“FILE ORGANIZATION”

Prepared By
Prof. Anand N. Gharu
(Assistant Professor)
Computer Dept.
CLASS : SE COMPUTER 2019 22 April 2024
SUBJECT : DSA (SEM-II)Note: The material to prepare this presentation has been taken from internet and are generated only
1
.UNIT : VI .
for students reference and not for commercial use
SYLLABUS
 SYLLABUS
• Files: concept, need, primitive operations.

• Sequential file organization- concept and primitive

operations

• Direct Access File- Concepts and Primitive operations,

• Indexed sequential file organization-concept,

• Types of indices, structure of index sequential file,

• Linked Organization- multi list files, coral rings,

inverted files and cellular partitions.
 INTRODUCTION
• The File is a collection of records. Using the primary key, we can access
the records. The type and frequency of access can be determined by the
type of file organization which was used for a given set of records.
• File organization is a logical relationship among various records. This
method defines how file records are mapped onto disk blocks.
• File organization is used to describe the way in which the records are
stored in terms of blocks, and the blocks are placed on the storage medium.
• The first approach to map the database to the file is to use the several files
and store only one fixed length record in any given file. An alternative
approach is to structure our files so that we can contain multiple lengths for
records.
• Files of fixed length records are easier to implement than the files of
variable length records.
 INTRODUCTION
Objectives of File Organization in Data Structure

• It contains an optimal selection of records, i.e., records can be

selected as fast as possible.
• To perform insert, delete or update transaction on the records
should be quick and easy.
• The duplicate records cannot be induced as a result of insert,
update or delete.
• For the minimal cost of storage, records should be stored
efficiently.
 INTRODUCTION
• A file is a collection of records which holds
information of similar data. Almost all
information stored in a computer system is a
file.

• Need of file organization :

Way to organize & store data in a manner which
determines standard method of data access,
efficiency and flexibility.
 INTRODUCTION
• Different types o file available :
e.g. text files, program files, directory files etc
 INTRODUCTION
Types of files supported by ‘C’
• A stream refers to the flow of data from one place
(storage) to another (program ) or vice-versa.
• C can handle files as Stream-oriented data and System
oriented data.

• There are two types of streams Text & Binary streams

• Text Stream
1. It consists of sequence of characters and
each line is terminated by a newline
character.
2. The I/O operations like buffering, data conversions,
etc. take place automatically.
 INTRODUCTION
Types of files supported by ‘C’
There are two types of streams Text & Binary streams
• Binary Stream
1. It is a series of bytes.
2. Binary streams are primarily used for non-textual data,
which is required to keep exact contents of the file.
3. These are System-oriented data files that are more closely
associated with the OS and data stored in memory without
converting into text format.
 Types of File Organization
• Types of file organization:
• File organization contains various methods. These particular
methods have pros and cons on the basis of access or selection. In
the file organization, the programmer decides the best-suited file
organization method according to his requirement.
• Types of file organization are as follows:
 Types of File Organization
• Sequential file organization
• Indexed File
• Direct Access File
• Heap file organization
• Hash file organization
• B+ file organization
• Indexed sequential access method (ISAM)
• Cluster file organization
 Types of File Organization
• Sequential file organization :
Sequential file access is the most straightforward method of accessing files.
This method accesses data as one record at a time by starting from the
beginning of the file to its end. Moreover, the records are read or written in
the order they appear in the file.
Sequential file access is best suited for applications that linearly process data,
such as reading or writing data to a log file or processing data in batch
operations. For example, when analyzing a large dataset, it may be beneficial
to write the data to a sequential file and then read it in one record at a time to
perform the desired analysis.
 Types of File Organization
• Sequential file organization :

The main advantage of sequential file access is its simplicity, which makes
it easy to implement and use. In contrast, its main disadvantage is that it can
be slow and inefficient for random access operations or when working with
large files.
 Types of File Organization
Sequential file organization :
• Advantages of sequential file

1. • It is simple to program and easy to design.

2. • Sequential file is best use if storage space.

• Disadvantages of sequential file

1. • Sequential file is time consuming process.

2. • It has high data redundancy.

3. • Random searching is not possible.

 Types of File Organization
• Sequential file organization :
1. Pile File Method
It is a quite simple method. In this method, we store the record in a sequence,
i.e., one after another. Here, the record will be inserted in the order in which
they are inserted into tables.
In case of updating or deleting of any record, the record will be searched in
the memory blocks. When it is found, then it will be marked for deleting, and
the new record is inserted.
 Types of File Organization
• Sequential file organization :
1. Pile File Method
Insertion of the new record:
Suppose we have four records R1, R3 and so on upto R9 and R8 in a
sequence. Hence, records are nothing but a row in the table. Suppose we want
to insert a new record R2 in the sequence, then it will be placed at the end of
the file. Here, records are nothing but a row in any table.
 Types of File Organization
• Sequential file organization :
2. Sorted File Method:
In this method, the new record is always inserted at the file's end, and then it
will sort the sequence in ascending or descending order. Sorting of records is
based on any primary key or any other key.
In the case of modification of any record, it will update the record and then
sort the file, and lastly, the updated record is placed in the right place.
 Types of File Organization
• Sequential file organization :
2. Sorted File Method:
Insertion of the new record:
Suppose there is a preexisting sorted sequence of four records R1, R3 and so
on upto R6 and R7. Suppose a new record R2 has to be inserted in the
sequence, then it will be inserted at the end of the file, and then it will sort the
sequence..
 Types of File Organization
• Sequential file organization :
• Advantages of Sequential File Organization
1. Fast and efficient method for huge amounts of data.
2. In this method, files can be easily stored in cheaper storage mechanism like
magnetic tapes.
3. It is simple in design. It requires no much effort to store the data.
4. Files can be easily stored in magnetic tapes i.e. cheaper storage mechanism.

• Disadvantages of Sequential File Organization

1. Time wastage as we cannot jump on a particular record that is required, but we
have to move in a sequential manner which takes our time.
2. The sorted file method is inefficient as it takes time and space for sorting
records.
 Types of File Organization
• Indexed File Organization :
• Indexed sequential access file combines both sequential file and direct
access file organization.
• In indexed sequential access file, records are stored randomly on a direct
access device such as magnetic disk
by a primary key.
• This file have multiple keys. These keys can be alphanumeric in which the
records are ordered is called
primary key.
• The data can be access either sequentially or randomly using the index. The
index is stored in a file and read
into memory when the file is opened
 Types of File Organization
• Indexed File Organization :
Indexed file access is a method that incorporates the benefits of both
sequential and direct file access. This method involves creating an index file
that maps logical keys or data elements to their corresponding physical
addresses within the file. Moreover, the system stores the index separately
from the data file, enabling quick access to locate the desired data.

Indexed file access is best suited for applications that require fast access to
particular data elements within a large file. For example, in a file system, we
may need to access specific files based on their name or location. The index
created for the file system allows quick access to the file’s physical location,
enabling efficient access.

The main advantage of indexed file access is its speed and efficiency for
random and sequential access operations. But, its main disadvantage is that
it requires additional storage space for the index, which can increase the cost
and complexity of the system.
 Types of File Organization
• Indexed File Organization :
 Types of File Organization
• Indexed Sequential Access Method (ISAM) file organization :
ISAM method is an advanced sequential file organization. In this method,
records are stored in the file using the primary key. An index value is
generated for each primary key and mapped with the record. This index
contains the address of the record in the file.
If any record has to be retrieved based on its index value, then the address of
the data block is fetched and the record is retrieved from the memory.
 Types of File Organization
• Indexed Sequential Access Method (ISAM) file organization :
• Advantages :
• In indexed sequential access file, sequential file and random file access is
possible.
• It accesses the records very fast if the index table is properly organized.
• The records can be inserted in the middle of the file.
• It provides quick access for sequential and direct processing.
• It reduces the degree of the sequential search.
 Types of File Organization
• Indexed Sequential Access Method (ISAM) file organization :
• Disadvantages :
• Indexed sequential access file requires unique keys and periodic
reorganization.
• Indexed sequential access file takes longer time to search the index for the
data access or retrieval.
• It requires more storage space.
• It is expensive because it requires special software.
• It is less efficient in the use of storage space as compared to other file
organizations.
 Indexing in File Organization
What is Indexing?
Indexing is a data structure technique which allows you to quickly retrieve
records from a database file. An Index is a small table having only two
columns. The first column comprises a copy of the primary or candidate key
of a table. Its second column contains a set of pointers for holding the address
of the disk block where that specific key value stored.

An index –
Takes a search key as input
Efficiently returns a collection of matching records
Indexing in File Organization
TYPES OF INDEXING
 Indexing in File Organization
Indexing in Database is defined based on its indexing attributes. Two
main types of indexing methods are:
1. Primary Indexing
2. Secondary Indexing

• Primary Index in DBMS

Primary Index is an ordered file which is fixed length size with two fields.
The first field is the same a primary key and second, field is pointed to that
specific data block. In the primary Index, there is always one to one
relationship between the entries in the index table.

The primary Indexing in DBMS is also further divided into two types.
1. Dense Index
2. Sparse Index
 Indexing in File Organization
Dense Index
In a dense index, a record is created for every search key valued in the
database. This helps you to search faster but needs more space to store index
records. In this Indexing, method records contain search key value and points
to the real record on the disk.
 Indexing in File Organization
Sparse Index :
It is an index record that appears for only some of the values in the file.
Sparse Index helps you to resolve the issues of dense Indexing in DBMS.
In this method of indexing technique, a range of index columns stores the
same data block address, and when data needs to be retrieved, the block
address will be fetched.
However, sparse Index stores index records for only some search-key values.
It needs less space, less maintenance overhead for insertion, and deletions but
It is slower compared to the dense Index for locating records.
 Indexing in File Organization
Sparse Index :
Below is an database index Example of Sparse Index
 Indexing in File Organization
Clustered Indexing: When more than two records are stored in the same file this type
of storing is known as cluster indexing. By using cluster indexing we can reduce the
cost of searching reason being multiple records related to the same thing are stored in
one place and it also gives the frequent joining of more than two tables (records).
The clustering index is defined on an ordered data file. The data file is ordered on a
non-key field. In some cases, the index is created on non-primary key columns which
may not be unique for each record. In such cases, in order to identify the records
faster, we will group two or more columns together to get the unique values and create
an index out of them. This method is known as the clustering index. Essentially,
records with similar properties are grouped together, and indexes for these groupings
are formed.
Students studying each semester, for example, are grouped together. First-semester
students, second-semester students, third-semester students, and so on are categorized
 Indexing in File Organization
Cluster indexing :
 Indexing in File Organization
Non Clustered or Secondary Indexing :
The secondary Index in DBMS can be generated by a field which has a
unique value for each record, and it should be a candidate key. It is also
known as a non-clustering index.

This two-level database indexing technique is used to reduce the mapping

size of the first level. For the first level, a large range of numbers is selected
because of this; the mapping size always remains small.
 Indexing in File Organization
Secondary Index Example
Let’s understand secondary indexing with a database index
example:
In a bank account database, data is stored sequentially by acc_no;
you may want to find all accounts in of a specific branch of ABC
bank.

Here, you can have a secondary index in DBMS for every search-
key. Index record is a record point to a bucket that contains pointers
to all the records with their specific search-key value.
 Indexing in File Organization
Secondary Index Example
 Indexing in File Organization
Secondary Index Example
 Indexing in File Organization
Multilevel Indexing: With the growth of the size of the database,
indices also grow. As the index is stored in the main memory, a
single-level index might become too large a size to store with
multiple disk accesses. The multilevel indexing segregates the main
block into various smaller blocks so that the same can be stored in a
single block. The outer blocks are divided into inner blocks which in
turn are pointed to the data blocks. This can be easily stored in the
main memory with fewer overheads.
 Indexing in File Organization
Multilevel Indexing:
 Indexing in File Organization
Advantages of Indexing
Important pros/ advantage of Indexing are:
1. It helps you to reduce the total number of I/O operations needed
to retrieve that data, so you don’t need to access a row in the
database from an index structure.
2. Offers Faster search and retrieval of data to users.
3. Indexing also helps you to reduce tablespace as you don’t need
to link to a row in a table, as there is no need to store the ROWID
in the Index. Thus you will able to reduce the tablespace.
4. You can’t sort data in the lead nodes as the value of the primary
key classifies it.
 Indexing in File Organization
Disadvantages of Indexing :
Important drawbacks/cons of Indexing are:
1. To perform the indexing database management system, you need
a primary key on the table with a unique value.
2. You can’t perform any other indexes in Database on the Indexed
data.
3. You are not allowed to partition an index-organized table.
4. SQL Indexing Decrease performance in INSERT, DELETE, and
UPDATE query.
 Types of File Organization
• Direct Access File organization :
Direct access file is also known as random access or relative file organization.
• In direct access file, all records are stored in direct access storage device
(DASD), such as hard disk. The
records are randomly placed throughout the file.
• The records does not need to be in sequence because they are updated
directly and rewritten back in the
same location.
• This file organization is useful for immediate access to large amount of
information. It is used in accessing
large databases.
• It is also called as hashing.
 Types of File Organization
• Direct Access File organization :
• Direct file access, also known as random access.
• It allows us to access data directly from any location within the file,
without the need to read or write all the records that come before it.
Furthermore, this method accesses records within the file by using their
physical addresses or positions.
• Direct file access is best suited for applications that require quick and
efficient access to specific records or data elements within a file.
• For example, in a database application, we may need to quickly retrieve
customer data based on a specific customer ID. Direct file access can
quickly access the record containing the customer data without having to
read through all the records that come before it.
 Types of File Organization
• Direct Access File organization :
The main advantage of direct file access is its speed and efficiency for
random access operations. On the other hand, its main disadvantage is that it
can be more complex and difficult to implement and use than sequential file
access.
 Types of File Organization
• Direct Access File organization :
 Types of File Organization
Direct Access File Organization :
Advantages of direct access file organization
1. • Direct access file helps in online transaction processing system (OLTP)
like online railway reservation system.
2. • In direct access file, sorting of the records are not required.
3. • It accesses the desired records immediately.
4. • It updates several files quickly.
5. • It has better control over record allocation.

Disadvantages of direct access file organization

1. • Direct access file does not provide back up facility.
2. • It is expensive.
3. • It has less storage space as compared to sequential file.
Comparison of file method
 File Openin/Closing Modes
• File opening/Closing modes in C++:
 File Operation
• File modes in C++:
In C++, files can be opened in various modes depending on the
operations we want to perform on them. Here are the commonly used
file modes in C++:
std::ios::in:
This mode is considered when we want to open a file for reading. When this
mode opens a file, we can only read from it but not write to it.
 File Operation
• File modes in C++:
std::ios::out:
This mode is considered when we want to open a file for writing.
When this mode opens a file, we can only write to it but not read
from it. If the file doesn't exist, it will be created.

std::ios::app:
This mode is considered when we want to open a file and append
data to the end of it. If the file doesn't exist, it will be created.
 File Operation
• File modes in C++:
std::ios::ate:
This mode is considered when we want to open a file and seek to the
end of it immediately. This is useful when we want to append data to
the end of a file or read the entire file at once.

std::ios::binary:
This mode is considered when we want to open a file in binary mode.
In binary mode, no newline translation is performed, and the file is
treated as a sequence of bytes. This mode is typically used when
working with non-text files such as images or executables.
 File Operation
• Opening a file in C++:
To open a file in C++, we can use the ofstream and ifstream classes. The
ofstream class is used to write to a file, while the ifstream class is used to read
from a file. Both classes are derived from the fstream class, which can be
used for reading and writing files.
Below is an example of how to open a file for writing using the ofstream
class:
 LINKED ORGANIZATION
• In a linked organization, the elements or components of the
system are connected through relationships, but the order in which
they occur may not be fixed. In Linked Organization, elements
might or might not be stored in consecutive memory locations and
the order is determined by the links between elements. This makes
it easy to insert and delete elements without requiring any
movement of other elements and it can be extended or reduced
according to requirements.
 LINKED ORGANIZATION
• In a linked organization, the elements or components of the
system are connected through relationships, but the order in which
they occur may not be fixed. In Linked Organization, elements
might or might not be stored in consecutive memory locations and
the order is determined by the links between elements. This makes
it easy to insert and delete elements without requiring any
movement of other elements and it can be extended or reduced
according to requirements.
 LINKED ORGANIZATION
Multikey File Organization :
When a file records are made accessed based on more than one key are
called as Multikey file organization. This file organization is needed many
times. E.g. In banking system we keep records of accounts in file. Now
account holder needs account information which can be access through
account no, while loan officer needs account records with a given value of
overdue limit. So we need to provide to access path to the record based on
different need. Generally these files are index sequential file in which file is
stored sequentially based on primary key and more than one index table are
provided based on different keys. Basically there are 2 approaches for
implementing multi key organization.
 LINKED ORGANIZATION
Inverted File Organization:
In this file organization a key’s inversion index contain all of the
values that the key presently has in the records of the data file. Each
key-value entry in the inversion index points to all of the data records
that have the corresponding value. The data file is said to be inverted
on that key. Inverted files are sorted on inversion index so that binary
search can be applied to find out index of record. Whenever record is
added in data file its corresponding entry has to be made in inverted
file.
 LINKED ORGANIZATION
Multi List File Organization:
In multi list file organization the index contain all values that the
secondary key has in data file same as inverted file but the difference
is that the entry in the multi index for a secondary key value is
pointer to the first data record with that key value. That data record
contains pointer to second record having same key. Thus there is a
linked list of data records for each value of secondary key. Multi list
chains usually are bidirectional and occasionally are circular to
improve update operation.
 LINKED ORGANIZATION
Example :
 LINKED ORGANIZATION
Example :
Coral Ring
Coral Ring
Cellular Partition
 References
1. https://www.javatpoint.com/dbms-sequential-file-organization
2. https://www.javatpoint.com/opening-and-closing-a-file-in-c-in-
cpp-pdf
3. https://www.javatpoint.com/dbms-cluster-file-organization
4. https://www.baeldung.com/cs/file-access
5. https://www.guru99.com/indexing-in-
database.html#:~:text=Two%20main%20types%20of%20indexin
g%20methods%20are%201)Primary%20Indexing,Dense%20Ind
ex%202)Sparse%20Index.
6. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/indexing-in-databases-set-1/
 References
1. https://coursecontent.indusuni.ac.in/wp-
content/uploads/sites/8/2020/03/CE0417_FDS_UNIT4-ZT-
file_structure-converted.pdf
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