "thermal treatment". Incineration of waste materials converts
the waste into ash, flue gas and heat. The ash is mostly formed by the inorganic constituents of
the waste, and may take the form of solid lumps or particulates carried by the flue gas. The flue
gases must be cleaned of gaseous and particulate pollutants before they are dispersed into the
atmosphere. In some cases, the heat generated by incineration can be used to generate electric
power. Incineration with energy recovery is one of several waste-to-energy technologies such as
gasification, pyrolysis and anaerobic digestion. While incineration and gasification technologies
are similar in principle, the energy product from incineration is high-temperature heat whereas
combustible gas is often the main energy product from gasification. Incineration and gasification
may also be implemented without energy and materials recovery.

Incinerators reduce the solid mass of the original waste by 80–85% and the volume (already
compressed somewhat in garbage trucks) by 95–96%, depending on composition and degree of
recovery of materials such as metals from the ash for recycling.[2] This means that while
incineration does not completely replace landfilling, it significantly reduces the necessary
volume for disposal. Incineration has particularly strong benefits for the treatment of certain
waste types in niche areas such as clinical wastes and certain hazardous wastes where pathogens
and toxins can be destroyed by high temperatures. Examples include chemical multi-product
plants with diverse toxic or very toxic wastewater streams, which cannot be routed to a
conventional wastewater treatment plant. Waste combustion is particularly popular in countries
such as Japan where land is a scarce resource. Denmark and Sweden have been leaders in using
the energy generated from incineration for more than a century, in localized combined heat and

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power facilities supporting district heating schemes. The heat produced by an incinerator can be
used to generate steam which may then be used to drive a turbine in order to produce electricity

Incineration has a number of outputs such as the ash and the emission to the atmosphere of flue
gas. Before the flue gas cleaning system, if installed, the flue gases may contain particulate
matter, heavy metals, dioxins, furans, sulfur dioxide, and hydrochloric acid. If plants have
inadequate flue gas cleaning, these outputs may add a significant pollution component to stack
emissions.
In summary, Incineration features combustion of wastes to transform them into base
components, with the generated heat being trapped for deriving energy. Assorted gases and inert
ash are common by-products. Pollution is caused by varied degrees dependent on nature of waste
combusted and incinerator design. Use of filters can check pollution. It is rather inexpensive to
burn wastes and the waste volume is reduced by about 90%. The nutrient rich ash derived out of
burning organic wastes can facilitate hydroponic solutions. Hazardous and toxic wastes can be
easily be rid of by using this method. The energy extracted can be used for cooking, heating, and
supplying power to turbines. However, strict vigilance and due diligence should be exercised to
check the accidental leakage of micro level contaminants, such as dioxins from incinerator lines.
c) Composting: Composting of waste is an aerobic (in the presence of air) method of
decomposing solid wastes. The process involves decomposition of organic waste into humus
known as compost which is a good fertilizer for plants. At the simplest level, the process of
composting requires making a heap of wet organic matter known as green waste (leaves, food
waste) and waiting for the materials to break down into humus after a period of weeks or months.
Modern, methodical composting is a multi-step, closely monitored process with measured inputs
of water, air, and carbon- and nitrogen-rich materials. The decomposition process is aided by
shredding the plant matter, adding water and ensuring proper aeration by regularly turning the
mixture. Worms and fungi further break up the material. Bacteria requiring oxygen to function
(aerobic bacteria) and fungi manage the chemical process by converting the inputs into heat,
carbon dioxide and ammonium.
Compost is rich in nutrients. It is used in gardens, landscaping, horticulture, and agriculture. The
compost itself is beneficial for the land in many ways, including as a soil conditioner, a fertilizer,
addition of vital humus or humic acids, and as a natural pesticide for soil. In ecosystems,
compost is useful for erosion control, land and stream reclamation, wetland construction, and as
landfill cover. Organic ingredients intended for composting can alternatively be used to generate
biogas through anaerobic digestion. Materials that can be composted include organic solid waste
(green waste), animal manure and bedding, human waste and sewage sludge, urine etc. As concern about
landfill space increases, worldwide interest in recycling by means of composting is growing, since
composting is a process for converting decomposable organic materials into useful stable products.
Composting is one of the only ways to revitalize soil vitality due to phosphorus depletion in soil.

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In summary, Composting involves decomposition of organic wastes by microbes by allowing the
waste to stay accumulated in a pit for a long period of time. The nutrient rich compost can be
used as plant manure. However, the process is slow and consumes a significant amount of land.
Biological reprocessing tremendously improves the fertility of the soil.
d) Recycling: Is the process of converting waste materials into new materials and objects. It is
an alternative to "conventional" waste disposal that can save material and help lower greenhouse
gas emissions. Recycling can prevent the waste of potentially useful materials and reduce the
consumption of fresh raw materials, thereby reducing: energy usage, air pollution (from
incineration), and water pollution (from landfilling). Recycling is a key component of modern
waste reduction and is the third component of the "Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle" waste hierarchy.
Recyclable materials include many kinds of glass, paper, and cardboard, metal, plastic, tires,
textiles, and electronics. The composting or other reuse of such as food or garden waste is also
considered recycling. Materials to be recycled are either brought to a collection center or picked
up from the curbside, then sorted, cleaned, and reprocessed into new materials destined for
manufacturing.
Recycling of a material would produce a fresh supply of the same material for example, used office paper
would be converted into new office paper or used polystyrene foam into new polystyrene. However, this
is often difficult or too expensive (compared with producing the same product from raw materials or other
sources), so "recycling" of many products or materials involves their reuse in producing different
materials (for example, paperboard) instead.

Recyclate is a raw material that is sent to, and processed in a waste recycling plant or materials
recovery facility which will be used to form new products. The material is collected in various
methods and delivered to a facility where it undergoes re-manufacturing so that it can be used in
the production of new materials or products. For example, plastic bottles that are collected can be
re-used and made into plastic pellets, a new product. The quality of recyclate not only supports
high-quality recycling, but it can also deliver significant environmental benefits by reducing,
reusing and keeping products out of landfills. High-quality recycling can help support growth in
the economy by maximizing the economic value of the waste material collected. Higher income
levels from the sale of quality recyclates can return value which can be significant to local
governments, households, and businesses. Pursuing high-quality recycling can also provide
consumer and business confidence in the waste and resource management sector and may
encourage investment in that sector.
Critics dispute the net economic and environmental benefits of recycling over its costs, and
suggest that proponents of recycling often make matters worse and suffer from confirmation
bias. Specifically, critics argue that the costs and energy used in collection and transportation
detract from (and outweigh) the costs and energy saved in the production process; also that the
jobs produced by the recycling industry can be a poor trade for the jobs lost in logging, mining,

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and other industries associated with production; and that materials such as paper pulp can only
be recycled a few times before material degradation prevents further recycling.
In summary, Recycling serves to transform the wastes into products of their own genre through
industrial processing. Paper, glass, aluminum, and plastics are commonly recycled. It is
environmentally friendly to reuse the wastes instead of adding them to nature. However,
processing technologies are pretty expensive
e) Open dumping: Open dump refers to the land site where piles of garbage are accumulated
(though the site is not designed for the same).When piles of waste materials or garbage get
accumulated or are left at a certain site or location where they are not meant to be, it can be
referred to as an open dump. Open dumps are illegal and a person caught dumping in such a way
may be fined. Moreover, such dumps have an overall negative impact on the environment. They
can also be referred to as an inappropriate manner of waste disposal. It can be very hazardous to
the environment as toxic materials are released into the air and water. This in turn, gives rise to
major health and safety concerns. The land sites that are most often prone to open dumping are
road sides, secluded areas, and ditches.

Due to such dumping, the location becomes a breeding ground for mosquitoes, harboring
diseases, inviting animals, and emitting unpleasant odors. It also affects the quality of soil and
water, and poses a great risk to public health. In the environment, chemicals and other
contaminants found in solid waste can seep into our groundwater and can also be carried by
rainwater to rivers and lakes that provide essential wildlife habitat. These contaminates can also
end up in our ground water, rivers and lakes that are our sources for drinking water. Furthermore,
the severity of such consequences is based on the kind, place, and quantity of the identified
waste.

Common characteristics of open dump are: It is an unorganized and improper way of

disposing waste, it is illegal, Open dumps are very hazardous to the environment, No monitoring
is involved, which results in foul odor. This attracts rats, rodents, and other pests, an open dump
is smaller than a landfill, No treatment systems or liners are involved, and an open dump can be
located anywhere.
f) Pyrolysis: Is a thermochemical decomposition of organic material at elevated temperatures in
the absence of oxygen (or any halogen). It involves the simultaneous change of chemical
composition and physical phase, and is irreversible. The word is coined from the Greek-derived
elements pyro "fire" and lysis "separating". Pyrolysis is a type of thermolysis, and is most
commonly observed in organic materials exposed to high temperatures. It is one of the processes
involved in charring wood, starting at 200–300 °C. In general, pyrolysis of organic substances
produces gas and liquid products and leaves a solid residue richer in carbon content, char.
Extreme pyrolysis, which leaves mostly carbon as the residue, is called carbonization.

The process is used heavily in the chemical industry, for example, to produce charcoal, activated
carbon, methanol, and other chemicals from wood, to convert ethylene dichloride into vinyl

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chloride to make PVC, to produce coke from coal, to convert biomass into syngas and biochar, to
turn waste plastics back into usable oil, or waste into safely disposable substances, and for
transforming medium-weight hydrocarbons from oil into lighter ones like gasoline. These
specialized uses of pyrolysis may be called various names, such as dry distillation, destructive
distillation, or cracking. Pyrolysis differs from other processes like combustion and hydrolysis in
that it usually does not involve reactions with oxygen, water, or any other reagents. In practice, it
is not possible to achieve a completely oxygen-free atmosphere. Because some oxygen is present
in any pyrolysis system, a small amount of oxidation occurs. The term has also been applied to
the decomposition of organic material in the presence of superheated water or steam (hydrous
pyrolysis), for example, in the steam cracking of oil.

Anhydrous pyrolysis can also be used to produce liquid fuel similar to diesel from plastic waste,
with a higher cetane value and lower sulphur content than conventional diesel. Using pyrolysis to
extract fuel from end-of-life plastic is a second-best option after recycling, is environmentally
preferable to landfill, and can help reduce dependency on fossil fuels. Pyrolysis of scrap or waste
tires is an attractive alternative to disposal in landfills, allowing the high energy content of the
tire to be recovered as fuel. Using tires as fuel produces equal energy as burning oil and 25%
more energy than burning coal.

Many sources of organic matter can be used as feedstock for pyrolysis. Suitable plant material
includes green waste, sawdust, waste wood, woody weeds; and agricultural sources including nut
shells, straw, cotton trash, rice hulls, switch grass; and animal waste including poultry litter,
dairy manure, and potentially other manures. Pyrolysis is used as a form of thermal treatment to
reduce waste volumes of domestic refuse. Some industrial byproducts are also suitable feedstock
including paper sludge and distillers grain. There is also the possibility of integrating with other
processes such as mechanical biological treatment and anaerobic digestion.

d) Water supply
Water supply is the provision of water by public utilities commercial organizations, community
endeavors or by individuals, usually via a system of pumps and pipes. Water pressures vary in
different locations of a distribution system. Water supply service quality has many dimensions:
continuity; water quality; pressure; and the degree of responsiveness of service providers to
customer complaints. Water mains below the street may operate at higher pressures, with a
pressure reducer located at each point where the water enters a building or a house. In poorly
managed systems, water pressure can be so low as to result only in a trickle of water or so high
that it leads to damage to plumbing fixtures and waste of water. Pressure in an urban water
system is typically maintained either by a pressurized water tank serving an urban area, by
pumping the water up into a water tower and relying on gravity to maintain a constant pressure
in the system or solely by pumps at the water treatment plant and repeater pumping stations. In
public water supply systems water should, at a minimum, be disinfected—most commonly

21
through the use of chlorination or the use of ultra violet light—or it may need to undergo
treatment, especially in the case of surface water.
Water is at the center of economic and social development; it is vital to maintain health, grow
food, manage the environment, and create jobs. Despite water’s importance, over 663 million
people in the world still lack access to improved drinking water sources.
The scale of the challenge is large and becoming more complex. Population and economic
growth are pushing the limits of the world’s finite water resources. In some cases water scarcity
is already constraining economic growth. Lack of access to improved water supply and sanitation
services impose huge costs on society, and especially for the poor. Even where access exists,
services have been characterized for decades by poor management, inadequate financing and low
levels of investment. Urban growth is most rapid in the developing world, where cities gain an
average of 5 million residents every month. The exploding urban population growth creates
unprecedented challenges, among which provision for water and sanitation have been the most
pressing and painfully felt when lacking.
Two main challenges related to water are affecting the sustainability of human urban settlements:
the lack of access to safe water and sanitation, and increasing water-related disasters such as
floods and droughts. These problems have enormous consequences on human health and well-
being, safety, the environment, economic growth and development. The lack of adequate water
and sanitation facilities leads to health issues such as diarrhoea, malaria and cholera outbreaks.
Those who suffer the most of these water-related challenges are the urban poor, often living in
slum areas or informal settlements following rapid urban growth, in situations lacking many of
life's basic necessities: safe drinking water, adequate sanitation services and access to health
services, durable housing and secure tenure.
Planning for water supply for a given human settlement requires an assessment of its demand,
sources, possible ways of treatment and how to distribute it effectively.

Sources of water: Raw water (untreated) is collected from a surface water source (such as an
intake on a lake or a river) or from a groundwater source (such as a water well drawing from an
underground aquifer) within the watershed that provides the water resource. The raw water is
transferred to the water purification facilities using uncovered aqueducts, covered tunnels or
underground water pipes.

Water treatment: Water treatment must occur before the product reaches the consumer and
afterwards (when it is discharged again). Water purification usually occurs close to the final
delivery points to reduce pumping costs and the chances of the water becoming contaminated
after treatment. Traditional surface water treatment plants generally consists of three steps:
clarification, filtration and disinfection. Clarification refers to the separation of particles (dirt,
organic matter, etc.) from the water stream. Chemical addition (i.e. alum, ferric chloride)
destabilizes the particle charges and prepares them for clarification either by settling or floating

22
out of the water stream. Sand, anthracite or activated carbon filters refine the water stream,
removing smaller particulate matter. While other methods of disinfection exist, the preferred
method is via chlorine addition. Chlorine effectively kills bacteria and most viruses and
maintains a residual to protect the water supply through the supply network.

Water distribution: The product, delivered to the point of consumption, is called potable water
if it meets the water quality standards required for human consumption. The water in the supply
network is maintained at positive pressure to ensure that water reaches all parts of the network,
that a sufficient flow is available at every take-off point and to ensure that untreated water in the
ground cannot enter the network. The water is typically pressurized by pumps that pump water
into storage tanks constructed at the highest local point in the network. One network may have
several such service reservoirs. In small domestic systems, the water may be pressurized by a
pressure vessel or even by an underground cistern (the latter however does need additional
pressurizing). This eliminates the need of a water-tower or any other heightened water reserve to
supply the water pressure.

As water passes through the distribution system, the water quality can degrade by chemical
reactions and biological processes. Corrosion of metal pipe materials in the distribution system
can cause the release of metals into the water with undesirable aesthetic and health effects.
Release of iron from unlined iron pipes can result in customer reports of "red water" at the tap.
Release of copper from copper pipes can result in customer reports of "blue water" and/or a
metallic taste. Release of lead can occur from the solder used to join copper pipe together or
from brass fixtures. Copper and lead levels at the consumer's tap are regulated to protect
consumer health. Maintenance of a biologically safe drinking water is another goal in water
distribution. Typically, a chlorine based disinfectant, such as sodium hypochlorite or
monochloramine is added to the water as it leaves the treatment plant. Booster stations can be
placed within the distribution system to ensure that all areas of the distribution system have
adequate sustained levels of disinfection.

Sustainable urban water supply: A sustainable urban water supply network covers all the
activities related to provision of potable water. Sustainable development is of increasing
importance for the water supply to urban areas. Incorporating innovative water technologies into
water supply systems improves water supply from sustainable perspectives. The development of
innovative water technologies provides flexibility to the water supply system, generating a
fundamental and effective means of sustainability based on an integrated real options approach.
Many of the urban water supply networks in developing countries face problems related to
population increase, water scarcity, and environmental pollution.

It is necessary to adopt a new approach to design urban water supply networks; water shortages
are expected in the forthcoming decades and environmental regulations for water utilization and
waste-water disposal are increasingly stringent. To achieve a sustainable water supply network,

23
new sources of water are needed to be developed, and to reduce environmental pollution. There
is great need for a more sustainable water supply systems. To achieve sustainability several
factors must be tackled at the same time: climate change, rising energy cost, and rising
populations. All of these factors provoke change and put pressure on management of available
water resources

e) Waste water disposal methods

Waste water is any water that has been affected by human use. Wastewater is "used water from
any combination of domestic, industrial, commercial or agricultural activities, surface runoff or
storm water, and any sewer inflow or sewer infiltration". Therefore, wastewater is a byproduct of
domestic, industrial, commercial or agricultural activities. The characteristics of wastewater vary
depending on the source. Types of wastewater include: domestic wastewater from households,
municipal wastewater from communities (also called sewage) or industrial wastewater from
industrial activities. Wastewater can contain physical, chemical and biological pollutants. The
most common sources of waste water are water taps, kitchens, laundries, bathing areas etc.

Households may produce wastewater from flush toilets, sinks, dishwashers, washing machines,
bath tubs, and showers. Households that use dry toilets produce less wastewater than those that
use flush toilets. Waste water may be conveyed in a sanitary sewer which conveys only sewage.
Alternatively, it can be transported in a combined sewer which includes storm water runoff and
industrial wastewater. After treatment at a wastewater treatment plant, the treated wastewater
(also called effluent) is discharged to a receiving water body. The terms "wastewater reuse" or
"water reclamation" apply if the treated waste is used for another purpose. Wastewater that is
discharged to the environment without suitable treatment causes water pollution.

In developing countries and in rural areas with low population densities, wastewater is often
treated by various on-site sanitation systems and not conveyed in sewers. These systems include
septic tanks connected to drain fields, on-site sewage systems, vermifilter systems and many
more. The term sewerage refers to the physical infrastructure required to transport and treat
waste water. Sources of waste water include domestic or household activities, industrial
activities, agricultural activities, urban surface runoff from highways, roads, carparks, roofs, and
sidewalks/pavements.

At a global level, around 80% of wastewater produced is discharged into the environment
untreated, causing widespread water pollution. There are numerous processes that can be used to
clean up wastewaters depending on the type and extent of contamination. Wastewater can be
treated in wastewater treatment plants which include physical, chemical and biological treatment
processes. Municipal wastewater is treated in sewage treatment plants (which may also be
referred to as waste water treatment plants). Agricultural wastewater may be treated in
agricultural wastewater treatment processes, whereas industrial wastewater is treated in industrial

24
wastewater treatment processes. For municipal wastewater the use of septic tanks and other On-
Site Sewage Facilities is widespread in some rural areas, for example serving up to 20 percent of
the homes in the U.S. In some urban areas, municipal wastewater is carried separately in sanitary
sewers and runoff from streets is carried in storm drains. Access to either of these systems is
typically through a manhole.

Ways of disposing waste water: In determining the appropriate waste water

management/disposal method there are several important factors to consider, The factors include
ground conditions, ground water level, topography, location and type of water sources, quantity
and quality of waste water generated, climatic conditions and socio-cultural considerations. The
methods of disposing water include sewerage systems, septic tanks, pit latrines, VIP latrines,
aqua privy, cesspools, soak pits etc.

-Sewerage/sewer system: is the infrastructure that conveys sewage or surface runoff (storm
water, meltwater, rainwater) using sewers. It encompasses components such as receiving drains,
manholes, pumping stations, storm overflows, and screening chambers of the combined sewer or
sanitary sewer. Sewerage ends at the entry to a sewage treatment plant or at the point of
discharge into the environment. It is the system of pipes, chambers, manholes, etc. that conveys
the sewage or storm water from the point of production to the point of treatment or discharge.

A typical municipal sewage treatment plant in an industrialized country may include primary
treatment to remove solid material, secondary treatment to digest dissolved and suspended
organic material as well as the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus, and – sometimes but not
always – disinfection to kill pathogenic bacteria. The sewage sludge that is produced in sewage
treatment plants undergoes sludge treatment. Larger municipalities often include factories
discharging industrial wastewater into the municipal sewer system. The term "sewage treatment
plant" is now often replaced with the term "wastewater treatment plant.

Modern sewerage systems fall under two categories: domestic and industrial sewers and storm
sewers. Sometimes a combined system provides only one network of pipes, mains, and outfall
sewers for all types of sewage and runoff. The preferred system, however, provides one network
of sewers for domestic and industrial waste, which is generally treated before discharge, and a
separate network for storm runoff, which may be diverted to temporary detention basins or piped
directly to a point of disposal.

-Septic tank: A septic tank is a chamber made of concrete, fiberglass, PVC or plastic, through
which domestic wastewater (sewage) flows for primary treatment. Settling and anaerobic
processes reduce solids and organics, but the treatment is only moderate. Septic tank systems are
a type of onsite sewage facility. They can be used in areas that are not connected to a sewerage
system, such as rural areas. The treated liquid effluent is commonly disposed in a septic drain
field which provides further treatment. However, groundwater pollution may occur and can be a

25
problem. The term "septic" refers to the anaerobic bacterial environment that develops in the
tank which decomposes or mineralizes the waste discharged into the tank. Septic tanks can be
coupled with other onsite wastewater treatment units such as biofilters or aerobic systems
involving artificially forced aeration

Waste that is not decomposed by the anaerobic digestion must eventually be removed from the
septic tank. Otherwise the septic tank fills up and wastewater containing undecomposed material
discharges directly to the drainage field. Not only is this detrimental for the environment but, if
the sludge overflows the septic tank into the leach field, it may clog the leach field piping or
decrease the soil porosity itself, requiring expensive repairs. Like any system, a septic system
requires maintenance. The maintenance of a septic system is often the responsibility of the
resident or property owner.

In summary, Septic tanks are horizontal continuous flow, small sedimentation tanks through
which sewage is allowed to flow slowly to enable the sewage solids to settle to the bottom of the
tank, where they are digested anaerobically. The tank is de-sludged at regular intervals usually
once every 1-5 years.

-Pit latrines: A pit latrine or pit toilet is a type of toilet that collects human feces in a hole in the
ground. They use either no water or one to three liters per flush with pour-flush pit latrines.
When properly built and maintained they can decrease the spread of disease by reducing the
amount of human feces in the environment from open defecation. This decreases the transfer of
pathogens between feces and food by flies.

A pit latrine generally consists of three major parts: a hole in the ground, a slab or floor with a
small hole, and a shelter. The shelter is often known as an outhouse. The pit is typically at least
3 meters (10 feet) deep and 1 m (3.2 feet) across. The World Health Organization recommends
they be built a reasonable distance from the house balancing issues of easy access versus that of
smell. The distance from groundwater and surface water should be as large as possible to
decrease the risk of groundwater pollution. The hole in the slab should not be larger than 25
centimeters (9.8 inches) to prevent children falling in. Light should be prevented from entering
the pit to reduce access by flies. This may require the use of a lid to cover the hole in the floor
when not in use. When the pit fills to within 0.5 meters (1.6 feet) of the top, it should be either
emptied or a new pit constructed and the shelter moved or re-built at the new location.

Advantages of pit latrines may include: Can be built and repaired with locally available
materials, Low (but variable) capital costs depending on materials and pit depth, Small land area
required

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Disadvantages of pit latrines may include:

• Flies and odours are normally noticeable to the users

• The toilet has to be outdoors with the associated security risks if the person is living in an
insecure situation
• Low reduction in organic matter content and pathogens
• Possible contamination of groundwater with pathogens and nitrate
• Costs to empty the pits may be significant compared to capital costs
• Pit emptying is often done in a very unsafe manner
• Sludge (called fecal sludge) requires further treatment and/or appropriate discharge
• Pit latrines are often relocated or re-built after some years (when the pit is full and if the
pit is not emptied) and thus need more space than urine-diverting dry toilets for example
and people are less willing to invest in a nice high-quality super-structure as it will have
to be dismantled at some point.

-VIP latrines (Ventilated Improved Pit latrine): The ventilated improved pit latrine (VIP) is a
pit latrine with a black pipe (vent pipe) fitted to the pit and a screen (flyscreen) at the top outlet
of the pipe. VIP latrines are an improvement to overcome the disadvantages of simple pit
latrines, e.g. fly and mosquito nuisance and unpleasant odors. The smell is carried upwards by
the chimney effect and flies are prevented from leaving the pit and spreading disease.

The principal mechanism of ventilation in VIP latrines is the action of wind blowing across the
top of the vent pipe. The wind creates a strong circulation of air through the superstructure, down
through the squat hole, across the pit and up and out of the vent pipe. Unpleasant fecal odors
from the pit contents are thus sucked up and exhausted out of vent pipe, leaving the
superstructure odor-free. In some cases solar-powered fans are added giving a constant outwards
flow from the vent pipe. To ensure that there is a flow of air through the latrine, there must be
adequate ventilation of the superstructure. This is usually achieved by leaving openings above
and below the door, or by constructing a spiral wall without a door

-Aqua privy: Aqua Privy is a modified form of Septic Tank. An “aqua privy” is yet another way
to improve on the pit latrine. An aqua privy has a water-filled and water tight pit beneath it.The
conventional aqua privy is essentially a small septic tank located directly below a squatting plate
which has a drop pipe extending below the liquid level in the tank to form a simple water seal.
Bacteria in the pit break down the excreta. The solids settle to the bottom of the pit and excess
liquid flows through an overflow pipe to a soak-away pit. To prevent odor, fly and mosquito
nuisance in the toilet, the water seal has to be maintained by adding sufficient water per toilet
visit to the tank via the drop-pipe to replace any losses. The excreta are deposited directly into
the tank where they are decomposed anaerobically similar to a septic tank. A housing or shed is
built over the tank. A vent pipe with a fly screen at the top end is attached to the housing. A

27
water-tight tank is desirable to minimize losses. An effluent (overflow) pipe is installed above
the level of the drop-pipe.

Advantages of aqua privy include: less expensive than a septic tank, does not need piped water
on site, Low odor and insect problems, Minimal risks to health. Disadvantages include: Water
must be available nearby, more expensive than VIP or pour-flush latrine, regular desludging
required, and sludge needs careful handling.

In summary, an aqua-privy has a watertight tank immediately under the latrine floor. Excreta
drop directly into the tank through a pipe. The bottom of the pipe is submerged in the liquid in
the tank, forming a water seal to prevent escape of flies, mosquitos and smell. The tank functions
like a septic tank. Effluent usually infiltrates into the ground through a soak pit. Accumulated
solids (sludge) must be removed regularly. Enough water must be added to compensate for
evaporation and leakage losses.

-Cesspool: It is a pit excavated in soil with water tight lining and loose lining by stone or brick to
provide for leaching of wastewater by sides and the pit is covered. The leaching type is suitable
for porous soils. The capacity should not be less than one day's flow into the pit. If all the water
in a test pit of one meter diameter and 2 m deep, disappears in 24 hours, such soil is best suitable
for cesspools. The bottom of the cesspool must be well above the ground water level. After
sometime the sides of pit get clogged by the sewage solids, reducing the leaching capacity. At
overflow level, an outlet is provided to take-off unleached liquid into a seepage pit. The settled
matter is removed at intervals. Water tight cesspools are cleaned every 6 months and their
capacity must not be less than 70 l/person/month.

-Seepage Pit: The seepage pit is needed to discharge the effluent of cesspool, aqua privy, septic
tank or sullage from bathrooms and kitchens. The difference between seepage pit and cesspool is
that the seepage pit is completely filled up with stones. The fine suspended solids adhere to the
surface of stones and get decomposed by the zoogleal film, which are on the stones and the
effluent is leached into the side walls.

-Soak pit: soak pit, also known as a soak away or leach pit, is a covered, porous-walled chamber
that allows water to slowly soak into the ground. Pre-settled effluent from a Collection and
Storage/Treatment or (Semi-) Centralized Treatment technology is discharged to the
underground chamber from which it infiltrates into the surrounding soil. As wastewater
(greywater or black water after primary treatment) percolates through the soil from the soak pit,
small particles are filtered out by the soil matrix and organics are digested by microorganisms.
Thus, soak pits are best suited for soil with good absorptive properties; clay, hard packed or
rocky soil is not appropriate.

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Design Considerations for soak pit: The soak pit should be between 1.5 and 4 m deep, but as a
rule of thumb, never less than 2 m above the groundwater table. It should be located at a safe
distance from a drinking water source (ideally more than 30 m). The soak pit should be kept
away from high-traffic areas so that the soil above and around it is not compacted. It can be left
empty and lined with a porous material to provide support and prevent collapse, or left unlined
and filled with coarse rocks and gravel. The rocks and gravel will prevent the walls from
collapsing, but will still provide adequate space for the wastewater. In both cases, a layer of sand
and fine gravel should be spread across the bottom to help disperse the flow. To allow for future
access, a removable (preferably concrete) lid should be used to seal the pit until it needs to be
maintained.

Appropriateness of soak pit: A soak pit does not provide adequate treatment for raw
wastewater and the pit will quickly clog. It should be used for discharging pre-settled black water
or greywater. Soak pits are appropriate for rural and peri-urban settlements. They depend on soil
with a sufficient absorptive capacity. They are not appropriate for areas prone to flooding or that
have high groundwater tables.

Health Aspects/Acceptance: As long as the soak pit is not used for raw sewage, and as long as
the previous Collection and Storage/Treatment technology is functioning well, health concerns
are minimal. The technology is located underground and, thus, humans and animals should have
no contact with the effluent. Since the soak pit is odourless and not visible, it should be accepted
by even the most sensitive communities.

Operation & Maintenance of soak pit: A well-sized soak pit should last between 3 and 5 years
without maintenance. To extend the life of a soak pit, care should be taken to ensure that the
effluent has been clarified and/ or filtered to prevent the excessive build-up of solids. Particles
and biomass will eventually clog the pit and it will need to be cleaned or moved. When the
performance of the soak pit deteriorates, the material inside the soak pit can be excavated and
refilled.

Advantages of soak pit include: Can be built and repaired with locally available materials,
Technique simple to apply for all users, Small land area required, Low capital and operating
costs’

Disadvantages/limitations of soak pit include: Primary treatment is required to prevent clogging,

May negatively affect soil and groundwater properties, applicable only where soil conditions
allow infiltration, the groundwater table is at least 1.5 metres below the soak pit and where there
is no risk for flooding and any water well is in a distance of at least 30 metres. It should be
avoided where there is high volume of discharged effluents.

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 C) Types of site layout plans:
These include part development plan (PDP), Cadastral survey plan, Land sub-division plan.

• Part development plan

Part development plans (PDP’s) are plans which are prepared on the basis of an approved
Physical Development plan. It indicates precise areas identified for immediate use and for
alienation. It is this instrument that has been abused or used in the past to identify and allocate
plots reserved for public utilities, riparian reserves and other environmentally sensitive areas, for
private use.

The first step in all the cadastral processes is the preparation of development plans; which can be
broadly classified as structural plans and Part Development Plans (PDP). The main objective of
physical planning is to achieve economy, convenience and beauty, and ensure that the right
development takes place. These objectives require regulations, restrictions and consultations
which are vital for the protection of the interest of the general public.

Land reforms have also taken place since 2002 and which culminated in the adoption of the New
Constitution of Kenya 2010 and subsequent enactment of Land laws including, National Land
Commission Act 2012, Land Act,2012, Land Registration Act 2012 and the Environment and
Land Court, all of which have urban development control jurisdictions. The Land laws provide a
framework on how public land is to be acquired and thereby determining when a PDP is to be
prepared. The few PDP’s prepared from 2002 to 2008 were mainly designed for public
institutions like schools with proper government approval. In Kenya, all land use planning
processes are controlled by the Physical Planning Act, Cap 286 of 1996 and the Environmental
Management and Coordination Act (EMCA) of 1999.

• Cadastral survey plan

A cadastre is the basis of a land administration system and is defined as a parcel based and up-to-
date land information system containing a record of interests in land. Cadastral surveying is
concerned with the charting of land to accurately define its boundaries for purposes of obtaining
a certificate of title to and providing information about that land.

A Cadastral Survey: A cadastral survey is the term used to describe the gathering and recording
of data about land parcels. Cadastral surveys are concerned with geometrical data, especially the
size, shape, and location of land parcel. The results of a cadastral survey are isolated plans of a
parcel or a subdivision.

The central objective of cadastral systems is to produce, maintain and distribute current and
accurate geographical data in support of land registration to ensure people have security and

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ownership of land rights and interests. To achieve this objective, major constraints will have to
be surmounted. This poses major challenges which require adequate preparation and foresight.
The very important ones are the handling of survey data; the application of new technology and
the methodology of delivering services.

Currently, the amount of cadastral data held by Survey of Kenya, which is the custodian of all
survey records that include survey plans, field notes, computations, registry maps and aerial
photographs is immense and is stored and retrieved manually. The manual systems of managing
such a huge collection of data that has accumulated over a century has progressively became
very inefficient and time consuming.

The survey profession has been very conservative in adjusting to new technology. The common
equipment used by cadastral surveyors includes EDMS, theodolites, and chains. Computations
and draftsmanship are done manually. Maps to support land adjudication are derived from
unrectified and enlarged photographs. New methodologies of carrying out surveys; recording,
storage, processing/management analyzing and dissemination/display of data/results must be
developed. This will require the identification and acquisition of modern plant and equipment by
both government and licensed surveyors. The Survey Act will need to be amended to provide the
necessary legal framework for the anticipated change in survey procedures, standards, methods
and equipment.

At present, the cadastral systems are tailored in support of land registration and they only
contain information related to dimensional measurements of a parcel. The market is now
putting more emphasis on information related to the parcel of land e.g. land use, value,
vegetation, communications, tenure, available utilities etc. The land information is required
for various purposes: conveyancing, credit security, development control, land reform,
environmental assessment, land market support etc. The future trend is to shift from maps
and plans to land and geographical information systems with the primary professional duty
of a surveyor being that of undertaking multipurpose cadastral mapping.
• Land sub-division
Land subdivision is a development control tool. In a place where there is no master plan to guide
layout development of a town, a subdivision plan is used as a premise for decision making. A
subdivision plan is used to actualize proposal of Local Physical Development Plans (LPDP), and
specifies zoning density of an area. 'Subdivision' is the act of dividing land into pieces that are
easier to sell or otherwise develop.

According to the Kenya Physical Planning Act (CAP 286) “subdivision” in relation to land
means the division of any land, other than buildings held under single ownership, into two or
more parts whether the subdivision is by conveyance, transfer or partition or for the purpose of
sale, gift, lease or any other purpose;

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“Subdivision” means the division of a lot, tract, or parcel of land into two or more lots, plats,
sites, or other divisions of land for the purpose, whether immediate or future, of sale or of
building development. It includes re-subdivision and, when appropriate to the context, relates to
the process of subdividing or to the land or territory subdivided. Every division of a piece of land
into two or more lots, parcels or parts is, of course, a subdivision. The intention is to cover all
subdivision of land where the immediate or ultimate purpose is that of selling the lots or building
on them.
In Kenya, the process of land subdivision in Kenya is controlled by two main Acts of Parliament:
the Physical Planning Act, Cap 286, of 1996 and the Environmental Management and Co-
ordination Act (EMCA) No. 8 of 1999. According to the requirements of the Physical Planning
Act, all Local Authorities have the power to; prohibit or control the use and development of land
and buildings, and control and prohibit the subdivision of land. All subdivision schemes have to
be prepared and submitted to the relevant local authority by a registered Physical Planner.

For urban plots, subdivision scheme plans are also circulated to the relevant government
authorities for approval. Once provisional approval is granted, the client pays the required fees
and the survey documents are submitted to the Director of Surveys for checking and
authentication. The provisional approval presents subdivision conditions to the clients which
have to be fulfilled before titles are issued. The final approval is granted when the provisional
conditions are approved. Once all the conditions have been fulfilled, a certificate of compliance
is issued by the respective local authority and titles are prepared for the subdivisions, and such
subdivisions are endorsed onto the original title.
Summary:
The elements of urban development control include Part Development plans, Sub divisions,
change of user, extension of user, extension of lease, and the building plans. These elements of
urban development are implemented leading to the way the towns spatially get organized. In the
process of their actualization, the urban environment could seriously be placed at risk.

D) Environmental pollution problems

Pollution is the contamination of the environment by introduction of contaminants that can cause
damage to environment and harm or discomfort to humans or other living species. It is the addition
of another form of any substance or form of energy to the environment at a rate faster than the
environment can accommodate it by dispersion, breakdown, recycling, or storage in some harmless
form.

Environmental pollution is one the greatest challenges that the world is facing today. It began since
industrial revolution, increasing day by day and causing irreparable damage to Mother Earth.
Environmental pollution has its own causes, effects and solutions. Looking into these will help you

32
identify the causes and what steps you can take to mitigate those effects. Broadly, environmental
pollution consists of six basic types of pollution, i.e. air, water, land, soil, noise, and light.

Environmental pollution has existed for centuries but only started to be significant following the
industrial revolution in the 19th century. Pollution occurs when the natural environment cannot
destroy an element without creating harm or damage to itself. The elements involved are not
produced by nature, and the destroying process can vary from a few days to thousands of years (that
is, for instance, the case for radioactive pollutants). In other words, pollution takes place when nature
does not know how to decompose an element that has been brought to it in an unnatural way.

When people think of environmental pollution, most focus on fossil fuel and carbon emissions, but
there are different contributing factors. Chemical pollution in bodies of water contributes to
illnesses. Electromagnetic pollution has effects on human health but is uncommonly considered in
present times despite the fact we essentially expose ourselves to it on a daily basis. Taking a look at
causes and effects of environmental pollution will pull any mind on a rapid downward spiral.
Solutions are in the works and, if we work together across the world, there is hope remaining, at
least for the time being.

Pollution must be taken seriously, as it has a negative effect on natural elements that are an absolute
need for life to exist on earth, such as water and air. Indeed, without it, or if they were present on
different quantities, animals – including humans – and plants could not survive. We can identify
several types of pollution on Earth: air pollution, water pollution and soil pollution.

Environmental pollution consists of five basic types/forms of pollution, namely, air, water, soil,
noise and light.

Air pollution is by far the most harmful form of pollution in our environment. Air pollution is
cause by the injurious smoke emitted by cars, buses, trucks, trains, and factories, namely sulphur
dioxide, carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides. Even smoke from burning leaves and cigarettes
are harmful to the environment causing a lot of damage to man and the atmosphere. Evidence of
increasing air pollution is seen in lung cancer, asthma, allergies, and various breathing problems
along with severe and irreparable damage to flora and fauna. Even the most natural phenomenon
of migratory birds has been hampered, with severe air pollution preventing them from reaching
their seasonal metropolitan destinations of centuries. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), released from
refrigerators, air-conditioners, deodorants and insect repellents cause severe damage to the
Earth’s environment. This gas has slowly damaged the atmosphere and depleted the ozone layer
leading to global warming.

Water pollution caused industrial waste products released into lakes, rivers, and other water
bodies, has made marine life no longer hospitable. Humans pollute water with large scale

33
disposal of garbage, flowers, ashes and other household waste. In many rural areas one can still
find people bathing and cooking in the same water, making it incredibly filthy. Acid rain further
adds to water pollution in the water. In addition to these, thermal pollution and the depletion of
dissolved oxygen aggravate the already worsened condition of the water bodies. Water pollution
can also indirectly occur as an offshoot of soil pollution – through surface runoff and leaching to
groundwater.

Noise pollution, soil pollution and light pollution too are the damaging the environment at an
alarming rate. Noise pollution include aircraft noise, noise of cars, buses, and trucks, vehicle
horns, loudspeakers, and industry noise, as well as high-intensity sonar effects which are
extremely harmful for the environment. Maximum noise pollution occurs due to one of modern
science’s best discoveries – the motor vehicle, which is responsible for about ninety percent of
all unwanted noise worldwide.

Soil pollution, which can also be called soil contamination, is a result of acid rain, polluted
water, fertilizers etc., which leads to bad crops. Soil contamination occurs when chemicals are
released by spill or underground storage tank leakage which releases heavy contaminants into the
soil. These may include hydrocarbons, heavy metals, MTBE, herbicides, pesticides and
chlorinated hydrocarbons.

Light Pollution includes light trespass, over-illumination and astronomical interference.

Sources & Causes of Environmental Pollution

1) Industries: Industries have been polluting our environment especially since the beginning of
the industrial revolution, as mentioned above, notably due to the increasing use of fossil fuels. In
the 19th century and for a significant part of the 20th century, coal has been use to make machines
work faster, replacing human force. Though pollution by industries mainly causes air pollution,
soil and water contamination can also occur. This is particularly the case for power-generating
industries, such as plants producing electricity (May they be a dam, a nuclear reactor or some
other type of plant).

Also, the transportation of this energy can be harmful to the environment. We can take as an
example the transportation of petrol through pipelines; if there is a leak in the pipeline, soil will
automatically be polluted. At the same time, if the tanker transporting the petrol from its
production plant to the place where it will be consumed leaks or sinks, the water will get
contaminated.

Fossil fuel emissions from power plants which burn coal as fuel contributed heavily, along with
vehicles burning fossil fuels, to the production of smog. Smog is the result of fossil fuel

34
combustion combined with sunlight and heat. The result is a toxic gas which now surrounds our
once pristine planet. This is known as “ozone smog” and means we have more problems down
here than we do in the sky. The improper disposal of industrial wastes are the sources of soil and
water pollution. Chemical waste resulting from industry can pollute lakes, rivers and seas and
soil too as well as releasing fumes.

2) Transportation: Ever since men abandoned animal power to travel, pollution of the
environment has become higher and higher. Its levels have only been increasing until now.
Similarly to industries, pollution caused by transport can mainly be attributed to fossil fuels.
Indeed, humans went from horse carriages to cars, trains (which, before electricity, used to be
propelled by coal), and airplanes. As the traffic is increasing every day, pollution follows that
evolution. The smoke emitted by vehicles using petrol and diesel and the cooking coal also
pollutes the environment. The multiplication of vehicles, emitting black smoke that, being free
and unfettered, spreads out and mixes with the air we breathe. The harmful smoke of these
vehicles causes air pollution. Further, the sounds produced by these vehicles produces causes
noise-pollution.

Pollution from cars, trucks, and other vehicles is and has been our major environmental pollution
issue for almost a century now. The problem is we did not realize this until the problem had
manifested to monumental proportions.

3) Agricultural Activities: Agriculture is mainly responsible for the contamination of water and
soil. This is caused by the increased use of pesticides, as well as by the intensive character of its
production. Almost all pesticides are made from chemical substances and are meant to keep
diseases and threatening animals away from the crops. However, by keeping these forms of life
away, harm is almost always made to the surrounding environment as well. Furthermore, as
agriculture gets more and more intensive to feed the increasing world population, more
environments and ecosystems are destroyed to make space for the crops. Some of them, like
rapeseed –used to make oil – demand a lot of space for a relatively small output.

4) Trading Activities: Trading activities including the production and exchange of goods and
services. Concerning goods, pollution can be caused by packaging (which often involves the use
of plastic, which is made from fossil fuels) or transport, mainly.

5) Residences: Finally, residential areas provide their fair share of pollution as well. First, to be
able to build homes, natural environment has to be destroyed in one way or another. Wildlife and
plants are driven away and replaced by human constructions. As it requires the work of
industries, construction itself is also a source of contamination of the environment. Then, when
people settle in, they will produce waste every day, including a part that cannot be processed by

35
the environment without harm yet. Dumping solid waste: Household and commercial waste
pollutes the environment when not disposed of properly.

Other causes:

• Rapid urbanization and industrialization: The urbanization and the rapid growth of
industrialization are causing through environmental pollution the greatest harm to the plant
life, which in turn causing harm to the animal kingdom and the human lives.
• Population overgrowth: Due to the increase in population, particularly in developing
countries, there has been surge in demand for basic food, occupation and shelter. The
world has witnessed massive deforestation to expand absorb the growing population and
their demands.

• Radiation comes into play as well. This is an exceedingly nasty pollution issue and
requires extensive description. Primarily, there is radiation from the sun. As the natural
ozone layer around the Earth has become depleted. The sun is wonderful, but the only
reason we are able to survive on this planet so close to the sun is due to the fact of natural
shielding against solar radiation. As the protective ozone layer around the planet has
become thinner, ultraviolet radiation has risen significantly, causing increases in skin
cancers and other types of cancer in all countries, killing millions of people every year.

• More radiation is a problem. The sun shining brightly on a naked planet is not the only
source of radiation we are exposed to. Electromagnetic radiation is another insidious
culprit. Once upon a time, the major concern around this type of radiation was due to high
tension wires which carry huge amounts of electricity to cities. Now, we even carry
sources of this radiation with us as cell phones, laptops, tablets and other wireless devices.

Effects of Environmental Pollution

1. Effects on Humans: The effects of environmental pollution on humans are mainly physical,
but can also turn into neuro-affections in the long term. The best-known troubles to us are
respiratory, in the form of allergies, asthma, irritation of the eyes and nasal passages, or other
forms of respiratory infections. Notably, these well spread affections can be observed when air
pollution is high in cities, when the weather gets hot, for instance. On top of that, environmental
pollution has been proven to be a major factor in the development of cancer. This can happen for
example when we eat reminiscences of pollutants used in the production of processed foods, or
pesticides from the crops. Other, rarer, diseases include hepatitis, typhoid affections, diarrhoea
and hormonal disruptions.

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2. Effects on Animals: Environmental pollution mainly affects animal by causing harm to their
living environment, making it toxic for them to live in. Acid rains can change the composition of
rivers and seas, making them toxic for fishes, an important quantity of ozone in the lower parts
of the atmosphere can cause lung problems to all animals. Nitrogen and phosphates in water will
cause overgrowth of toxic algae, preventing other forms of life to follow their normal course.
Eventually, soil pollution will cause harm and sometimes even the destruction of
microorganisms, which can have the dramatic effect of killing the first layers of the primary food
chain.

3. Effects on Plants: As for animals, plants, and especially trees, can be destroyed by acid rains
(and this will also have a negative effect on animals as well, as their natural environment will be
modified), ozone in the lower atmosphere block the plant respiration, and harmful pollutants can
be absorbed from the water or soil.

4. Effects on the Ecosystem: In short, environmental pollution, almost exclusively created by

human activities, has a negative effect on the ecosystem, destroying crucial layers of it and
causing an even more negative effect on the upper layers

Summary of effects of environmental pollution:

• The polluting gases mentioned above have an interesting effect on climate. Essentially,
these gases form a veil around the planet which holds heat in, increasing the overall
temperature of the planet. The rise in planetary temperature, or global warming, is not
immediately noticeable. However, even a rise of a few degrees Centigrade causes
catastrophic changes in weather. This is happening now.

• Pollen has increased. It is ironic, but even with fewer trees in the world; the increase of
carbon dioxide emissions induces plants such as ragweed and many trees to produce more
pollen than ever before. This has resulted in rampant allergies across the world, affecting
the health of billions of people.

• One of the solutions to tamp out carbon monoxide emissions from coal burning power
plants was and still is to use radioactive power plants. While this does cut down on gas
emissions significantly, there is radioactive waste which causes various cancers to bloom
in major cities and small towns all around while destroying ecosystems entirely.

• Global temperature has risen significantly over the years. The protective atmosphere is
further being polluted by methane gas released from melting icecaps. This is causing
rampant weather issues around the planet.

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Solutions to Environmental Pollution

• Gas emission pollution is being mitigated in a variety of ways with car emission control,
electric and hybrid vehicles and public transportation systems. Not all major cities
have successful implementation and decent public transportation in place, but the world is
working on this issue constantly and we have managed to reduce emissions profoundly
over the last decade. There is much catching up to do.

• The cost of radioactive power plants is becoming apparent and the days of coal power
plants are nearly dead. The radiation is a serious issue. Radioactive leakage from power
plants and nuclear testing have already contaminated oceanic life to such a degree that it
will take hundreds of years to return to normal. More radiation solutions are in the works
with various ecologically friendly power technologies being built every day.

• Solar power is a fantastic solution. Now that solar radiation is at a climactic peak, we
can reap power from the sun using solar panel systems. These range from home systems
to larger scale systems powering entire communities and cities.

• Wind power is coming into play. This may not seem like much at first, but when you get
about 100 feet off the ground, there is a great deal of wind up there. By building wind
turbines to harvest natural wind energy, electricity is produced. Wind turbine power and
solar power are both powerful forces against fossil fuel power and radioactive power. The
one problem here is power companies. They want to stay with radioactive power plants
because they actually can’t be removed. It has become the crusades of many individuals
and small corporations to make the switch and there are plenty of people following this as
populations cry out for help.

• Electromagnetic radiation (ER) reduction. Once major manufacturers of computers

and electronic devices realized the blatant potential for huge ER emissions directly into
the eyes and brains of users, they started to implement hardware protocols to minimize
risks and reduce ER production significantly. Newer devices are in the lead to knock this
problem out and, fortunately, this is working.

NEMA EMCA ACT 1999: The Act outlines the waste management regulations. These
Regulations apply to all categories of waste. These include:
• Industrial wastes;
• Hazardous and toxic wastes;
• Pesticides and toxic substances;
• Biomedical wastes;
• Radio-active substances.

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These regulations outline requirements for handling, storing, transporting, and treatment/
disposal of all waste categories. Disposal of waste by NEMA licensed company.

Summary
Land use is the purpose that humans give to land that they own or settle on. It's the way humans
have adapted the natural world to their needs and in what proportions that adapted land is
utilized. Zoning is the permissions governments and cities give regarding what can be built on a
particular piece of land. This can be done for reasons of efficiency, desirability, and
environmental protection.
There are many types of land use:

• Recreational - fun, non-essentials like parks

• Transport - roads, railways, and airports
• Agricultural - farmland
• Residential - housing
• Commercial - businesses and factories
• Industrial

The mix of these land uses is what makes an area what it is from a human standpoint.
Understanding land use helps us to predict issues that might occur in the future, including
environmental damage, and to better and more efficiently plan our settlements.
Summary of how human settlements affects the environment:

• Light pollution:
• Air Pollution:
• Water and soil pollution:
• Deforestation:
• Loss of arable land
• Loss of habitat

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