Q1) Explain WAP gateway

The WAP Gateway utilizes Web proxy technology to provide efficient wireless access to the
Internet. A proxy plays the roles of both server and client, making requests on behalf of the
client. Because the WAP handset (a client) can not directly communicate with the origin server
(a web server), the WAP Gateway serves as a proxy to handle the requests from the WAP
handset, and passes the requests to the origin servers. On the Internet side, the WAP Gateway
translates requests from the WAP protocol stack to the Internet protocol stack (HTTP and
TCP/IP). On the wireless network side, the encoder/decoder in the WAP Gateway performs
WML text and bytecode conversion to reduce the information transmitted overthe wireless
networks. The WAP Gateway typically supports the DNS service to resolve the domain names
used in URLs. It also provides quick response to the WAP handsets by aggregating data from
different origin servers, and by caching frequently used information. Though the WAP
specifications do not specify mechanisms for charging or subscription management, the WAP
architecture suggests that appropriate charging information can be collected in the WAP
Gateway, where the WAP security protocol can be used to authenticate the subscriber

Q2) WAP architecture with diagram and protocol

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3) Quality of services in 3g
4)features of UMTS

5)Features of 5G
6) Applications of 4G

4G (Fourth Generation) networks enable a wide range of applications that benefit from faster
data speeds, lower latency, and improved reliability compared to previous generations of
mobile networks. Here are some key applications of 4G technology:

1. **High-Speed Internet Access**: 4G networks provide significantly faster data speeds

compared to 3G, making them ideal for high-speed internet access on mobile devices. Users
can browse the web, stream HD videos, and download large files quickly and seamlessly.

2. **Video Streaming**: With 4G, users can enjoy high-definition video streaming on their
mobile devices without buffering or interruptions. Popular video streaming platforms like
YouTube, Netflix, and Hulu deliver smooth video playback over 4G networks, enabling users to
watch their favorite shows and movies on the go.

3. **Online Gaming**: 4G networks offer low latency and high data speeds, making them
suitable for online gaming. Gamers can play multiplayer games in real-time, participate in
online tournaments, and communicate with other players without experiencing significant lag
or delays.

4. **Video Calling and Conferencing**: 4G enables high-quality video calling and conferencing
applications like Skype, Zoom, and FaceTime. Users can make video calls with friends, family, or
colleagues, conduct virtual meetings, and collaborate remotely with ease.

5. **Mobile Banking and Payments**: 4G networks support mobile banking and payment
applications, allowing users to perform secure transactions on their smartphones or tablets.
Users can check account balances, transfer funds, pay bills, and make purchases using mobile
payment services like Apple Pay, Google Pay, and Samsung Pay.

6. **Location-Based Services**: 4G networks enable location-based services (LBS) that utilize

GPS and other positioning technologies to provide users with location-specific information and
services. LBS applications include navigation and mapping services, location-based advertising,
geotagging in social media apps, and location-based gaming.

7. **IoT (Internet of Things)**: 4G networks support a wide range of IoT devices and
applications, enabling connectivity and data exchange between smart devices and sensors. IoT
applications include smart home automation, industrial automation, remote monitoring and
control, asset tracking, and environmental monitoring.
8. **Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR)**: 4G networks enable AR and VR
applications that overlay digital content onto the physical world or create immersive virtual
environments. Users can experience AR and VR content on their mobile devices or through
dedicated AR/VR headsets for gaming, entertainment, education, training, and more.

CHP 4

7) WLL architecture
8) Various technology used in WLL
9) Explain different types of WLL

WLL (Wireless Local Loop) refers to a wireless communication system that connects subscribers
to the public switched telephone network (PSTN) using radio signals, thereby replacing the
traditional wired local loop (telephone lines). There are several types of WLL systems, each with
its own characteristics and implementation:

1. **Fixed WLL**: Fixed WLL systems are stationary wireless communication systems deployed
in a fixed location, typically in rural or remote areas where it is not feasible or economical to
install wired telephone lines. These systems provide voice and data communication services to
subscribers within a limited geographical area.

2. **Cordless WLL**: Cordless WLL systems are designed to provide wireless connectivity
within a limited range around the subscriber's premises, similar to cordless telephones.
Subscribers use a cordless handset to make and receive calls, but the connection to the PSTN is
established wirelessly, eliminating the need for physical telephone lines within the premises.

3. **Mobile WLL**: Mobile WLL systems combine the features of mobile cellular networks with
the coverage of fixed WLL systems. Subscribers can use mobile WLL devices (such as fixed
wireless phones or terminals) to access voice and data services both indoors and outdoors
within the coverage area. Mobile WLL systems are often deployed in areas with inadequate or
limited wireline infrastructure.

4. **Broadband WLL**: Broadband WLL systems provide high-speed internet access using
wireless technology, typically based on technologies like WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability
for Microwave Access) or LTE (Long-Term Evolution). These systems offer broadband internet
connectivity to homes, businesses, and other subscribers in areas where wired broadband
infrastructure is unavailable or inadequate.

5. **CDMA WLL**: CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) WLL systems use CDMA technology
to provide wireless voice and data communication services. These systems leverage the
advantages of CDMA technology, such as efficient spectrum utilization and improved call
quality, to offer reliable connectivity to subscribers over a wide area.

6. **GSM WLL**: GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) WLL systems use GSM
technology to provide wireless communication services to subscribers in areas with limited or
no wired telephone infrastructure. These systems are based on the GSM standard and typically
operate in the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz frequency bands, offering voice and data services to
subscribers within the coverage area.

10) Describe LEC network

LEC stands for Local Exchange Carrier, which is a telecommunications company that provides
local telephone services within a specific geographic area. LECs operate at the local level and
are responsible for connecting individual subscribers to the larger telecommunications
network, including long-distance carriers and the internet.

1. **Central Offices (COs)**: Central offices are facilities where LECs house the switching
equipment necessary to connect local telephone lines and routes calls within the local
exchange area. COs serve as the central points of presence for subscribers within a specific
geographic region.

2. **Local Loops**: Local loops are the physical copper or fiber-optic cables that connect
individual subscribers' premises (homes, businesses) to the central office. These loops carry
voice and data signals between subscribers and the CO, enabling local telephone service.

3. **Switching Equipment**: LECs deploy switching equipment within central offices to route
and connect phone calls within the local exchange area. Switches facilitate the establishment,
maintenance, and termination of voice connections between callers.
4. **Subscriber Lines**: Subscriber lines refer to the physical connections between individual
telephones or other customer premises equipment (CPE) and the central office. These lines
carry voice signals between the customer premises and the LEC's network.

5. **Digital Loop Carriers (DLCs)**: In some cases, LECs use digital loop carriers to extend the
reach of their networks and provide services to customers located farther from the central
office. DLCs aggregate multiple subscriber lines onto a single high-capacity link, enabling
efficient use of network resources.

6. **Network Interface Devices (NIDs)**: Network interface devices are installed at the
customer premises to demarcate the boundary between the LEC's network and the customer's
wiring. NIDs provide a point where customers can connect their telephones or other
communication devices to the LEC's network.

7. **Billing and Operations Support Systems (BOSS)**: LECs deploy billing and operations
support systems to manage customer accounts, bill for services rendered, and monitor network
performance. These systems handle tasks such as customer billing, service provisioning,
network monitoring, and fault management.

8. **Interconnection Points**: LECs establish interconnection points with other carriers,

including long-distance carriers and competitive local exchange carriers (CLECs), to enable the
exchange of traffic between different networks. Interconnection points facilitate the routing of
calls between subscribers served by different carriers.

11) Line coding and its properties

There are several techniques for converting an analog signal to a digital signal. However, digital
data can also be obtained from sources such as computers. The information obtained from such
a source is inherently discrete. When this type of discrete signal is transmitted over a band-
limited channel, it becomes dispersed. That is, the pulses spread out and overlap each other,
causing distortion. This distortion is known as inter-symbol interference. To avoid this, we
should not send the discrete signal while it is on the transmission medium. Instead, this data is
converted into a Pam format or line code compatible with the baseband channel before being
sent over a baseband communication channel. Line codes refer to the various pulse formats
that are used depending on the situation.

Properties

Properties of line codes:

1. No DC Component:

Every communication system such as a cable system does not allow the transmission of a dc
signal over them.

So because of that line signal must have a zero average value.

2. Self-clocking (synchronizing capability):

Symbol or bit synchronization is necessary for every digital communication system.

A sufficient amount of zero crossings must occur in the line code waveform for the receiver to
be in synchronization.

It implies that a transition must always occur after a predictable interval; this property is
referred to as the inherent synchronizing or cloaking characteristic.

3. Bandwidth compression:

The bandwidth of the line code should be as small as possible.

Comparatively to the other codes, the multilevel course requires less.

4. Differential encoding:

For communication systems where the transmitted waveform occasionally experiences an

inversion, differential encoding is helpful.

The polarity of the encoded waveform is flipped during differential encoding without impairing
the ability to identify data.
5. Noise immunity:

The selected line code should have a very high noise immunity (ability to minimize the effects of
noise).

This is necessary to have a minimum number of errors introduced due to noise.

6. Minimum crosswalk:

The crosswalk should be minimized which is transmitted present between adjacent channels.

12) Draw and Explain ASK in detail

Amplitude Shift Keying is a type of Amplitude Modulation which

represents the binary data in the form of variations in the amplitude
f a signal.Any modulated signal has a high frequency carrier. The
binary signal when ASK modulated, gives a zero value for Low input
while it gives the carrier output for High input.

Types Of ASK Demodulation

There are mainly two types of Demodulation which is performed

namely envelope detection and coherent detection technique:

-Envelope detection
-Coherent detection

13)Compare PCM , DPCM , DM

14) advantages , disadvantages & applications of Spread Spectrum

A collective class of signaling techniques are employed before transmitting a

signal to provide a secure communication, known as the Spread Spectrum
Modulation. The main advantage of spread spectrum communication
technique is to prevent “interference” whether it is intentional or
unintentional.
Disadvantages of Spread Spectrum:

1. **Bandwidth Requirement 2. **Complexity and Cost 3. **Lower Spectral Efficiency

4. **Potential for Interference with Other Systems 5. **Limited Range

6. **Power Consumption 7. **Regulatory Considerations

15) Compare DSSS and FHSS

16) Explain Wireless sensor network

17)Applications of WSN
18)Characteristics of WSN

Characteristics of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) include:

1. **Distributed Architecture**: WSNs consist of a large number of small, resource-constrained

sensor nodes distributed over a wide area, often forming an ad hoc network.

2. **Self-Organization**: Sensor nodes in WSNs can self-organize to form networks without

requiring manual configuration, enabling deployment in dynamic and inaccessible
environments.

3. **Limited Resources**: Sensor nodes typically have limited processing power, memory, and
energy resources, requiring energy-efficient protocols and algorithms to maximize network
lifetime.

4. **Multi-Hop Communication**: WSNs rely on multi-hop communication, where data is

relayed through multiple intermediate nodes to reach the sink node or base station, extending
the network's coverage area.

5. **Sensor Heterogeneity**: WSNs may consist of sensors with different sensing modalities,
such as temperature, humidity, light, and motion sensors, enabling diverse applications and
data collection.

6. **Data-centric Operations**: WSNs focus on data-centric operations, where sensor nodes

collect, process, and transmit data based on predefined events, thresholds, or queries.
7. **Adaptability**: WSNs exhibit adaptability to dynamic environmental conditions, allowing
sensor nodes to adjust their behavior and network topology in response to changes in the
environment or network conditions.

8. **Fault Tolerance**: WSNs incorporate mechanisms for fault tolerance and resilience to
node failures, environmental disturbances, and communication disruptions to ensure robust
operation in challenging environments.

9. **Low Latency and Real-time Operation**: Some WSN applications require low-latency
communication and real-time data processing to support time-sensitive tasks such as
environmental monitoring, surveillance, and disaster management.

10. **Security and Privacy Challenges**: WSNs face security and privacy challenges due to the
broadcast nature of wireless communication, resource constraints, and potential vulnerabilities
to attacks such as node compromise, eavesdropping, and data tampering.

11. **Scalability**: WSNs should be scalable to support varying network sizes and densities,
accommodating deployment in both small-scale and large-scale scenarios.

12. **Application Diversity**: WSNs support a wide range of applications across various
domains, including environmental monitoring, healthcare, agriculture, smart cities, industrial
automation, and military surveillance.

19) Draw and Explain block diagram of sensor nodes

Memory: Memory components, including both volatile (RAM) and non-volatile (flash or
EEPROM) memory, store program instructions, sensor data, network parameters, and other
relevant information. Memory is used to buffer data temporarily, store configuration settings,
and log historical data.

Power Source: The power source provides electrical energy to the sensor node to operate its
components. Depending on the application and deployment scenario, the power source may
include batteries, solar panels, energy harvesting devices, or external power supplies. Energy-
efficient design is crucial to maximize the sensor node's lifetime, especially in battery-powered
deployments.

Sensors: Sensors are devices that measure physical or environmental parameters such as
temperature, humidity, light intensity, pressure, or motion. Multiple sensors may be integrated
into a sensor node to collect different types of data relevant to the application.
20)Compare MANET,WSN,IOT

21)Explain Classifications of Clustering Algorithms

22)Draw component of WSN architecture and explain each in detail