HT Notes Module-1

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HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

1) What are the different modes of heat transfer?

There are three modes of heat transfer

a) conduction
b) convection
c) Radiation

Conduction is the mode of energy transfer in solids. The energy transfer by conduction is due to

i) Molecular or Atomic vibrations.


ii) Free electron motion.
Molecules or atoms of solids as they vibrate in their mean position pass energy to the
neighboring atoms or molecules. Thus heat energy is conducted. Free electron motion is another
reason for heat conduction in solids. The free electrons as they move carry energy from one
place to another. The energy transfer due to free electron motion is much more than due to
atomic vibrations (nearly 100 times more). That is the reason why the metals are good
conductors of heat (Metals have large number of free electrons hence they are good conductors
of heat and electricity).

The law governing conduction heat transfer is Fourier law of heat conduction. It states that the
heat flow by conduction is directly proportional to the area of heat flow normal to the direction
of heat transfer and also proportional to the temperature gradient.

Q A
dT
Q
dx
dT
Q  kA
dx
Where k is the proportionality constant known as thermal conductivity and its unit is W/m K or
W/ m oC. Since the heat flows is in the direction of negative temperature gradient to make the
heat flow positive the negative sign is introduced in the equation.

The thermal conductivity may be defined as a property of the material and it is a measure of the
heat flow allowed by the material per unit area per unit temperature difference. Hence higher
thermal conductivity material permits easy flow of heat through it.

Convection is the process of heat transfer through a fluid motion. Convection process involves
two mechanism of heat transfer process

a) Diffusion
b) Advection

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Diffusion is the process of heat flow due to random molecular motion whereas advection
involves bulk movement of fluid molecules. Heat transfer process by convection usually
involves both mechanisms of heat transfer. Convection process usually involves heat flow from a
surface to fluid by conduction process and later the heat flow through the fluid takes place by
convection process.

Convection heat flow can be classified in to natural convection and forced convection. Natural
convection is the process of heat flow due to density difference or buoyancy difference. The fluid
which comes in contact with a hot surface become lighter and rises to the top and cold fluid
occupy its space. This is how natural convection takes place. In forced convection heat transfer,
an external agency like fan or blower is used to circulate the fluid to enhance the rate of heat
transfer. The law governing convection heat flow is Newton’s law of cooling. It states that the
convection heat transfer from a surface is proportional to the area of the surface and temperature
difference between the surface and the fluid.

Q A
Q  T
Q  hAT

Where h is known as heat transfer coefficient and its unit is W/m2 K or W/ m2 oC. It is the rate of
heat flow from a surface per unit area per unit temperature difference. The heat transfer
coefficient depends on the fluid surface combination and also the type of convection process (ie.
Natural or forced convection).

All bodies above absolute zero temperature emit radiation and receive radiation. The energy
transfer by this radiation heat exchange process causes radiation heat transfer. The radiation
energy is transmitted through space in the form of electromagnetic waves and strike on other
surfaces, resulting in energy transfer. The radiations can travel through an empty space
(vacuum). In fact the vacuum is ideal for radiation heat flow.

The law governing radiation heat transfer is Stefan Boltzmann law. It states that for a black body
(A surface which absorbs all the incident radiations on it) the radiation emitted from its surface
per unit area (heat flux) is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.

Q  T 4 , Q  T 4

Where σ is the Stefan Boltzmann constant and its value is 5.669 x 10-8 W/m2 K4.

2) Explain the three boundary conditions of heat transfer

i) Prescribed temperature boundary condition (Boundary condition of first kind)

For a plane wall of thickness L whose either faces are maintained at uniform temperatures T1 and
T2 . The boundary conditions can be given as when x = 0, T = T1 and at x = L, T = T2

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T  0, t   T1 T  L, t   TL

ie T(0, t) = T1

T(L, t) = T2

ii) Prescribed heat flux boundary condition (Boundary condition of second kind)

If the rate of heat supply to a boundary is constant, such as heating the boundary by an electrical
heater, the boundary condition is called heat flux boundary condition. In such case the heat flux
at the surface is equal to the heat conducted.

qo qL

 dT 
At x  0, q x  q 0  k  
 dx x0

 dT 
At x  L, q x  qL  k  
 dx x  L

ii) Convective boundary condition (Boundary condition of third kind)

If the heat is convected from or to a boundary, the heat conducted at the boundary will be equal
to heat convected. The boundary condition is called heat convective boundary condition.

 dT 
At x  0, h T   T 1 x 0  k  
 dx x 0

 dT 
At x  L, h T 2  T   x  L  k  
 dx x L

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3) Derive the three-dimensional heat conduction equation in Cartesian coordinates.

Consider an element of size dx, dy and dz in the path of heat flow. The element is located at
distances x, y and z from the co-ordinate axes. A heat source within the element generates heat at
the rate of q ' per unit time per unit volume.

Y
Q y  dy
Q z  dz

Q x  dx
Qx
Qz dy

x
dx dz

y Qy
X

By energy balance we have,

The net heat flow into the element per unit time + Heat generated per unit time = Change in
internal energy per unit time + WD/ unit time.

Calculation of first term of the energy balance equation.

The first term of the above equation is due to the heat flow in three directions.

The heat energy entering the element per unit time due to heat flow in x-direction.

  (Qx ) 
Qx  Qx  dx  Qx  Qx  dx 
 x 

 (Qx )
 dx
x
 T
  (kxAx )dx
x x
 T
  (kxdydz )dx
x x
 T
  (kx )dxdydz
x x

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Similarly heat energy entering the element per unit time due to flow in y-direction

 T
 (ky )dxdydz
y y

In z- direction

 T
 (kz )dxdydz
z z

The first term of the energy balance equation is

 T  T  T
 (kx )dxdydz  (ky )dxdydz  (kz )dxdydz
x x y y z z

Calculation of second term of the equation

If q ' is the heat energy generated per unit volume, the total energy generated per unit time is
q ' x volume of the element = q ' dx dy dz .

Calculation of the third term

T
Change in internal energy per unit time  mCp
t

T
  dxdydzCp
t

The last term of the energy balance equation is negligible.

Substituting the different terms we get,

 T  T  T T
(kx )dxdydz  (ky )dxdydz  (kz )dxdydz  q ' dxdydz   dxdydzCp
x x y y z z t

Cancelling dxdydz from the equation we get

 T  T  T T
(kx )  (ky )  (kz )  q '  Cp
x x y y z z t

If the material is isotropic k x = ky = kz = k

T T T T
2 2 2

k 2  k 2  k 2  q '   Cp
x y z t

 T  T  T q '  Cp T
2 2 2

   
x 2 y 2 z 2 k k t

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 T  T  T q ' 1 T
2 2 2
k
 2  2   where,   is known as thermal diffusivity.
x 2
y z k  t  Cp

It is the ratio of thermal conductivity to thermal capacity.

The quantity represents the easiness with which heat diffuses through a given material. Higher
value of k or lower value of thermal capacity helps in better heat diffusion through a material.

T
For steady state heat transfer =0
t

Therefore 3-dimensional steady state conduction with heat generation for an isotropic material is
given by,

 T  T  T q'
2 2 2

   0
x 2 y 2 z 2 k

Steady state 3-dimensional heat conduction equation without heat generation

T T T
2 2 2

  0
x 2 y 2 z 2

This is known as Laplace equation.

4) Obtain Steady state one dimensional heat flow through a slab from the governing
equation of heat transfer

Consider a plane wall with thickness L whose either side are maintained at temperatures T 1 and
T2. Since the heat flow is one dimensional the governing equation for conduction is

T
2

0
x 2
2
d T
or 0
dx 2

T1 T2

X
L

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PDS, Dr.TTIT
Integrating once,

dT
 C1                      1
dx

Integrating again we get

T  C1 x  C 2                   2

Applying the known boundary conditions

X=0, T=T1

T1=C1 x 0 + C2

C 2  T 1                       3

At x=L, T=T2

T2=C1 x L +T1 from equation 2

T 2 T1
 C1                    4
L

Substituting the result 3 & 4 in equation 2

 T 2 T1 
T   x T1 This equation gives us the nature of variation of temperature
 L 
within the wall.

The heat transfer through the plane wall

dT
Q   kA
dx
  kA x C 1
 T 2 T1 
  kA  
 L 
 T1 T 2 
 kA  
 L 

T1 T 2
Q
 L 
 
 Ak 

The same can be derived by direct integration. The Fourier law of heat conduction is

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PDS, Dr.TTIT
dT
Q  kA
dx

Qdx  kAdT

Integrating from 1 to 2 (Inside to Outside surface)


2 2

 Qdx   kAdT
1 1

Q( x 2  x1)  kA(T 2  T 1)
QL  kA(T 1  T 2)

(T 1  T 2)
Q
 L 
 
 Ak 

One dimensional heat flow in a material shows similarity to the current flow in an electrical
circuit. For the current to flow in an electric circuit voltage difference is required. The current in
the circuit is given by the ratio of voltage difference to the resistance (Ohm’s law). The heat flow
in a material requires temperature difference. The heat flow is given by temperature difference
divided by a quantity which is termed as thermal resistance. For a plane wall the thermal
resistance is L / Ak . The thermal circuit for the heat flow may be represented as shown below.

L1
Q Ak1 T2
T1

5) Obtain an expression for one dimensional steady state heat transfer through a
composite slab

Consider a composite wall consisting of two different materials with thermal conductivities k 1 &
k2. For steady state heat transfer the heat flow through both materials are equal.

Ie. Q1 = Q2 = Q (say)

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PDS, Dr.TTIT
T1 T2 T3

L1 L2

Heat flow through the first material with thermal conductivity k 1

T1 T 2
Q
 L1 
 
 Ak 1 

Heat flow through the second material with thermal conductivity k2

T 2 T 3
Q
 L2 
 
 Ak 2 

Rearranging the equations

 L1 
T1 T 2  Q                1
 Ak 1 

 L2 
T 2 T3  Q                2
 Ak 2 

 L1 L2 
Adding the two equations T 1  T 3  Q   
 Ak 1 Ak 2 

T1 T 3
Rearranging we get Q
 L1 L2 
  
 Ak 1 Ak 2 

The heat transfer through the composite wall can be represented in the form of an equivalent
thermal circuit as represented in the following diagram.

L1 L2
Q Ak 1 T2 Ak 2
T1 T3
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6) A composite wall consists of three different layers. The thickness of the inner middle
and outer layers are 20cm, 8cm and 5cm respectively. The thermal conductivities of
inner, middle and outer layers are 65, 1.2 and 0.08 W/mK respectively. If the inner
and outer surface temperatures are 340oC and 24oC find the heat flow through the
composite wall.

Inside Outside
o
340 C 24o C
T1 T2 T3 T4

20cm 8cm 5cm

T1 = 340oC, T4 = 24oC

k1 = 65W/mK, k2 = 1.2 W/mK, k3 = 0.08 W/mK

L1 = 20cm = 0.2m

L2 = 8cm = 0.08m

L3 = 5cm = 0.05m

T1 T 4
Heat transfer through the composite wall, Q 
 L1 L2 L3 
   
 Ak 1 Ak 2 Ak 3 

340  24
Q For unit cross sectional area of the wall
 0.2 0.08 0.05 
   
 1x 65 1x1.2 1x 0.08 

Q  454.844 W

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7) Obtain an expression for one dimensional steady state heat transfer through a
composite wall with inside and outside exposed to fluid with a convection resistance

Consider the heat flow through a composite wall consisting of two different materials with
thermal conductivities k1 and k2. The heat transfer coefficient for the heat flow from fluid inside
to the wall is hi and outside convection heat transfer coefficient for the heat flow is h o. The inside
temperature of the fluid is Ti and outside fluid temperature is To. When the steady state heat
transfer takes place, the heat flow from the fluid to the inside surface, heat flow through the first
material, heat flow through the second material and heat transfer from outside wall to the
surrounding fluid, all are equal.

Ti, T1 T2 T3 To,
hi ho

L1 L2

Heat flow from fluid inside to the inner surface of the wall

Ti  T 1
Q
 1 
 
 hA 

Heat flow through the first material with thermal conductivity k 1

T1 T 2
Q
 L1 
 
 Ak 1 

Heat flow through the second material with thermal conductivity k 2

T 2 T 3
Q
 L2 
 
 Ak 2 

Heat flow from the outer wall to the fluid outside

T 3  To
Q
 1 
 
 hA 

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PDS, Dr.TTIT
Rearranging the equations

 1 
Ti  T 1  Q                     1
 hiA 

 L1 
T1 T 2  Q                     2
 Ak 1 

 L2 
T 2 T 3  Q                    3
 Ak 2 

 1 
T 3  To  Q                     4
 hoA 

 1 L1 L2 1 
Adding the two equations Ti  To  Q     
 hiA Ak 1 Ak 2 hoA 

Ti  To
Rearranging we get Q
 1 L1 L2 1 
    
 hiA Ak 1 Ak 2 hoA 

The heat transfer through the composite wall can be represented in the form of an equivalent
thermal circuit as represented in the following diagram.

1 L1 L2
1
Ti Q hiA T1 Ak 1 T2 Ak 2 T3 hoA To

8) A composite wall constructed of three layers. The first layer has 350mm thick and
has a thermal conductivity 40W/mK. The middle layer is 120mm thick and its
thermal conductivity is 4.2 W/mK. The outer layer of insulating material is 15mm
thick and has a thermal conductivity 0.09 W/mK. The inside and outside surfaces of
the wall are exposed to gases at 285oC and 38oC respectively with convective heat
transfer coefficients 250 W/m2K and 18W/m2K. Find the heat flow through the
composite wall in 2 hour.

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PDS, Dr.TTIT
Inside Outside
Ti  285 o C T4 To  38 C
o
T1 T2 T3

350 120 15

Ti = 285oC, To = 38oC

hi = 250 W/m2K, ho= 18 W/m2 K

k1 = 40W/mK, k2 = 4.2 W/mK, k3 = 0.09 W/mK

L1 = 350mm = 0.35m

L2 = 120mm = 0.12m

L3 = 15mm = 0.015m

T1 T 4
Heat transfer through the composite wall, Q 
 1 L1 L2 1 
    
 hi A Ak 1 Ak 2 ho A 

285  38
Q For unit cross sectional area of the
 1 0.35 0.12 0.015 1 
     
 1x 250 1x 40 1x 4.2 1x 0.09 1x18 
wall

Q  937.226 W or J/s

Heat flow in 2 hour = 937.226 x 2 x 3600

= 6748027.2 J

Q  6.748 MJ

9) Explain Contact Resistance

Between the layers of the wall a contact resistance may exist if the walls are not making perfect
contact. This is due to the resistance offered by the stagnant air present in the gap. The unit for
contact resistance per unit area is m2K/W. If the resistance between layers per unit area is Rc, the
total resistance for an area is calculated by dividing Rc by the contact area.
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PDS, Dr.TTIT
Air gap due to imperfect contact

Resistance for an area A is given by R c/A

Due to contact resistance, there will be a sudden drop in temperature at the interface. The total
resistance can be calculated by adding the contact resistance to the resistance of the layers. For
two layers with fluid convection on either side & contact resistance between layers, the heat
transfer is given by

Ti  To
Q
 1 L1 Rc L 2 1 
     
 hiA Ak 1 A Ak 2 hoA 

The heat flow through the composite wall with contact resistance in between can be represented
in the form of an equivalent thermal circuit as represented in the following diagram. At the
interface between the walls the temperature drops from T 2 ' to T 2 '' due to the contact resistance.

1 L1 Rc L2 1
Ti Q hiA T1 Ak 1 T2 ' A T 2 '' Ak 2 T3 hoA To

10) A wall of a furnace is made up of inside layer of silica brick 120mm thick covered with a
layer of magnesite brick 240mm thick. The temperature at the inside surface of silica brick
wall and outside surface of magnesite brick wall are 725 oC and 110 oC respectively. The
contact thermal resistance between the two walls at the interface is 0.0035 oC/W per unit
wall area. If thermal conductivities of silica and magnesite bricks are 1.7 w/m oC and 5.8
w/m oC, calculate i) The rate of heat loss per unit area of walls and ii) The temperature
drop at the interface.

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PDS, Dr.TTIT
T1

T2 '

T2 ''
T3

120 240

T1= 725oC, T3 = 110oC

k1 = 1.7 W/m oC, k2 = 5.8 W/m oC,

Contact resistance Rc = 0.0035 oC/W per unit area of the wall.

Or Rc = 0. 0035 m2 oC/W

L1 = 120mm = 0.12m

L2 = 240mm = 0.24m

T1 T 3
Heat transfer through the composite wall, Q 
 L1 Rc L 2 
   
 Ak 1 A Ak 2 

725  110
Q For unit cross sectional area of the wall
 0.12 0.0035 0.24 
   
 1x1.7 1 1x 5.8 

Q  5326.172 W

T1 T 2 '  L1 
Q Rearranging we get, T 2 '  T 1  Q  
 L1   Ak 1 
 
 Ak 1 

 0.12 
T 2'  725  5326.172x    349.035 C
o

 1x1.7 

T 2 ' T 2 ''  Rc 
Q Rearranging we get, T 2 ''  T 2 ' Q  
 Rc   A
 
 A
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PDS, Dr.TTIT
 0.0035 
T 2 ''  349.035  5326.172x    330.393 C
o

 1 

Temperature drop at the interface = T 2 ' T 2 '' 349.035  330.393  18.642 oC

11) A composite wall is made up of three layers of thickness 25cm, 10cm and 15cm of
material A,B and C respectively. The thermal conductivities of A and B are 1.7
W/mK and 9.5 W/mK respectively. The outside surface is exposed to air at 20 oC with
convection coefficient of 15 W/m2K and the inside is exposed to gases at 1200 oC with
convection coefficient of 28 W/m2K and the inside surface is at 1080oC. Determine
the unknown thermal conductivity of layer made up of material C.

Ti = 1200oC, To = 20oC, T1=1080 oC

hi = 28 W/m2K, ho= 15 W/m2K

ka = 1.7W/mK, kb = 9.5 W/mK, kc = ?

L1 = 25cm = 0.25m

L2 = 10cm = 0.10m

L3 = 15cm = 0.15m

Heat transfer through the composite wall is equal to the heat flow from the gases to the
Ti  T 1
wall which is given by, Q 
 1 
 
 hi A 

1200  1080
Q  3360 W For unit cross sectional area of the wall
 1 
 
 1x 28 

Ti  To
Q
 1 La Lb Lc 1 
     
 hiA Aka Akb Akc hoA 

1200  20
3360 
 1 0.25 0.1 0.15 1 
     
 28 x1 1x1.7 1x 9.5 1x kc 15 x1 

Solving we get kc = 1.6443W/mK

12) The inside surface of an insulating layer is at 270 oC and the outside surface is
dissipating heat by convection in to air at 20oC. The insulation is 40 mm thick and
has a thermal conductivity 1.2 W/m oC. What is the minimum value of heat transfer

16
PDS, Dr.TTIT
coefficient at the outside surface, if the surface temperature should not exceed 70 oC
? Also calculate the heat transfer.
T1 = 270oC, T2 = 70oC, To = 20oC
ka = 1.2W/m oC
L = 40cm = 0.4m
ho=?
The rate of heat transfer required to maintain the surface temperature to 70 oC
T 1  T 2 270  70
Q   600W
 L   0.4 
   
 Ak   1x1.2 
The rate of heat transfer by convection from the outer surface is same, in a steady state
heat transfer process.
T 2  To 70  20
Q    600
 1   1 
 
 Aho   1x ho 
ho  600 / 50
ho 12W / m2 K
13) A furnace wall is made up of silica brick (k=1.6W/mK), outside magnetia brick
(k=4.8W/mK), 10cm thick each. The inside and outside surfaces are exposed to fluid
temperatures 820 oC and 120 oC respectively. Find the heat flow through the wall per
m2 per hour. Assume contact resistance of 0.002 m2K/W. Draw the temperature
profile through the composite wall. The inside and outside heat transfer coefficients
are 35W/ m2K and 12 W/ m2K respectively.

Ti= 820oC, To = 120oC

k1 = 1.6 W/m K, k2 = 5.8 W/m K

hi = 35 W/m2K, ho= 12 W/m2K

Contact resistance Rc = 0.002 m2 K/W.

L1 = 10cm = 0.1m

L2 = 10cm = 0.1m

The equivalent thermal circuit for the heat flow is shown in below.

1 L1 Rc L2
1
Ti Q hiA T1 Ak 1 T2 ' A T 2 '' Ak 2 T3 hoA To

17
PDS, Dr.TTIT
Ti  To
Heat transfer through the composite wall, Q 
 1 L1 Rc L 2 1 
     
 Ahi Ak 1 A Ak 2 Aho 

820  120
Q
 1 0.1 0.002 0.1 1 
     
 1x 35 1x1.6 1 1x 4.8 1x12 

Q  3549.01W

Ti  T 1  1 
Q Rearranging we get, T 1  Ti  Q  
 1   Ahi 
 
 Ahi 

 1   1 
T 1  Ti  Q    820  3549.01x    718.599 C
o

 Ahi   1x 35 

T1 T 2 '  L1 
Q Rearranging we get, T 2'  T1  Q  
 L1   Ak 1 
 
 Ak 1 

 0.1 
T 2'  718.599  3549.01x    496.786 C
o

 1x1.6 

T 2 ' T 2 ''  Rc 
Q Rearranging we get, T 2''  T 2' Q  
 Rc   A
 
 A

 0.002 
T 2''  496.786  3549.01x    489.688 C
o

 1 
T 2 '' T 3  L2 
Q Rearranging we get, T 3  T 2 '' Q  
 L2   Ak 2 
 
 Ak 2 
 0.1 
T 3  489.688  3549.01   428.498 C
o

 1x 5.8 
Draw the temperature profile through the composite wall is shown below

18
PDS, Dr.TTIT
T i  820 o C
T 2 '  496.786 o C
T1 718.599oC T 2 ''  489.688 o C

T 3  428.498 o C

T o  20 o C

10cm 10cm
14) The walls of a house in a cold region is made up of three layers, an outer brick work
15cm thick, an inner wooden panel 1.2cm thick, the intermediate layer is made up of
an insulating material 7cm thick. The thermal conductivity of brick and wood are 0.7
W/mK and 0.18 W/mK respectively. The inside and outside temperature of the
composite wall are 21oC and -15oC respectively. If the layer of insulation offers twice
the thermal resistance of the brick wall, calculate i) heat loss per unit area of the wall
ii) Thermal conductivity of the insulating material.
T1=21 oC, T1= -15 oC
K1 = 0.7W/mK, k2 = ?, k3 =0.18 W/mK
L1 = 1.2cm = 0.012m
L2 = 7cm = 0.07m
L3 = 15cm = 0.15m
L1 0.012
Thermal resistance of the wooden panel    0.017143K/W
Ak 1 1x 0.7
L3 0.15
Thermal resistance of the brick wall    0.8333K/W
Ak 3 1x 0.18
Thermal resistance of the insulation = twice the thermal resistance of the brick wall
= 2 x 0.8333 = 1.6666 K/W
L2 0.07
Thermal resistance of the insulation    1.6666 K/W
Ak 2 1x k 2
Thermal conductivity of the insulation, k2 = 0.07/1.6666 = 0.042 W/mK

Total thermal resistance R = 0.017143 + 1.6666 + 0.8333 = 2.517 K/W


T1 T 4 21  (15)
Heat loss per unit area of the wall, Q  
R 2.517
Q 14.302 W

19
PDS, Dr.TTIT
15) Obtain one dimensional equation from three dimensional heat conduction equation
in cylindrical coordinates

The three dimensional heat conduction equation for an isotropic material with heat generation is
given by the following equation. The temperature varies with radius, angle  and along the axis.

 T 1 T 1  T  T q ' 1 T
2 2 2

    
r 2 r r r 2  2 z 2 k  t

For a steady state one dimensional heat conduction (along radial direction) without heat
generation the equation reduces to

 T 1 T
2

 0
r 2 r r

Since the temperature varies only in the radial direction we may write the equation as
2
d T 1 dT
 0
dr 2 r dr
2
d T dT
r 2  0
dr dr

d  dT 
r 0
dr  dr 

16) Obtain an expression for one dimensional steady state heat transfer through a
cylinder

Consider one dimensional heat flow through a cylinder with inside radius r 1 and outside radius r2.
Let the temperature inside is T1 and outside is T2.

20
PDS, Dr.TTIT
r1
r2
L

T1

T2

The governing equation for heat flow is

d  dT 
r 0
dr  dr 

Integrating we get,

dT
r  C1
dr

dT C1
                        1
dr r

Integrating again

T  C1 log r  C 2                      2

Applying the known boundary conditions

When r = r1, T = T1

We get T 1  C1 log r1  C 2                 3

When r = r2, T = T2

T 2  C1 log r 2  C 2                     4

Taking the difference between (3) & (4)

T 1  T 2  C1 (log r1  log r 2)
T 1  T 2  C1 log  r1 / r 2 
21
PDS, Dr.TTIT
C1 
T 1  T 2                        5
log  r1 / r 2 

Applying the value of C1 in equation 3

T1 
T 1  T 2  log r1  C 2
log  r1 / r 2 

C2  T1
T 1  T 2  log r1
log  r1 / r 2 

Applying the value of C1 & C2 in equation (2)

T
T 1  T 2  log r  T 1  T 1  T 2  log r1
log  r1 / r 2  log  r1 / r 2 

T  T1 
T 1  T 2  log(r / r1 )
log  r1 / r 2 

The heat transfer is given by Fourier law,

dT
Q  kA
dr

dT
 k 2 rL
dr

C1
 k 2 rL from equation (1)
r

 k 2 LC1

 2 kL
T 1  T 2 
log  r1 / r 2 

 2 kL
T 1  T 2 
log  r 2 / r1

Q
T 1  T 2 
1
log  r 2 / r1
2 kL

The equivalent thermal circuit for a cylinder wall is shown in figure.

22
PDS, Dr.TTIT
1
log( r 2 / r 1)
Q 2 k 1 L T2
T1
1
Thermal resistance of the cylinder wall is given by Rth  log  r 2 / r1
2 kL

The same may be obtained by direct integration (alternate method)

dT
The heat transfer is given by Fourier law, Q  kA
dr

dT
 k 2 rL
dr

dT
Q  k 2 rL
dr

Q
dr  2 kLdT
r

Integration between inner surface 1 to outer surface 2


2 2
Q
1 r dr  1 2 kLdT

 r2 
Q log    2 kL T 2  T 1
 r1 

2 kL T 2  T 1
Q
 r2 
log  
 r1 

Q
T 1  T 2
1  r2 
log  
2 kL  r1 

17) Obtain an expression for one dimensional steady state heat transfer through a
composite cylinder

Consider a composite cylinder which has inner surface temperature T1 and outer surface
temperature T3 as shown in figure. The interface temperature is T 2. The thermal conductivities of
the wall materials are k1 and k2. In a steady state heat transfer process the heat flow through the
two layers of the cylinder wall are equal (say Q)

23
PDS, Dr.TTIT
r2
r1 r3

T1

T2
T3

Heat flow through the first cylinder wall,

T1 T 2
Q
 1 
 log(r 2 / r1) 
 2 k 1L 

Heat flow through the second cylinder wall,

T 2 T3
Q
 1 
 log(r 3 / r 2) 
 2 k 2 L 

Rearranging the equations

 1 
T1 T 2  Q  log(r 2 / r1)               1
 2 k 1L 

 1 
T 2 T3  Q log(r 3 / r 2)                2 
 2 k 2 L 

 1 1 
Adding the two equations T 1  T 3  Q  log(r 2 / r1)  log(r 3 / r 2) 
 2 k 1L 2 k 2 L 

T1 T 3
Rearranging we get Q
 1 1 
 log(r 2 / r1)  log( r 3 / r 2) 
 2 k 1L 2 k 2 L 

The heat transfer through the composite wall can be represented in the form of an equivalent
thermal circuit.

24
PDS, Dr.TTIT
1 1
log( r 2 / r 1) log( r 3 / r 2 )
Q 2 k 1 L T2 2 k 2 L
T1 T3
18) Obtain an expression for one dimensional steady state heat transfer through a
composite cylinder with inside and outside exposed to fluid with a convection
resistance

Consider the heat flow through a composite cylinder consisting of two different materials with
thermal conductivities k1 and k2. The heat transfer coefficient for the heat flow from fluid inside
to the wall is hi and outside convection heat transfer coefficient for the heat flow is h o. The inside
temperature of the fluid is Ti and outside fluid temperature is To. When the steady state heat
transfer takes place, the heat flow from the fluid to the inside surface, heat flow through the inner
cylinder wall, heat flow through the outer cylinder wall and heat transfer from outside wall of the
cylinder to the surrounding fluid, all are equal.

r2
r1 r3

Ti, hi
T1

T2
T3
To, ho

Heat flow from inside fluid to the inner wall of the cylinder,

Ti  T 1
Q
 1 
 
 hiAi 

Heat flow through the first cylinder wall,

T1 T 2
Q
 1 
 log(r 2 / r1) 
 2 k 1L 

Heat flow through the second cylinder wall,

T 2 T3
Q
 1 
 log(r 3 / r 2) 
 2 k 2 L 

25
PDS, Dr.TTIT
Heat flow from the outer wall of the cylinder to the fluid outside,

Ti  T 1
Q
 1 
 
 h oA o 

Rearranging the above equations

 1 
Ti  T 1  Q                        1
 hiAi 

 1 
T1 T 2  Q  log(r 2 / r1)                2 
 2 k 1L 

 1 
T 2 T3  Q log(r 3 / r 2)                3
 2 k 2 L 

 1 
T 3  To  Q                        4
 hoAo 

 1 1 1 1 
Adding the two equations T 1  T 3  Q   log(r 2 / r1)  log(r 3 / r 2)  
 hiAi 2 k 1L 2 k 2 L hoAo 

Rearranging we get Q
T 1  T 3 
 1 1 1 1 
  log(r 2 / r1)  log(r 3 / r 2)  
 hiAi 2 k 1L 2 k 2 L hoAo 

The heat transfer through the composite cylinder can be represented in the form of an equivalent
thermal circuit.

1
1 1 1
hiAi log( r 2 / r 1) log( r 3 / r 2 )
Ti Q T1 2 k 1 L T2 2 k 2 L T3 hoAo To

19) A steam pipe 8cm outer diameter and 1cm thick has to be insulated with a layer of
insulation (with k = 1.4W/m K) 1.8cm thick. Steam is flowing inside the pipe at 400K
with a heat transfer coefficient 120W/m2K. The thermal conductivity of the pipe is
25W/mK. The outside of the insulation is exposed to air at 305K with convective heat
transfer coefficient 15W/ m2K.

26
PDS, Dr.TTIT
r2
r1 r3

Ti, hi

T1

T2
T3
To, ho

Ti = 400K, To = 305K

hi = 120 W/m2K, ho= 15 W/m2 K

k1 = 25W/mK, k2 = 1.4 W/mK

r1=3cm, r2=4cm, r3=5.8cm

Q
T 1  T 3 
 1 1 1 1 
  log(r 2 / r1)  log(r 3 / r 2)  
 hiAi 2 k 1L 2 k 2 L hoAo 

Q
 400  305
 1 1 1 1 
  log(0.04 / 0.03)  log(0.058 / 0.04)  
 120x2 x0.03x1 2 x25x1 2 x1.4x1 15x2 x0.058x1 

Q  350.413W

20) Obtain one dimensional heat conduction equation from three-dimensional heat
conduction equation in spherical co ordinates

The three-dimensional heat conduction equation for an isotropic material with heat generation in
spherical co-ordinates is given by the following equation. The temperature varies with radius,
angle  and angle .

1   2 T  1   T  1  2T q ' 1 T
r   sin    
r 2 r  r  r 2 sin      r 2 sin 2   2 k  t

For steady state one dimensional heat conduction (along radial direction) without heat
generation, the equation reduces to

1   2 T 
r 0
r 2 r  r 

27
PDS, Dr.TTIT
1 d  2 dT 
r 0
r 2 dr  dr 

21) Obtain an expression for one dimensional steady heat transfer through a sphere

For one dimensional heat transfer through a sphere, the governing equation is

r1
r2

T1

T2

1 d  2 dT 
r 0
r 2 dr  dr 

d  2 dT 
r 0
dr  dr 

Integrating,

dT
r2  C1
dr

dT C1
                       1
dr r 2

Integrating once again,

C1
T  C 2                     2
r

Applying the known boundary conditions, r = r1, T = T1

C1
T1    C 2                     3
r1

Applying the known boundary conditions, r = r2, T = T2

C1
T2    C 2                     4
r2
28
PDS, Dr.TTIT
Subtracting equation 4 from 3

C1 C1 1 1 
T1 T 2    C1   
r1 r 2  r1 r 2 

C1 
T 1  T 2                  5
1 1 
  
 r1 r 2 

Applying the result in equation 3

T1  
T 1  T 2  1
 C2
1 1  r1
  
 r1 r 2 

C2  T1 
T 1  T 2  1
1 1  r1
  
 r1 r 2 

Putting the values of C1 and C2 in equation 2

T 
T 1  T 2 
1
 T1 
T 1  T 2  1
1 1  r 1 1  r1
     
 r1 r 2   r1 r 2 

T  T1 
T 1  T 2 
 1 1 

 
 1 1   r1 r 
  
 r1 r 2 

22) Obtain an expression for one dimensional steady state heat transfer through a
composite sphere

r2
r1 r3

T1

T2
T3

Heat flow through the inner layer


29
PDS, Dr.TTIT
T1 T 2
Q
 r 2  r1 
 
 4 k 1r1r 2 

Heat flow through the outer layer

T 2 T3
Q
 r3  r2 
 
 4 k 2 r 2 r 3 

Rearranging the equations

 r 2  r1 
T1 T 2  Q                   1
 4 k 1r1r 2 

 r3  r2 
T 2 T 3  Q                   2
 4 k 2 r 2 r 3 

 r 2  r1 r3  r2 
Adding the two equations T 1  T 3  Q   
 4 k 1r1r 2 4 k 2 r 2 r 3 

T1 T 3
Rearranging we get Q
 r 2  r1 r3  r2 
  
 4 k 1r1r 2 4 k 2 r 2 r 3 

The heat transfer through the composite sphere can be represented in the form of an equivalent
thermal circuit.

r 2  r1 r3  r2
Q 4 k 1r 1r 2 T2 4 k 2 r 2 r 3
T1 T3
23) Obtain an expression for one dimensional steady state heat transfer through a
composite sphere with inside and outside exposed to fluid with a convection
resistance

Consider the heat flow through a composite sphere consisting of two different materials with
thermal conductivities k1 and k2. The heat transfer coefficient for the heat flow from fluid inside
to the wall is hi and outside convection heat transfer coefficient for the heat flow is h o. The inside
temperature of the fluid is Ti and outside fluid temperature is To. When the steady state heat
transfer takes place, the heat flow from the inside fluid to the surface, heat flow through the inner
sphere wall, heat flow through the outer sphere wall and heat transfer from outside wall to the
surrounding fluid, all are equal.

30
PDS, Dr.TTIT
r2
r1 r3

Ti, hi
T1

T2
T3
To, ho

T1 T 2
Heat flow from the fluid to the inner surface of the sphere, Q 
 1 
 
 hiAi 

T1 T 2
Heat flow from through the inner sphere wall, Q 
 r 2  r1 
 
 4 k 1r1r 2 

T 2 T3
Heat flow from through the outer sphere wall, Q 
 r3  r2 
 
 4 k 2 r 2 r 3 

T1 T 2
Heat flow from the outer surface of the sphere to the fluid outside, Q 
 1 
 
 hoAo 

Rearranging the equations

 1 
Ti  T 1  Q                      1
 hiAi 

 r 2  r1 
T1 T 2  Q                   2
 4 k 1r1r 2 

 r3  r2 
T 2 T 3  Q                  3
 4 k 2 r 2 r 3 

 1 
T 3  To  Q                      4
 hoAo 

 1 r 2  r1 r3  r2 1 
Adding all the four equations Ti  To  Q     
 hiAi 4 k 1r1r 2 4 k 2r 2r 3 hoAo 

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PDS, Dr.TTIT
Ti  To
Rearranging we get Q
 1 r 2  r1 r3  r2 1 
    
 hiAi 4 k 1r1r 2 4 k 2 r 2r 3 hoAo 

The heat transfer through the composite sphere can be represented in the form of an equivalent
thermal circuit.

1 r 2  r1 r3  r2 1
Q hiAi 4 k 1r 1r 2 T2 4 k 2 r 2 r 3 T3 hoAo To
Ti T1

24) Explain critical thickness of insulation for a wire

Consider a small diameter wire or pipe with outer radius r 1 and length L. Let its surface
temperature is T1. The heat transfer coefficient for the heat flow from its surface is ho. The heat
transfer from its surface is by purely by convection.

L
L

r1 r1

T1 Ta T1 Ta

The heat transfer from the surface of this bare wire is given by as per Newton’s law,

Qb  hoA T 1  Ta  
 T 1  Ta 
 1 
 
 Aho 

Now consider the wire to be insulated with an outer radius of the insulation r. The heat flow from
the wire to the surrounding is first by conduction through the insulation and finally by
convection from the surface of the insulation. The heat transfer of this insulated wire is given by

32
PDS, Dr.TTIT
L L

r1 r r1 r

T1 T1
Insulation Insulation Ta
Ta

Qi 
 T 1  Ta 
 1 1 
 log  r / r1  
 2 kL Aho 

For Qi to be greater than Qb the denominator of Qi should be minimum. That is if the thermal
resistance is a minimum, the heat transfer is going to be maximum.

Therefore for maximum heat transfer, differentiate the thermal resistance of insulated wire with
respect to the variable r and equate it to zero.

d  1 1 
 log  r / r1  0
dr  2 kL Aho 

d  1 1 1 
 log r  log r1  0
dr  2 kL 2 kL 2 rLho 

1 1 1
x 0 0
2 kL r 2 r 2 Lho

1 1
 0
k rho

k
r  rc  This is known as critical radius of insulation.
ho

Hence the critical radius depends on the thermal conductivity of the insulation and the outside
heat transfer coefficient. Poor quality of insulation and low heat transfer coefficient increases the
critical radius of insulation. If the critical radius is more than the outer radius of the bare wire
addition of insulation increases the heat transfer and for critical radius the heat transfer is going
to be maximum. If the critical radius of the insulation is less than the radius of the bare wire the
addition of insulation always decrease the heat transfer.

The critical thickness = critical radius-outer radius of the wire.

33
PDS, Dr.TTIT
k
Critical thickness, tc  r  r1   r1
ho

25) A 10mm diameter cable is to be laid in an atmosphere of 20oC (ho=8.5 W/m2oC). The
surface temperature of the cable is likely to be 65oC. Discuss the percentage increase
in heat transfer for the same cable surface temperature, if the cable is insulated with
rubber having thermal conductivity of 0.15 W/moC.

T1=65oC, Ta=20oC

k=0.15 W/moC

ho=8.5 W/m2oC

10
r1   5mm  0.005m
2

Heat transfer from the bare cable, Qb 


 T 1  Ta    T 1  T a 
 1   1 
   
 Aho   2 r1Lho 


 65  20 
 1 
 
 2 x 0.005 x1x 8.5 

Qb  12.017W

k
Critical radius of insulation rc 
ho

0.15
  0.01765m
8.5

Since the critical radius is more than the outer radius of the bare cable, insulation increases the
heat transfer. The heat transfer is maximum when the cable is insulated with critical thickness of
insulation.

Heat transfer from insulated wire, Qi 


 T 1  Ta 
 1 1 
 log  rc / r1  
 2 kL Aho 


 T 1  Ta 
 1 1 
 log  rc / r1  
 2 kL 2 rcLho 

34
PDS, Dr.TTIT

 65  20 
 1 1 
 log  0.01765 / 0.005   
 2 x 0.15 x1 2 x 0.01765 x1x 8.5 

Qi  18.757 W

Percentage increase in heat transfer 


 Qi  Qb  x100
Qb


18.757  12.017  x100
12.017

Percentage increase in heat transfer  56.087 %

26) An electrical wire of 10 m length and 1 mm diameter dissipates 200 W in air at


25°C.The convection heat transfer coefficient between the wire surface and air is 15
W/m2K. Calculate the critical radius of an insulation (k=0.25W/mK) and also determine
the temperature of the wire before insulation and after insulated for the critical
thickness of insulation.

Ta=25oC, T1=?

k=0.25 W/moC

ho=15 W/m2oC

1
r1   0.5mm  0.0005m
2

Heat transfer from the bare wire, Qb 


 T 1  Ta    T 1  T a 
 1   1 
   
 Aho   2 r1Lho 

200 
T 1  25
 1 
 
 2 x 0.0005 x10 x15 

Cable surface temperature, T 1  449.413 o C

k
Critical radius of insulation rc 
ho

0.25
  0.01667 m
15

35
PDS, Dr.TTIT
Heat transfer from insulated wire, Qi 
 T 1  Ta 
 1 1 
 log  rc / r1  
 2 kL Aho 


 T 1  Ta 
 1 1 
 log  rc / r1  
 2 kL 2 rc Lho 

200 
T 1  25
 1 1 
 log  0.01667 / 0.0005  
 2 x 0.25 x10 2 x 0.01667 x10 x15 

Solving, T 1  82.379 oC

27) Explain Critical thickness of insulation for a sphere

Consider a small diameter sphere with outer radius r 1. Let its surface temperature is T1. The heat
transfer coefficient for the heat flow from its surface is h o. The heat transfer from its surface is by
purely by convection.

The heat transfer from the surface of this bare sphere is given by as per Newton’s law,

Qb  hoA T 1  Ta  
 T 1  Ta 
 1 
 
 Aho 

Now consider the sphere to be insulated with an outer radius of the insulation r. The heat flow
from the wire to the surrounding is first by conduction through the insulation and finally by
convection from the surface of the insulation. The heat transfer of this insulated sphere is given
by

Qi 
 T 1  Ta 
 r  r1 1 
  
 4 kr1r Aho 

For Qi to be greater than Qb the denominator of Qi should be minimum. That is if the thermal
resistance is a minimum, the heat transfer is going to be maximum.

Therefore for maximum heat transfer, differentiate the thermal resistance of insulated wire with
respect to the variable r and equate it to zero.

d  r  r1 1 
  0
dr  4 kr1r Aho 

36
PDS, Dr.TTIT
d  1 1 1 
   0
dr  4 kr1 4 kr 4 r 2 ho 

1 2
0  0
4 kr 4 r 3ho
2

1 2
 0
k rho

2k
r  rc  This is known as critical radius of insulation.
ho

Hence similar to wires and pipes, the critical radius depends on the thermal conductivity of the
insulation and the heat transfer coefficient. Poor quality of insulation and low heat transfer
coefficient increases the critical radius of insulation. If the critical radius is more than the outer
radius of the bare sphere addition of insulation increases the heat transfer and for critical radius
the heat transfer is going to be maximum. If the critical radius of the insulation is less than the
radius of the bare sphere the addition of insulation always decrease the heat transfer.

The critical thickness = critical radius-outer radius of the sphere.

2k
Critical thickness, tc  rc  r1   r1
ho

28) Find the critical thickness of insulation for a 520mm diameter sphere, if insulated
with insulation having thermal conductivity 0.8W/mK. The heat transfer coefficient
is 4W/m2K. Also find the heat transfer after insulation for sphere surface
temperature 45oC and an ambient temperature 12oC.

T1 = 45 oC, Ta=12oC
K = 0.8W/mK
ho = 4 W/m2K
520
r1   260mm  0.26m
2

2k
Critical radius of insulation rc 
ho

2 x 0.8
  0.4m
4

 T 1  Ta   T 1  Ta 
Heat transfer from insulated sphere, Qi  
 rc  r1 1   rc  r 1 1 
     
 4 kr1rc Aho   4 kr1rc 4 rc ho 
2

37
PDS, Dr.TTIT

 45  12 
 0.4  0.26 1 
  
 4 x 0.8 x 0.26 x 0.4 4 x 0.4 x 4 
2

Qi  127.786 W

38
PDS, Dr.TTIT

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