HT Notes Module-1
HT Notes Module-1
HT Notes Module-1
a) conduction
b) convection
c) Radiation
Conduction is the mode of energy transfer in solids. The energy transfer by conduction is due to
The law governing conduction heat transfer is Fourier law of heat conduction. It states that the
heat flow by conduction is directly proportional to the area of heat flow normal to the direction
of heat transfer and also proportional to the temperature gradient.
Q A
dT
Q
dx
dT
Q kA
dx
Where k is the proportionality constant known as thermal conductivity and its unit is W/m K or
W/ m oC. Since the heat flows is in the direction of negative temperature gradient to make the
heat flow positive the negative sign is introduced in the equation.
The thermal conductivity may be defined as a property of the material and it is a measure of the
heat flow allowed by the material per unit area per unit temperature difference. Hence higher
thermal conductivity material permits easy flow of heat through it.
Convection is the process of heat transfer through a fluid motion. Convection process involves
two mechanism of heat transfer process
a) Diffusion
b) Advection
1
PDS, Dr.TTIT
Diffusion is the process of heat flow due to random molecular motion whereas advection
involves bulk movement of fluid molecules. Heat transfer process by convection usually
involves both mechanisms of heat transfer. Convection process usually involves heat flow from a
surface to fluid by conduction process and later the heat flow through the fluid takes place by
convection process.
Convection heat flow can be classified in to natural convection and forced convection. Natural
convection is the process of heat flow due to density difference or buoyancy difference. The fluid
which comes in contact with a hot surface become lighter and rises to the top and cold fluid
occupy its space. This is how natural convection takes place. In forced convection heat transfer,
an external agency like fan or blower is used to circulate the fluid to enhance the rate of heat
transfer. The law governing convection heat flow is Newton’s law of cooling. It states that the
convection heat transfer from a surface is proportional to the area of the surface and temperature
difference between the surface and the fluid.
Q A
Q T
Q hAT
Where h is known as heat transfer coefficient and its unit is W/m2 K or W/ m2 oC. It is the rate of
heat flow from a surface per unit area per unit temperature difference. The heat transfer
coefficient depends on the fluid surface combination and also the type of convection process (ie.
Natural or forced convection).
All bodies above absolute zero temperature emit radiation and receive radiation. The energy
transfer by this radiation heat exchange process causes radiation heat transfer. The radiation
energy is transmitted through space in the form of electromagnetic waves and strike on other
surfaces, resulting in energy transfer. The radiations can travel through an empty space
(vacuum). In fact the vacuum is ideal for radiation heat flow.
The law governing radiation heat transfer is Stefan Boltzmann law. It states that for a black body
(A surface which absorbs all the incident radiations on it) the radiation emitted from its surface
per unit area (heat flux) is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.
Q T 4 , Q T 4
Where σ is the Stefan Boltzmann constant and its value is 5.669 x 10-8 W/m2 K4.
For a plane wall of thickness L whose either faces are maintained at uniform temperatures T1 and
T2 . The boundary conditions can be given as when x = 0, T = T1 and at x = L, T = T2
2
PDS, Dr.TTIT
T 0, t T1 T L, t TL
ie T(0, t) = T1
T(L, t) = T2
ii) Prescribed heat flux boundary condition (Boundary condition of second kind)
If the rate of heat supply to a boundary is constant, such as heating the boundary by an electrical
heater, the boundary condition is called heat flux boundary condition. In such case the heat flux
at the surface is equal to the heat conducted.
qo qL
dT
At x 0, q x q 0 k
dx x0
dT
At x L, q x qL k
dx x L
If the heat is convected from or to a boundary, the heat conducted at the boundary will be equal
to heat convected. The boundary condition is called heat convective boundary condition.
dT
At x 0, h T T 1 x 0 k
dx x 0
dT
At x L, h T 2 T x L k
dx x L
3
PDS, Dr.TTIT
3) Derive the three-dimensional heat conduction equation in Cartesian coordinates.
Consider an element of size dx, dy and dz in the path of heat flow. The element is located at
distances x, y and z from the co-ordinate axes. A heat source within the element generates heat at
the rate of q ' per unit time per unit volume.
Y
Q y dy
Q z dz
Q x dx
Qx
Qz dy
x
dx dz
y Qy
X
The net heat flow into the element per unit time + Heat generated per unit time = Change in
internal energy per unit time + WD/ unit time.
The first term of the above equation is due to the heat flow in three directions.
The heat energy entering the element per unit time due to heat flow in x-direction.
(Qx )
Qx Qx dx Qx Qx dx
x
(Qx )
dx
x
T
(kxAx )dx
x x
T
(kxdydz )dx
x x
T
(kx )dxdydz
x x
4
PDS, Dr.TTIT
Similarly heat energy entering the element per unit time due to flow in y-direction
T
(ky )dxdydz
y y
In z- direction
T
(kz )dxdydz
z z
T T T
(kx )dxdydz (ky )dxdydz (kz )dxdydz
x x y y z z
If q ' is the heat energy generated per unit volume, the total energy generated per unit time is
q ' x volume of the element = q ' dx dy dz .
T
Change in internal energy per unit time mCp
t
T
dxdydzCp
t
T T T T
(kx )dxdydz (ky )dxdydz (kz )dxdydz q ' dxdydz dxdydzCp
x x y y z z t
T T T T
(kx ) (ky ) (kz ) q ' Cp
x x y y z z t
T T T T
2 2 2
k 2 k 2 k 2 q ' Cp
x y z t
T T T q ' Cp T
2 2 2
x 2 y 2 z 2 k k t
5
PDS, Dr.TTIT
T T T q ' 1 T
2 2 2
k
2 2 where, is known as thermal diffusivity.
x 2
y z k t Cp
The quantity represents the easiness with which heat diffuses through a given material. Higher
value of k or lower value of thermal capacity helps in better heat diffusion through a material.
T
For steady state heat transfer =0
t
Therefore 3-dimensional steady state conduction with heat generation for an isotropic material is
given by,
T T T q'
2 2 2
0
x 2 y 2 z 2 k
T T T
2 2 2
0
x 2 y 2 z 2
4) Obtain Steady state one dimensional heat flow through a slab from the governing
equation of heat transfer
Consider a plane wall with thickness L whose either side are maintained at temperatures T 1 and
T2. Since the heat flow is one dimensional the governing equation for conduction is
T
2
0
x 2
2
d T
or 0
dx 2
T1 T2
X
L
6
PDS, Dr.TTIT
Integrating once,
dT
C1 1
dx
T C1 x C 2 2
X=0, T=T1
T1=C1 x 0 + C2
C 2 T 1 3
At x=L, T=T2
T 2 T1
C1 4
L
T 2 T1
T x T1 This equation gives us the nature of variation of temperature
L
within the wall.
dT
Q kA
dx
kA x C 1
T 2 T1
kA
L
T1 T 2
kA
L
T1 T 2
Q
L
Ak
The same can be derived by direct integration. The Fourier law of heat conduction is
7
PDS, Dr.TTIT
dT
Q kA
dx
Qdx kAdT
Qdx kAdT
1 1
Q( x 2 x1) kA(T 2 T 1)
QL kA(T 1 T 2)
(T 1 T 2)
Q
L
Ak
One dimensional heat flow in a material shows similarity to the current flow in an electrical
circuit. For the current to flow in an electric circuit voltage difference is required. The current in
the circuit is given by the ratio of voltage difference to the resistance (Ohm’s law). The heat flow
in a material requires temperature difference. The heat flow is given by temperature difference
divided by a quantity which is termed as thermal resistance. For a plane wall the thermal
resistance is L / Ak . The thermal circuit for the heat flow may be represented as shown below.
L1
Q Ak1 T2
T1
5) Obtain an expression for one dimensional steady state heat transfer through a
composite slab
Consider a composite wall consisting of two different materials with thermal conductivities k 1 &
k2. For steady state heat transfer the heat flow through both materials are equal.
Ie. Q1 = Q2 = Q (say)
8
PDS, Dr.TTIT
T1 T2 T3
L1 L2
T1 T 2
Q
L1
Ak 1
T 2 T 3
Q
L2
Ak 2
L1
T1 T 2 Q 1
Ak 1
L2
T 2 T3 Q 2
Ak 2
L1 L2
Adding the two equations T 1 T 3 Q
Ak 1 Ak 2
T1 T 3
Rearranging we get Q
L1 L2
Ak 1 Ak 2
The heat transfer through the composite wall can be represented in the form of an equivalent
thermal circuit as represented in the following diagram.
L1 L2
Q Ak 1 T2 Ak 2
T1 T3
9
PDS, Dr.TTIT
6) A composite wall consists of three different layers. The thickness of the inner middle
and outer layers are 20cm, 8cm and 5cm respectively. The thermal conductivities of
inner, middle and outer layers are 65, 1.2 and 0.08 W/mK respectively. If the inner
and outer surface temperatures are 340oC and 24oC find the heat flow through the
composite wall.
Inside Outside
o
340 C 24o C
T1 T2 T3 T4
T1 = 340oC, T4 = 24oC
L1 = 20cm = 0.2m
L2 = 8cm = 0.08m
L3 = 5cm = 0.05m
T1 T 4
Heat transfer through the composite wall, Q
L1 L2 L3
Ak 1 Ak 2 Ak 3
340 24
Q For unit cross sectional area of the wall
0.2 0.08 0.05
1x 65 1x1.2 1x 0.08
Q 454.844 W
10
PDS, Dr.TTIT
7) Obtain an expression for one dimensional steady state heat transfer through a
composite wall with inside and outside exposed to fluid with a convection resistance
Consider the heat flow through a composite wall consisting of two different materials with
thermal conductivities k1 and k2. The heat transfer coefficient for the heat flow from fluid inside
to the wall is hi and outside convection heat transfer coefficient for the heat flow is h o. The inside
temperature of the fluid is Ti and outside fluid temperature is To. When the steady state heat
transfer takes place, the heat flow from the fluid to the inside surface, heat flow through the first
material, heat flow through the second material and heat transfer from outside wall to the
surrounding fluid, all are equal.
Ti, T1 T2 T3 To,
hi ho
L1 L2
Heat flow from fluid inside to the inner surface of the wall
Ti T 1
Q
1
hA
T1 T 2
Q
L1
Ak 1
T 2 T 3
Q
L2
Ak 2
T 3 To
Q
1
hA
11
PDS, Dr.TTIT
Rearranging the equations
1
Ti T 1 Q 1
hiA
L1
T1 T 2 Q 2
Ak 1
L2
T 2 T 3 Q 3
Ak 2
1
T 3 To Q 4
hoA
1 L1 L2 1
Adding the two equations Ti To Q
hiA Ak 1 Ak 2 hoA
Ti To
Rearranging we get Q
1 L1 L2 1
hiA Ak 1 Ak 2 hoA
The heat transfer through the composite wall can be represented in the form of an equivalent
thermal circuit as represented in the following diagram.
1 L1 L2
1
Ti Q hiA T1 Ak 1 T2 Ak 2 T3 hoA To
8) A composite wall constructed of three layers. The first layer has 350mm thick and
has a thermal conductivity 40W/mK. The middle layer is 120mm thick and its
thermal conductivity is 4.2 W/mK. The outer layer of insulating material is 15mm
thick and has a thermal conductivity 0.09 W/mK. The inside and outside surfaces of
the wall are exposed to gases at 285oC and 38oC respectively with convective heat
transfer coefficients 250 W/m2K and 18W/m2K. Find the heat flow through the
composite wall in 2 hour.
12
PDS, Dr.TTIT
Inside Outside
Ti 285 o C T4 To 38 C
o
T1 T2 T3
350 120 15
Ti = 285oC, To = 38oC
L1 = 350mm = 0.35m
L2 = 120mm = 0.12m
L3 = 15mm = 0.015m
T1 T 4
Heat transfer through the composite wall, Q
1 L1 L2 1
hi A Ak 1 Ak 2 ho A
285 38
Q For unit cross sectional area of the
1 0.35 0.12 0.015 1
1x 250 1x 40 1x 4.2 1x 0.09 1x18
wall
Q 937.226 W or J/s
= 6748027.2 J
Q 6.748 MJ
Between the layers of the wall a contact resistance may exist if the walls are not making perfect
contact. This is due to the resistance offered by the stagnant air present in the gap. The unit for
contact resistance per unit area is m2K/W. If the resistance between layers per unit area is Rc, the
total resistance for an area is calculated by dividing Rc by the contact area.
13
PDS, Dr.TTIT
Air gap due to imperfect contact
Due to contact resistance, there will be a sudden drop in temperature at the interface. The total
resistance can be calculated by adding the contact resistance to the resistance of the layers. For
two layers with fluid convection on either side & contact resistance between layers, the heat
transfer is given by
Ti To
Q
1 L1 Rc L 2 1
hiA Ak 1 A Ak 2 hoA
The heat flow through the composite wall with contact resistance in between can be represented
in the form of an equivalent thermal circuit as represented in the following diagram. At the
interface between the walls the temperature drops from T 2 ' to T 2 '' due to the contact resistance.
1 L1 Rc L2 1
Ti Q hiA T1 Ak 1 T2 ' A T 2 '' Ak 2 T3 hoA To
10) A wall of a furnace is made up of inside layer of silica brick 120mm thick covered with a
layer of magnesite brick 240mm thick. The temperature at the inside surface of silica brick
wall and outside surface of magnesite brick wall are 725 oC and 110 oC respectively. The
contact thermal resistance between the two walls at the interface is 0.0035 oC/W per unit
wall area. If thermal conductivities of silica and magnesite bricks are 1.7 w/m oC and 5.8
w/m oC, calculate i) The rate of heat loss per unit area of walls and ii) The temperature
drop at the interface.
14
PDS, Dr.TTIT
T1
T2 '
T2 ''
T3
120 240
Or Rc = 0. 0035 m2 oC/W
L1 = 120mm = 0.12m
L2 = 240mm = 0.24m
T1 T 3
Heat transfer through the composite wall, Q
L1 Rc L 2
Ak 1 A Ak 2
725 110
Q For unit cross sectional area of the wall
0.12 0.0035 0.24
1x1.7 1 1x 5.8
Q 5326.172 W
T1 T 2 ' L1
Q Rearranging we get, T 2 ' T 1 Q
L1 Ak 1
Ak 1
0.12
T 2' 725 5326.172x 349.035 C
o
1x1.7
T 2 ' T 2 '' Rc
Q Rearranging we get, T 2 '' T 2 ' Q
Rc A
A
15
PDS, Dr.TTIT
0.0035
T 2 '' 349.035 5326.172x 330.393 C
o
1
11) A composite wall is made up of three layers of thickness 25cm, 10cm and 15cm of
material A,B and C respectively. The thermal conductivities of A and B are 1.7
W/mK and 9.5 W/mK respectively. The outside surface is exposed to air at 20 oC with
convection coefficient of 15 W/m2K and the inside is exposed to gases at 1200 oC with
convection coefficient of 28 W/m2K and the inside surface is at 1080oC. Determine
the unknown thermal conductivity of layer made up of material C.
L1 = 25cm = 0.25m
L2 = 10cm = 0.10m
L3 = 15cm = 0.15m
Heat transfer through the composite wall is equal to the heat flow from the gases to the
Ti T 1
wall which is given by, Q
1
hi A
1200 1080
Q 3360 W For unit cross sectional area of the wall
1
1x 28
Ti To
Q
1 La Lb Lc 1
hiA Aka Akb Akc hoA
1200 20
3360
1 0.25 0.1 0.15 1
28 x1 1x1.7 1x 9.5 1x kc 15 x1
12) The inside surface of an insulating layer is at 270 oC and the outside surface is
dissipating heat by convection in to air at 20oC. The insulation is 40 mm thick and
has a thermal conductivity 1.2 W/m oC. What is the minimum value of heat transfer
16
PDS, Dr.TTIT
coefficient at the outside surface, if the surface temperature should not exceed 70 oC
? Also calculate the heat transfer.
T1 = 270oC, T2 = 70oC, To = 20oC
ka = 1.2W/m oC
L = 40cm = 0.4m
ho=?
The rate of heat transfer required to maintain the surface temperature to 70 oC
T 1 T 2 270 70
Q 600W
L 0.4
Ak 1x1.2
The rate of heat transfer by convection from the outer surface is same, in a steady state
heat transfer process.
T 2 To 70 20
Q 600
1 1
Aho 1x ho
ho 600 / 50
ho 12W / m2 K
13) A furnace wall is made up of silica brick (k=1.6W/mK), outside magnetia brick
(k=4.8W/mK), 10cm thick each. The inside and outside surfaces are exposed to fluid
temperatures 820 oC and 120 oC respectively. Find the heat flow through the wall per
m2 per hour. Assume contact resistance of 0.002 m2K/W. Draw the temperature
profile through the composite wall. The inside and outside heat transfer coefficients
are 35W/ m2K and 12 W/ m2K respectively.
L1 = 10cm = 0.1m
L2 = 10cm = 0.1m
The equivalent thermal circuit for the heat flow is shown in below.
1 L1 Rc L2
1
Ti Q hiA T1 Ak 1 T2 ' A T 2 '' Ak 2 T3 hoA To
17
PDS, Dr.TTIT
Ti To
Heat transfer through the composite wall, Q
1 L1 Rc L 2 1
Ahi Ak 1 A Ak 2 Aho
820 120
Q
1 0.1 0.002 0.1 1
1x 35 1x1.6 1 1x 4.8 1x12
Q 3549.01W
Ti T 1 1
Q Rearranging we get, T 1 Ti Q
1 Ahi
Ahi
1 1
T 1 Ti Q 820 3549.01x 718.599 C
o
Ahi 1x 35
T1 T 2 ' L1
Q Rearranging we get, T 2' T1 Q
L1 Ak 1
Ak 1
0.1
T 2' 718.599 3549.01x 496.786 C
o
1x1.6
T 2 ' T 2 '' Rc
Q Rearranging we get, T 2'' T 2' Q
Rc A
A
0.002
T 2'' 496.786 3549.01x 489.688 C
o
1
T 2 '' T 3 L2
Q Rearranging we get, T 3 T 2 '' Q
L2 Ak 2
Ak 2
0.1
T 3 489.688 3549.01 428.498 C
o
1x 5.8
Draw the temperature profile through the composite wall is shown below
18
PDS, Dr.TTIT
T i 820 o C
T 2 ' 496.786 o C
T1 718.599oC T 2 '' 489.688 o C
T 3 428.498 o C
T o 20 o C
10cm 10cm
14) The walls of a house in a cold region is made up of three layers, an outer brick work
15cm thick, an inner wooden panel 1.2cm thick, the intermediate layer is made up of
an insulating material 7cm thick. The thermal conductivity of brick and wood are 0.7
W/mK and 0.18 W/mK respectively. The inside and outside temperature of the
composite wall are 21oC and -15oC respectively. If the layer of insulation offers twice
the thermal resistance of the brick wall, calculate i) heat loss per unit area of the wall
ii) Thermal conductivity of the insulating material.
T1=21 oC, T1= -15 oC
K1 = 0.7W/mK, k2 = ?, k3 =0.18 W/mK
L1 = 1.2cm = 0.012m
L2 = 7cm = 0.07m
L3 = 15cm = 0.15m
L1 0.012
Thermal resistance of the wooden panel 0.017143K/W
Ak 1 1x 0.7
L3 0.15
Thermal resistance of the brick wall 0.8333K/W
Ak 3 1x 0.18
Thermal resistance of the insulation = twice the thermal resistance of the brick wall
= 2 x 0.8333 = 1.6666 K/W
L2 0.07
Thermal resistance of the insulation 1.6666 K/W
Ak 2 1x k 2
Thermal conductivity of the insulation, k2 = 0.07/1.6666 = 0.042 W/mK
19
PDS, Dr.TTIT
15) Obtain one dimensional equation from three dimensional heat conduction equation
in cylindrical coordinates
The three dimensional heat conduction equation for an isotropic material with heat generation is
given by the following equation. The temperature varies with radius, angle and along the axis.
T 1 T 1 T T q ' 1 T
2 2 2
r 2 r r r 2 2 z 2 k t
For a steady state one dimensional heat conduction (along radial direction) without heat
generation the equation reduces to
T 1 T
2
0
r 2 r r
Since the temperature varies only in the radial direction we may write the equation as
2
d T 1 dT
0
dr 2 r dr
2
d T dT
r 2 0
dr dr
d dT
r 0
dr dr
16) Obtain an expression for one dimensional steady state heat transfer through a
cylinder
Consider one dimensional heat flow through a cylinder with inside radius r 1 and outside radius r2.
Let the temperature inside is T1 and outside is T2.
20
PDS, Dr.TTIT
r1
r2
L
T1
T2
d dT
r 0
dr dr
Integrating we get,
dT
r C1
dr
dT C1
1
dr r
Integrating again
T C1 log r C 2 2
When r = r1, T = T1
We get T 1 C1 log r1 C 2 3
When r = r2, T = T2
T 2 C1 log r 2 C 2 4
T 1 T 2 C1 (log r1 log r 2)
T 1 T 2 C1 log r1 / r 2
21
PDS, Dr.TTIT
C1
T 1 T 2 5
log r1 / r 2
T1
T 1 T 2 log r1 C 2
log r1 / r 2
C2 T1
T 1 T 2 log r1
log r1 / r 2
T
T 1 T 2 log r T 1 T 1 T 2 log r1
log r1 / r 2 log r1 / r 2
T T1
T 1 T 2 log(r / r1 )
log r1 / r 2
dT
Q kA
dr
dT
k 2 rL
dr
C1
k 2 rL from equation (1)
r
k 2 LC1
2 kL
T 1 T 2
log r1 / r 2
2 kL
T 1 T 2
log r 2 / r1
Q
T 1 T 2
1
log r 2 / r1
2 kL
22
PDS, Dr.TTIT
1
log( r 2 / r 1)
Q 2 k 1 L T2
T1
1
Thermal resistance of the cylinder wall is given by Rth log r 2 / r1
2 kL
dT
The heat transfer is given by Fourier law, Q kA
dr
dT
k 2 rL
dr
dT
Q k 2 rL
dr
Q
dr 2 kLdT
r
r2
Q log 2 kL T 2 T 1
r1
2 kL T 2 T 1
Q
r2
log
r1
Q
T 1 T 2
1 r2
log
2 kL r1
17) Obtain an expression for one dimensional steady state heat transfer through a
composite cylinder
Consider a composite cylinder which has inner surface temperature T1 and outer surface
temperature T3 as shown in figure. The interface temperature is T 2. The thermal conductivities of
the wall materials are k1 and k2. In a steady state heat transfer process the heat flow through the
two layers of the cylinder wall are equal (say Q)
23
PDS, Dr.TTIT
r2
r1 r3
T1
T2
T3
T1 T 2
Q
1
log(r 2 / r1)
2 k 1L
T 2 T3
Q
1
log(r 3 / r 2)
2 k 2 L
1
T1 T 2 Q log(r 2 / r1) 1
2 k 1L
1
T 2 T3 Q log(r 3 / r 2) 2
2 k 2 L
1 1
Adding the two equations T 1 T 3 Q log(r 2 / r1) log(r 3 / r 2)
2 k 1L 2 k 2 L
T1 T 3
Rearranging we get Q
1 1
log(r 2 / r1) log( r 3 / r 2)
2 k 1L 2 k 2 L
The heat transfer through the composite wall can be represented in the form of an equivalent
thermal circuit.
24
PDS, Dr.TTIT
1 1
log( r 2 / r 1) log( r 3 / r 2 )
Q 2 k 1 L T2 2 k 2 L
T1 T3
18) Obtain an expression for one dimensional steady state heat transfer through a
composite cylinder with inside and outside exposed to fluid with a convection
resistance
Consider the heat flow through a composite cylinder consisting of two different materials with
thermal conductivities k1 and k2. The heat transfer coefficient for the heat flow from fluid inside
to the wall is hi and outside convection heat transfer coefficient for the heat flow is h o. The inside
temperature of the fluid is Ti and outside fluid temperature is To. When the steady state heat
transfer takes place, the heat flow from the fluid to the inside surface, heat flow through the inner
cylinder wall, heat flow through the outer cylinder wall and heat transfer from outside wall of the
cylinder to the surrounding fluid, all are equal.
r2
r1 r3
Ti, hi
T1
T2
T3
To, ho
Heat flow from inside fluid to the inner wall of the cylinder,
Ti T 1
Q
1
hiAi
T1 T 2
Q
1
log(r 2 / r1)
2 k 1L
T 2 T3
Q
1
log(r 3 / r 2)
2 k 2 L
25
PDS, Dr.TTIT
Heat flow from the outer wall of the cylinder to the fluid outside,
Ti T 1
Q
1
h oA o
1
Ti T 1 Q 1
hiAi
1
T1 T 2 Q log(r 2 / r1) 2
2 k 1L
1
T 2 T3 Q log(r 3 / r 2) 3
2 k 2 L
1
T 3 To Q 4
hoAo
1 1 1 1
Adding the two equations T 1 T 3 Q log(r 2 / r1) log(r 3 / r 2)
hiAi 2 k 1L 2 k 2 L hoAo
Rearranging we get Q
T 1 T 3
1 1 1 1
log(r 2 / r1) log(r 3 / r 2)
hiAi 2 k 1L 2 k 2 L hoAo
The heat transfer through the composite cylinder can be represented in the form of an equivalent
thermal circuit.
1
1 1 1
hiAi log( r 2 / r 1) log( r 3 / r 2 )
Ti Q T1 2 k 1 L T2 2 k 2 L T3 hoAo To
19) A steam pipe 8cm outer diameter and 1cm thick has to be insulated with a layer of
insulation (with k = 1.4W/m K) 1.8cm thick. Steam is flowing inside the pipe at 400K
with a heat transfer coefficient 120W/m2K. The thermal conductivity of the pipe is
25W/mK. The outside of the insulation is exposed to air at 305K with convective heat
transfer coefficient 15W/ m2K.
26
PDS, Dr.TTIT
r2
r1 r3
Ti, hi
T1
T2
T3
To, ho
Ti = 400K, To = 305K
Q
T 1 T 3
1 1 1 1
log(r 2 / r1) log(r 3 / r 2)
hiAi 2 k 1L 2 k 2 L hoAo
Q
400 305
1 1 1 1
log(0.04 / 0.03) log(0.058 / 0.04)
120x2 x0.03x1 2 x25x1 2 x1.4x1 15x2 x0.058x1
Q 350.413W
20) Obtain one dimensional heat conduction equation from three-dimensional heat
conduction equation in spherical co ordinates
The three-dimensional heat conduction equation for an isotropic material with heat generation in
spherical co-ordinates is given by the following equation. The temperature varies with radius,
angle and angle .
1 2 T 1 T 1 2T q ' 1 T
r sin
r 2 r r r 2 sin r 2 sin 2 2 k t
For steady state one dimensional heat conduction (along radial direction) without heat
generation, the equation reduces to
1 2 T
r 0
r 2 r r
27
PDS, Dr.TTIT
1 d 2 dT
r 0
r 2 dr dr
21) Obtain an expression for one dimensional steady heat transfer through a sphere
For one dimensional heat transfer through a sphere, the governing equation is
r1
r2
T1
T2
1 d 2 dT
r 0
r 2 dr dr
d 2 dT
r 0
dr dr
Integrating,
dT
r2 C1
dr
dT C1
1
dr r 2
C1
T C 2 2
r
C1
T1 C 2 3
r1
C1
T2 C 2 4
r2
28
PDS, Dr.TTIT
Subtracting equation 4 from 3
C1 C1 1 1
T1 T 2 C1
r1 r 2 r1 r 2
C1
T 1 T 2 5
1 1
r1 r 2
T1
T 1 T 2 1
C2
1 1 r1
r1 r 2
C2 T1
T 1 T 2 1
1 1 r1
r1 r 2
T
T 1 T 2
1
T1
T 1 T 2 1
1 1 r 1 1 r1
r1 r 2 r1 r 2
T T1
T 1 T 2
1 1
1 1 r1 r
r1 r 2
22) Obtain an expression for one dimensional steady state heat transfer through a
composite sphere
r2
r1 r3
T1
T2
T3
T 2 T3
Q
r3 r2
4 k 2 r 2 r 3
r 2 r1
T1 T 2 Q 1
4 k 1r1r 2
r3 r2
T 2 T 3 Q 2
4 k 2 r 2 r 3
r 2 r1 r3 r2
Adding the two equations T 1 T 3 Q
4 k 1r1r 2 4 k 2 r 2 r 3
T1 T 3
Rearranging we get Q
r 2 r1 r3 r2
4 k 1r1r 2 4 k 2 r 2 r 3
The heat transfer through the composite sphere can be represented in the form of an equivalent
thermal circuit.
r 2 r1 r3 r2
Q 4 k 1r 1r 2 T2 4 k 2 r 2 r 3
T1 T3
23) Obtain an expression for one dimensional steady state heat transfer through a
composite sphere with inside and outside exposed to fluid with a convection
resistance
Consider the heat flow through a composite sphere consisting of two different materials with
thermal conductivities k1 and k2. The heat transfer coefficient for the heat flow from fluid inside
to the wall is hi and outside convection heat transfer coefficient for the heat flow is h o. The inside
temperature of the fluid is Ti and outside fluid temperature is To. When the steady state heat
transfer takes place, the heat flow from the inside fluid to the surface, heat flow through the inner
sphere wall, heat flow through the outer sphere wall and heat transfer from outside wall to the
surrounding fluid, all are equal.
30
PDS, Dr.TTIT
r2
r1 r3
Ti, hi
T1
T2
T3
To, ho
T1 T 2
Heat flow from the fluid to the inner surface of the sphere, Q
1
hiAi
T1 T 2
Heat flow from through the inner sphere wall, Q
r 2 r1
4 k 1r1r 2
T 2 T3
Heat flow from through the outer sphere wall, Q
r3 r2
4 k 2 r 2 r 3
T1 T 2
Heat flow from the outer surface of the sphere to the fluid outside, Q
1
hoAo
1
Ti T 1 Q 1
hiAi
r 2 r1
T1 T 2 Q 2
4 k 1r1r 2
r3 r2
T 2 T 3 Q 3
4 k 2 r 2 r 3
1
T 3 To Q 4
hoAo
1 r 2 r1 r3 r2 1
Adding all the four equations Ti To Q
hiAi 4 k 1r1r 2 4 k 2r 2r 3 hoAo
31
PDS, Dr.TTIT
Ti To
Rearranging we get Q
1 r 2 r1 r3 r2 1
hiAi 4 k 1r1r 2 4 k 2 r 2r 3 hoAo
The heat transfer through the composite sphere can be represented in the form of an equivalent
thermal circuit.
1 r 2 r1 r3 r2 1
Q hiAi 4 k 1r 1r 2 T2 4 k 2 r 2 r 3 T3 hoAo To
Ti T1
Consider a small diameter wire or pipe with outer radius r 1 and length L. Let its surface
temperature is T1. The heat transfer coefficient for the heat flow from its surface is ho. The heat
transfer from its surface is by purely by convection.
L
L
r1 r1
T1 Ta T1 Ta
The heat transfer from the surface of this bare wire is given by as per Newton’s law,
Qb hoA T 1 Ta
T 1 Ta
1
Aho
Now consider the wire to be insulated with an outer radius of the insulation r. The heat flow from
the wire to the surrounding is first by conduction through the insulation and finally by
convection from the surface of the insulation. The heat transfer of this insulated wire is given by
32
PDS, Dr.TTIT
L L
r1 r r1 r
T1 T1
Insulation Insulation Ta
Ta
Qi
T 1 Ta
1 1
log r / r1
2 kL Aho
For Qi to be greater than Qb the denominator of Qi should be minimum. That is if the thermal
resistance is a minimum, the heat transfer is going to be maximum.
Therefore for maximum heat transfer, differentiate the thermal resistance of insulated wire with
respect to the variable r and equate it to zero.
d 1 1
log r / r1 0
dr 2 kL Aho
d 1 1 1
log r log r1 0
dr 2 kL 2 kL 2 rLho
1 1 1
x 0 0
2 kL r 2 r 2 Lho
1 1
0
k rho
k
r rc This is known as critical radius of insulation.
ho
Hence the critical radius depends on the thermal conductivity of the insulation and the outside
heat transfer coefficient. Poor quality of insulation and low heat transfer coefficient increases the
critical radius of insulation. If the critical radius is more than the outer radius of the bare wire
addition of insulation increases the heat transfer and for critical radius the heat transfer is going
to be maximum. If the critical radius of the insulation is less than the radius of the bare wire the
addition of insulation always decrease the heat transfer.
33
PDS, Dr.TTIT
k
Critical thickness, tc r r1 r1
ho
25) A 10mm diameter cable is to be laid in an atmosphere of 20oC (ho=8.5 W/m2oC). The
surface temperature of the cable is likely to be 65oC. Discuss the percentage increase
in heat transfer for the same cable surface temperature, if the cable is insulated with
rubber having thermal conductivity of 0.15 W/moC.
T1=65oC, Ta=20oC
k=0.15 W/moC
ho=8.5 W/m2oC
10
r1 5mm 0.005m
2
65 20
1
2 x 0.005 x1x 8.5
Qb 12.017W
k
Critical radius of insulation rc
ho
0.15
0.01765m
8.5
Since the critical radius is more than the outer radius of the bare cable, insulation increases the
heat transfer. The heat transfer is maximum when the cable is insulated with critical thickness of
insulation.
T 1 Ta
1 1
log rc / r1
2 kL 2 rcLho
34
PDS, Dr.TTIT
65 20
1 1
log 0.01765 / 0.005
2 x 0.15 x1 2 x 0.01765 x1x 8.5
Qi 18.757 W
18.757 12.017 x100
12.017
Ta=25oC, T1=?
k=0.25 W/moC
ho=15 W/m2oC
1
r1 0.5mm 0.0005m
2
200
T 1 25
1
2 x 0.0005 x10 x15
k
Critical radius of insulation rc
ho
0.25
0.01667 m
15
35
PDS, Dr.TTIT
Heat transfer from insulated wire, Qi
T 1 Ta
1 1
log rc / r1
2 kL Aho
T 1 Ta
1 1
log rc / r1
2 kL 2 rc Lho
200
T 1 25
1 1
log 0.01667 / 0.0005
2 x 0.25 x10 2 x 0.01667 x10 x15
Solving, T 1 82.379 oC
Consider a small diameter sphere with outer radius r 1. Let its surface temperature is T1. The heat
transfer coefficient for the heat flow from its surface is h o. The heat transfer from its surface is by
purely by convection.
The heat transfer from the surface of this bare sphere is given by as per Newton’s law,
Qb hoA T 1 Ta
T 1 Ta
1
Aho
Now consider the sphere to be insulated with an outer radius of the insulation r. The heat flow
from the wire to the surrounding is first by conduction through the insulation and finally by
convection from the surface of the insulation. The heat transfer of this insulated sphere is given
by
Qi
T 1 Ta
r r1 1
4 kr1r Aho
For Qi to be greater than Qb the denominator of Qi should be minimum. That is if the thermal
resistance is a minimum, the heat transfer is going to be maximum.
Therefore for maximum heat transfer, differentiate the thermal resistance of insulated wire with
respect to the variable r and equate it to zero.
d r r1 1
0
dr 4 kr1r Aho
36
PDS, Dr.TTIT
d 1 1 1
0
dr 4 kr1 4 kr 4 r 2 ho
1 2
0 0
4 kr 4 r 3ho
2
1 2
0
k rho
2k
r rc This is known as critical radius of insulation.
ho
Hence similar to wires and pipes, the critical radius depends on the thermal conductivity of the
insulation and the heat transfer coefficient. Poor quality of insulation and low heat transfer
coefficient increases the critical radius of insulation. If the critical radius is more than the outer
radius of the bare sphere addition of insulation increases the heat transfer and for critical radius
the heat transfer is going to be maximum. If the critical radius of the insulation is less than the
radius of the bare sphere the addition of insulation always decrease the heat transfer.
2k
Critical thickness, tc rc r1 r1
ho
28) Find the critical thickness of insulation for a 520mm diameter sphere, if insulated
with insulation having thermal conductivity 0.8W/mK. The heat transfer coefficient
is 4W/m2K. Also find the heat transfer after insulation for sphere surface
temperature 45oC and an ambient temperature 12oC.
T1 = 45 oC, Ta=12oC
K = 0.8W/mK
ho = 4 W/m2K
520
r1 260mm 0.26m
2
2k
Critical radius of insulation rc
ho
2 x 0.8
0.4m
4
T 1 Ta T 1 Ta
Heat transfer from insulated sphere, Qi
rc r1 1 rc r 1 1
4 kr1rc Aho 4 kr1rc 4 rc ho
2
37
PDS, Dr.TTIT
45 12
0.4 0.26 1
4 x 0.8 x 0.26 x 0.4 4 x 0.4 x 4
2
Qi 127.786 W
38
PDS, Dr.TTIT