6052B - Elementary

Automobile Engineering

Program : Diploma in Automobile Engineering

Semester : 6
Prepared by,
Credits: 4 Ronimon Sunny
Course Category: Open Elective Guest Lr.
Automobile Dept.
Periods per semester: 60 Govt. Polytechnic College Kalamassery

RONIMON SUNNY, Guest Lr., Automobile Engineering

1
Dept., GPTC Kalamassery
6052B - Elementary Automobile Engineering
• Course Prerequisites:
Topic Course Course Name Semester
Code
Knowledge of basic science 1003 Applied Physics I 1
Knowledge of basic science 2003 Applied Physics II 2

• Course Outcomes: On completion of the course, the student will be able to:
COn Description Duration Cognitive level
(Hours)
CO1 Outline the engine principle and fundamentals 14 Understanding

CO2 Illustrate the functions and construction materials of engine 15 Understanding

components
CO3 Show various components of Automobile transmission line 15 Understanding

CO4 Illustrate various components of Automobile chassis 14 Understanding

Series Test RONIMON SUNNY, Guest Lr., Automobile Engineering 2

2
Dept., GPTC Kalamassery
6052B - Elementary Automobile
Engineering
• CO – PO Mapping:
Course PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7
Outcomes
CO1 2

CO2 2

CO3 2

CO4 2

3-Strongly mapped, 2-Moderately mapped, 1-Weakly mapped

RONIMON SUNNY, Guest Lr., Automobile Engineering
3
Dept., GPTC Kalamassery
6052B - Elementary Automobile
Engineering
• Text / Reference:
T/R Book Title/Author
T1 Kirpal Singh S - Automobile Engg., Vol.I & II – Standard Publications
R1 R.B. Guptha - Automobile Engg. – Satya Prakasan
R2 K.M.Guptha - Automobile Engg., Vol. I& II – Umesh Publications
R3 Anil Chikara- Automobile Engg., Vol. I -Satya Prakasan
R4 William.H.Crouse Automotive mechanics – McGraw-Hill Publications
R5 K.K.Ramalingam - Automobile Engg., Theory and Practice – Scitech Publications
R6 Dr.N.K. Giri - Automobile Technology – Khanna publishers
R7 Mathur and Sharma - I.C. Engines – Dhanpat rai publications
RONIMON SUNNY, Guest Lr., Automobile Engineering
4
Dept., GPTC Kalamassery
6052B - Elementary Automobile
Engineering
• Online Resources:
Sl. No Website Link
1 https://www.history.com/topics/inventions/automobiles
2 https://www.explainthatstuff.com/historyofcars.html
3 https://www.titlemax.com/articles/a-timeline-of-car-history/
4 https://www.lovetoknow.com/home/cleaning/history-automobile-
industry

RONIMON SUNNY, Guest Lr., Automobile Engineering

5
Dept., GPTC Kalamassery
 MODULE - 4
• Course Outline:
Module Description Duration Cognitive
Outcomes (Hours) Level
CO4 Illustrate various components of Automobile chassis
M4.01 Outline the functions and types of suspension system 3 Understanding
M4.02 Outline the functions and types of steering system 4 Understanding
M4.03 Outline the functions and types of steering system 4 Understanding
M4.04 Outline the functions and types of tyres and wheels 3 Understanding
Series Test-II 1
• Contents:
Automobile Chassis
Suspension systems - Types of suspension systems - Components of suspension
systems. Steering system - Types of steering systems - Components of steering
systems - Power steering. Brakes - Types of Brakes - Drum - Disc - Hydraulic brake -
Air brake - Components of Brake systems, Tyres and wheels - Purpose - Types of
tyres and wheels. 6
SUSPENSION SYSTEMS
 SUSPENSION SYSTEMS
• The chassis of an automobile is mounted on axles via springs to
isolate the vehicle body from road shocks.
• Road shocks can manifest as bounce, pitch, roll, or sway, which can
lead to discomfort and stress on the frame and body of the vehicle.
• The components that isolate the vehicle from road shocks collectively
form the suspension system.
• The suspension system includes the springing device and various
mountings.
• The suspension system consists of a spring and a damper.
• Road shock energy causes the spring to oscillate, and these
oscillations are controlled by the damper, also known as a shock
absorber, to maintain reasonable levels of oscillation.
The automobile chassis is mounted on
the axles, not direct but through some
form of springs.
This is done to isolate the vehicle body
from the road shocks which may be in the
form of bounce, pitch, roll or Sway. These
tendencies give rise to an uncomfortable
ride and also-cause additional stress in
the automobile frame and body.
All the parts which perform
the function of isolating the
automobile from road
shocks are collectively
called a suspension system
objectives

1. To prevent road shocks from being transmitted to vehicle

components.

2. To safeguard the occupants from road shocks.

3. To maintain the stability of vehicle in pitching, rolling &

bouncing
Sprung Mass & Unsprung Mass
 Sprung mass
Sprung mass is the load sitting on top of
the springs

It includes, weight of the engine,

transmission, various mechanical and
electrical components, passenger cabin,
passengers etc, whose weight is
supported by the suspension of a car.
unsprung mass
unsprung mass is the weight connected
to the bottom of the suspension.

It includes, weight of the wheels, tyres,

brakes, which is defined as the mass
between the road and the suspension.
Types of suspension system

Rigid suspension
system ( dependent
suspension system )

Suspension system

Independent
suspension
system
 Rigid axle suspension
(dependent suspension system )
It has both right and left wheel attached to the same solid axle. When one
wheel hits a bump in the road, its upward movement causes a
slight tilt of the other wheel.
Independent suspension
Independent suspension is automobile suspension system that allows
each wheel on the same axle to move vertically
independently of each other
Components of suspension system
Suspension system is the system of

1. Tyres
2. Tyre air
3. Springs
4. Shock absorbers and
5. Linkages
Tires and tire air
Springs
The spring allow the wheel to move up and down. Springs
are made of elastic materials.
Types of springs

1.Leaf springs

2.Coil springs

3.Torsional springs

4.Rubber spring

5.Air springs
Leaf spring

Semi elliptical leaf springs are

widely used for suspension in
light and heavy commercial
vehicles.
Leaf spring
 Multiple-Leaf springs

Leaf springs Monoleaf springs

Fiber composite springs

 Multiple-Leaf springs

Multiple-leaf springs consist of a

number of flat steel leaves that are
bundled together and held with
clips.

Multiple-leaf springs have a curve in them. This curve, if doubled, forms

an ellipse. Thus, leaf springs are sometimes called semielliptical. The
vast majority of leaf springs are semielliptical.

Leaf springs are typically mounted at right angles to the axle

Mono leaf springs

Monoleaf or single-leaf springs. They are

usually the tempered plate type with a
heavy or thick center section tapering off
or both ends.

This provides variable spring rate for a

smooth ride and good loadcarrying
ability.
 Fiber composite springs
They are made of fiberglass, laminated
and bonded together by tough polyester
resins.

Fiber composite leaf springs are

incredibly lightweight due to which
unsprung weight will be reduced
considerably.
Coil Springs
Coil springs are used in
independent suspension system.

Coil springs can absorb twice the

energy as compared to leaf
springs.
 Torsion bar

The torsion bar is basically a

metal rod anchored at one end to
the car body and the other end to
the suspension lower link.
Working

As the wheel passes over a

bump, the bar twists, it returns to
its original position when the
bump is passed and restores the
car to its normal drive height.
Rubber spring

Natural and synthetic rubber are

very elastic and have high interia
damping characteristics. Hence it
is used with vehicle springs.
Air spring
Air spring, load-carrying component of an air suspension
system used on automobiles.
All the parts which perform
the function of isolating the
automobile from road shocks
are collectively called a
suspension system
Components of suspension system
Suspension system is the system of

1. Tyres
2. Tyre air
3. Springs
4. Shock absorbers and
5. Linkages
Shock Absorber / Damper
A springing device is a compromise between flexibility
and stiffness.

If it is more rigid, it will not absorb road shocks

efficiently and if it is more flexible it will continue to
vibrate even after the bump has passed.
Shock Absorber / Damper
The shock absorber absorbs the energy of shock converted into
vertical movement of the axle by providing damping and dissipating
the same into heat.

it serves to control the amplitude and frequency of spring

vibrations. It cannot support weight and has zero resilience.

The shock absorber is connected between the chassis cross-

member and the spring axle or suspension control arm.
Types of shock absorbers

SHOCK ABSORBERS

Mechanical Type Hydraulic type

• Vane type
• Piston type
• Telescopic type
Mechanical shock absorber

This is called a dry or friction type.

It absorbs shocks with the help of

friction discs and spring.
It consists of two discs with a small clutch,
spring and centre bolt. One disc is fixed to
the chassis and the other to the axle. A
friction disc works between these two
discs. All discs are assembled with the
spring and centre bolt. When the axle is
lifted up the friction produced in between
the discs due to the spring pressure,
absorbs the vibration.
The friction type has almost become obsolete due to its
non predictable damping characteristics
Hydraulic shock absorber
The principle of operation of a hydraulic
shock absorber is that when a piston
forces the fluid in a cylinder to pass
through some hole, a high resistance to
the movement of piston is developed,
which provides the damping effect.

In hydraulic type, the damping is proportional to the square of the speed

Telescopic shock absorber
Up on functioning of shock absorber stroke the eyes moves away
from each other.
The piston moves upward. The rebound valve
opens and the fluid passes to lower the portion
of the cylinder from the upper portion. Since
the upper portion does not have enough fluid
to fill the lower portion completely, a vacuum is
created in the lower portion. Now the extra fluid
flows into the lower portion from the reservoir
through the foot valve. This passage of fluid
provides necessary damping during
rebounding.
Gas pressurized shock absorbers
In a hydraulic shock absorber, the oil heats up as the energy of
motion of the suspension is dampened. The rapid piston
movement as the vehicle moves over the road causes the hydraulic
fluid to aerate. This reduces the dampening effect, and the shock
absorbers
performance very quickly deteriorates. This condition is called
shock absorber dissolve.
shock absorber dissolve. can be
reduced substantially by
pressurizing the fluid with gas,
usually nitrogen.
Load-adjustable shock absorbers
When vehicles carry heavy loads, their suspension is compressed,
causing the rear of the vehicle to be lower than normal. As a result,
steering becomes lighter, the alignment of the headlights becomes
too high, and the compression length of travel of the suspension
over bumps is reduced, causing discomfort to passengers.
To reduce these effects, a manually
adjustable air spring can be incorporated into
each rear shock absorber.

The shock absorber is a standard hydraulic

type, providing normal dampening action, but
when a heavy load is placed on the rear of
the vehicle, the rubber air cylinder can be
pressurized to assist the suspension springs.
Changing the pressure in the cylinder can
alter ride height, and the stiffness of the
suspension.
Automatic load - adjustable shock absorbers
Electronic adjustable - shock absorbers
The electronic adjustable - shock absorber
has a rotary solenoid that can alter
dampening rate by changing the number of
restrictions the oil must pass through, and
varying the force needed to open the valves.

Electronic controls let the changes occur

either automatically, or as the driver prefers.
Types Of Suspension System
 Suspension system

Rigid suspension Independent

system ( dependent suspension
suspension system ) system
Rigid suspension system
It has both right and left wheel attached to the same solid
axle. When one wheel hits a bump in the road, its
upward movement causes a slight tilt of the other
wheel.
The following types of leaf springs are used.

• Semi-elliptical spring
• Quarter elliptical spring
• Three quarter elliptical spring
• Transverse spring
• Full elliptical spring
Helper Spring
Independent suspension system
In this type, the up or down movement of one wheel does
not affect the other wheel .

Each wheel moves independently on pot holes and bumps

unlike in rigid suspension.
Types of independent suspension systems

• Wishbone type
• Mac pherson Strut type
• Vertical guide type
• Trailing link type
• Swinging half axle type
Wishbone type
It consists of upper and the lower Wishbone arms
pivoted to the frame member.

The spring is placed in between the lower

wishbone and the underside of the cross member.

The vehicle weight is transmitted from the body

and the cross member to the coil spring through
which it goes to the lower wishbone member. A
shock absorber is placed inside the coil spring and
is attached to the cross-member and to lower
wishbone member.
The upper arms are shorter in
length than the lower ones.

This helps to keep the wheel track

constant, thereby avoiding the tyre
scrub thus minimising tyre wear.

However, a small change in the

camber angle does occur with such
an arrangement.
This suspension system is known as
MCPHERSON strut type suspension.

• It is simple in construction and light in

weight.

• It allows more deflection of the front

wheel without any effect on the steering
Mac Pherson strut
In this type, only lower wishbones are used.

A strut containing shock absorber and the

spring carries also the stub axle on which the
wheel is mounted.

The wishbone is hinged to the cross member

and positions the wheel.
This system is simpler than double wishbone
type and is also lighter, keeping the unsprung
weight lower. Further, the camber also does
not change when the wheel moves up and
down.

This type of suspension gives the maximum

room in the engine compartment and is, there
fore, commonly used on front wheel drive
cars.
Vertical guide suspension
In vertical guide suspension, The king pin is attached directly to the cross
member of the frame.

It can slide up and down as shown, corresponding to the up and down

motion of the wheel, thus compressing or elongating the springs.
In this type of suspension, the track, wheel remain unchanged, but the
system is having disadvantage of decreased stability,
Trailing link suspension
In this type of suspension, a coil spring
is attached to the trailing link which
itself is attached to the shaft carrying
the wheel hub.

When the wheel moves up and down,

it winds and unwinds the spring ( A
torsion bar has also been used in
certain designs in place of the coil
spring)
Swinging half axle suspension
In this wheels are mounted rigidly on the half axles, which are pivoted
on their ends to the chassis member at the middle of the car.

The main disadvantage of this

system is that up and down
movement of the wheel cause the
camber angle to vary. Besides,
during cornering, the car is lifted due
to jacking effect.
STABILIZER / ANTI-ROLL BAR
Anti roll bar helps to reduce the body
rolling of a vehicle during fast cornering
or over road irregularities.

It connects opposite wheels

together through short lever arm
linked by a torsion spring.
Air Suspension
An air suspension supports the
vehicle on the axles with an
arrangement of air bags instead of
some type of steel Spring (leaf or
coil, or some type of torsion spring
Arrangement).
components of air suspension

• Air supply system

• Air bag (bellows)
• Height control valve (HCV)
Air supply system
The air supply is engine air compressor, the air tanks, air valves and air
lines. The engine air compressor supplies air for every piece of air
equipment
on the vehicle.

The maximum pressure supplied by the compressor varies. For many

years, the air supply was maintained around 120 to 125 psi but on some
newer, larger vehicles this has been increased to 135 psi.
Air bags (bellows)
Air bags are simply rubber baldder that
holds air. Air bags are also referred to as air
springs or bellows.

The air bags are located between the

frame of the vehicle and the vehicle
axles.

Air bags are rated for weight and pressure

capacities.
Height Control Valve
The HCV is mounted to the frame of the
vehicle.

The height control valves are kind of the

brains of the system. They dictate how much
air is in the air bags. This dictates the height
the vehicle sits at.

Most HCVs are mechanical valves but electronic height control

mechanisms are available.
An L shaped linkage attaches the HCV to the
axle. As the axle moves up and down in
relationship to the frame, the linkage moves
the valve or electronic mechanism.

With mechanical valves, there is an air line

from the air supply to the HCV. There is an
air line from the HCV to the air bag or bags
that it controls. The HCV also has an exhaust
port.
When weight is added to the vehicle, the air in the air
bag is compressed, the frame moves closer to the axle.

This forces the HCV linkage up. As the linkage moves

up, the valving of the HCV connects the air supply to the
air bag(s). The added pressure and volume inflates the
air bag(s), causing the frame to move away from the
axle. As the frame moves back to the proper ride height,
the HCV linkage moves to the neutral position. This
moves the valve away from the air supply and locks the
air in the air bag to maintain the proper ride height.
As weight is removed from the vehicle or the
suspension shifts weight away, the existing
pressure in the air bag(s) can push the frame away
from the axle. The HCV linkage is pulled down.
This connects the air bag(s) to the HCV exhaust
port. As air is exhausted from the air bag(s), the
frame lowers back down towards the axle.

As the linkage moves up to the neutral position, the

exhaust port is closed and the air is again locked in
the air bag(s), maintaining proper ride height.
Adaptive air suspension operation
Adaptive air suspension allows the speed
dependent lowering of the body.

This helps to attain a low center of gravity

which significantly increase directional
stability and vehicle's handling characteristics.
Steering system

It is the system which provides directional change for the performance of an automobile.
This system converts the rotary movement of the steering wheel into angular turn of the front wheel.
Requirements
a. It should multiply by the turning effort applied on the steering wheel by the driver.

b. It should be to a certain degree reversible, so that the shocks from the road surface
encountered by the wheel are not transmitted to the drivers hand.

c. The mechanism should have self centering action so that when the driver releases
the steering wheel after a turn, the wheel should try to achieve straight ahead position.
Functions

a. It helps in swinging the front wheels to left or right and

helps in turning the vehicle at the decision of driver.

b. It provides directional stability and controlling the wear and tear of tyres.

c. It converts the rotary movement of the steering wheel into angular turn
of the front wheel and achieving the self centering action.

d. It multiplies the effort of driver by leverage in order to make it fairly easy

to turn the wheels

e. It also absorbs the major part of the road shocks and there by
preventing them to get transmitted to the driver hand
Components of Steering system

1. Steering wheel
.
2. Steering column
3. Steering shaft
4. Steering gearbox
5. Cross shaft
6. Drop arm
7. Drag link
8. Ball joint
9. Tie rod
10. Steering knuckle
11. Steering arm
12. Idler arm
1.Steering wheel
. It is made up of steel ring welded together
on a hub with the help of two,three and four
spokes.after welding ring with the spokes an
ebonite is molded on it

. Also it converts the rotational movement to angular

movement or to and fro movement,
steering wheel in our country have a fixed position,
in some vehicles can be tilted and located in
position to suit the driver
2.Steering column

. This is a hollow steel pipe in which

steering shaft is housed

. One end of the pipe is fixed on

the steering box area and other end is
connected to the body panel
 3.Steering shaft

. A shaft connecting the steering wheel to the

steering gear assembly is called a steering shaft

. It is made up of alloy steel

. When the steering wheel is turned, steering

shaft will also be rotated and this movement
is transmitted to the steering gear box

. Splited steering shaft is joined with a U-Joint

this joint allows to transmit the rotation in an angle
4.Steering gearbox

. The Steering gearbox is a mechanical part

which converts the rotational
motion of the steering wheel into to and fro
motion of the link rod of the steering linkage

. Inside the steering gearbox a steering gear is

mounted, which are used to multiply the
driver turning force

. According to the working mechanisms, these

are classified in to several types
5.Cross shaft

. Cross shaft is a shaft coming from the gear box

inside gear and is connected to the drop arm
or pitman arm

. Depends upon the gear mechanism cross shaft

is also called roller shaft, sector shaft

. It is also called output shaft, which making a half

turning circle path. this path in which the drop arm
or pitman arm will oscillating
 6.Drop arm

. It is also called pitman arm, which converts the

output torque from the steering gear into drag link
with an oscillation motion

. It is connected to the cross shaft or sector shaft

of the steering gear with a split joint

. Drop arm is usually made from forged steel

 7.Drag link
. It is connected between pitman arm and steering arm

. It is a single press forged alloy steel component having a ball joint

socket is provided at the end

8.Ball joint
. A rubber bush with a steel bolt and nut assembly form a ball joint

. It is used for connecting both the ends of drag link and tie rods

. It absorbs road shock and vibrations, and that will not transmit to the steering wheel
 9.Tie rod
. It is a threaded tubular member, which is
used to connecting left& right steering arms

. It works as a link and transmitting linear

torque to front wheels arm

. Tie rods have two basic parts the inner tie

rod and the outer tie rod.
1o.Steering knuckle

. Steering knuckle is the pivot point of

the steering system and suspension system,
which allows to accommodating suspension
components and road wheels to turn

. The stub axle assembly is mounted on the

steering knuckle and also the wheel
bearing is located in it
11.Steering arm
It is a forged component of alloy steel which
is connected to the steering knuckle, the tie
rod ends are connected to the arm through
a ball joint.
12.Idler arm
. It is a supporting arm for the centre link

. It is fitted on the passenger side of the

vehicle frame with nut and bolt assembly
 In a Glance
Perfect steering system principle

Steering ratio

Types of steering systems

Fifth wheel system
Davis system
Ackerman system

Wheel set back and thrust angle

Wheel track and Wheel base

Topic related Mcq

 Perfect steering principle

. While vehicle taking a turn its all wheels

undergo better rolling motion without slipping

. For satisfying this condition the axis of front

wheels and rear wheels will intersect at a point
this common point is called instantaneous centre

. For getting this common point, the inner wheel

should turn more angle than the outer wheel
. When the front wheels of a vehicle turn with an
equal angle its axis become parallel and they
never intersect on a point as shown in figure

. At this time steered wheels will be deviate from

the path while taking a turn i.e wheels are
slipped
Steering Ratio
a. If the steering wheel is connected directly to
the steering linkages, it could require a great
effort to turn the front wheels

b. There for to assist the driver a reduction

system is used having a movement ratio
between 10:1 to 22:1 and the actual value
depend upon the type & weight of the vehicle

c. The steering ratio is the ratio of the number of

degrees of turn the steering wheel to the
number of degrees of the wheels turn.

d. For example - if one complete turn of the

steering wheel, 360 degrees, causes the
wheels to turn 24 degrees, then the ratio is
360:24 = 15:1
e. In motorcycles, tricycles and bicycles, the steering ratio is always 1:1, because
of the steering wheel is fixed to the front wheel
In most passenger cars, the ratio is between 10:1 and 22:1

f. Heavier vehicles have higher steering ratio will provided because of more
turning of steering wheels results lesser effort of the driver to turn the wheels

g. Lighter vehicles have lower steering ratio and lesser number of turns so
requires more effort to turn the wheel especially used in cars
Types of Steering systems

1. Fifth wheel steering mechanism

2. Davis steering mechanism
3. Ackerman steering mechanism
Fifth wheel steering mechanism

a. It is a single pivoted steering system in which the front axle along with
the wheels moves to left or right

b.The front axle assembly is connected with the frame by means of a pin, which
serves as a pivot, around which the axle assembly moves, so it is called
fifth wheel and it acts as a turn table

c.The fifth wheel contains a ring gear mounted at its rim and is moved by means of
a steering link, a steering wheel is attached to the steering link, rotating the
steering wheel tends the front axle and wheel assembly to turn
Davis steering mechanism
a. It consist of a cross link CD connected parallel to front axle and is connected
to the stub axles of the front wheels by means of two similar bell crank
levers LAC and MBD pivoted at A and B ,respectively.

b. The slide rods CA and DB are pivoted on the link CD through a pin and is move with
the turning of bell crank levers as the steering wheel is operated.

c. When the vehicle moves along a straight path, the steering arms CA & DB
are inclined at equal angle to the central line of the vehicle, which make
perfect steering
 Ackerman steering mechanism
a. It is a double pivoted steering mechanism,which is simple in construction
and commonly used in the vehicles.

b. In this mechanism a track rod is placed parallel to the front axle and is
connected to the track rod arm, the arm is a part of steering knuckle in which
the stub axle is placed.

c.The shorter rods BC and AD are of equal in length and are connected
by hinge joints with front stub axles through the steering arm.

d. The longer track rods AB and CD are of unequal length are connected
to the shorter rods. in this steering system gives three positions for correct steering.
e. When the vehicle moves along a straight line path, the longer rod AB and CD
are coming to parallel and the shorter rod BC and AD are equally inclined to the
longitudinal axis of the vehicle, which is shown in figure.

f. The inclined shorter rod axis will meet the centre of the rear wheel axis when
the vehicle attain straight line position.

g. When the vehicle is steering to the left, the lines of front wheel axis intersect on the
back wheel axis at a point, this point is called instantaneous centre of rotation
if the lines meet the point better wheel turning movement is reached.

h. When the vehicle is steering to the right, the similar position may be obtained.
Wheel set back and thrust angle

In a steering system for vehicle handling

and stability, set back and thrust angle is
necessary
Wheel set back
It is a condition in which one wheel on an
axle is in front of or behind the other
wheel in relation to the chassis frame.set
back of less than 6 mm is considered are
normal.
 Thrust angle
a.The purpose of thrust angle is to
determine if the rear axle centre line
follow with the center of the front axle
b.Thrust angle is the angle made by the
thrust line with the longitudinal centre line
of the vehicle

c. If the thrust angle is zero- rear wheels

follow the front wheels properly.
if it is not zero-rear wheels will not follows
the front wheels and the steering wheel
will not be centered

d. The thrust angle of a car is zero i.e. all the

four wheels should be parallel to the
frame and is called wheel tracking.
Wheel track and Wheel base

Wheel track
wheel track is the distance measured across
an axle from the centre line of one tyre tread
to the centre line of the opposite tyre tread

Wheel base
wheel base is the horizontal distance
between the centres of the front and
rear wheels with respect to the frame
 In a Glance
Wheel Alignment
1.Tyre factors
2. Steering geometry
3. Steering linkages
4. Suspension system

Cornering force and Slip angle

Self - Righting torque

Understeer and Oversteer

Turning circle

Topic related MCQ

 Wheel Alignment
Wheel alignment is the positioning of the
steered wheels to achieve the following

a. Minimize tyre wear

b. Reduce the driver’s effort to turn the vehicle
c. Achieve self centering after turning
d. Achieve directional stability
Wheel Alignment factors
While moving a vehicle in straight ahead position the wheels should be parallel,
And do not pull the vehicle on side ways. the factors depends on wheel alignment are
follows.
1.Tyre factors
2. Steering geometry
3. Steering linkages
4. Suspension system
1.Tyre factors
a. Wheel Balancing
If the wheels are not in dynamic balanced, the wheel wobble may result, which
influences the steering control, wheel balancing will be done by adding proper
weight to the metal disc wheel.

b. Tyre air pressure

The steering system is designed for a particular rolling radius,variation of tyre air
pressure from the standard value will change the rolling radius.

c. Brake adjustment
If the brake is not adjusted properly i.e if it is dragging,it can pull the vehicle to one
side while braking.
 2.Steering geometry
It is an Angular relationship between front
wheels, front wheel attaching parts and
vehicle frame. the factors depends on
steering geometry are follows.
a. Camber angle
b. Castor angle
c. King pin inclination
d. Toe-in and Toe- out
 a.Camber angle
. The angle between the vertical line of the tyre and
centre line of the tyre is known as camber angle.
it is also called wheel rake.

. Also the camber is the tilting of the car wheels

from the vertical, it is of two types Positive
camber and Negative camber.

. The outward tilt of the wheel from the vertical is

called positive camber.
The inward tilt of the wheel from the vertical is
called Negative camber.

. Usually camber angle 2 degree is provided for

getting better cornering stability.
 b. Castor angle
. The castor angle is the angle between
king pin centre line (steering axis) and
vertical in the plane of the wheel.

. The King pin centre line meets the ground

at a point on the front of the vertical
wheel centre line is called positive castor.
it is behind the vertical centre line
is called negative castor.

. Positive castor on the car wheels provides

directional stability and
Negative castor would cause the wheel
become unstable and consequently
more wear of front tyres.

. About 3° of castor angle is gives good result.

 c.King pin inclination
. Inclination of the kingpin from vertical is
called the kingpin inclination or king pin rake.

. In modern cars where the king pin has been

replaced by ball joints, so it is also called
steering axis inclination.

. Steering axis inclination is the inclination of

ball joint axis from vertical, and the angle
is usually 6 - 8 degree is given

.The king pin inclination reduces the steering

effort particularly when vehicle is stationary.
 d.Toe-in and Toe- out
Toe in - Is the amount by which the front wheels
are set closer together at the front than
at the rear when the vehicle is at stationary

Toe out - Is the amount by which the front wheels are

set outward together at the front than
at the rear when the vehicle is at stationary
. Toe in improves the vehicle directional stability at
high speeds, and is does not exceed 3mm

. Toe out gives greater ease in steering at cornering

 Combined angle and Scrub radius

. Combined angle is also called included angle.

it is the sum of camber angle and king pin inclination

. Combined angle is usually between 8 – 10 degree

Scrub radius
. The scrub radius is the distance at the road
surface between the tyre center line
and the SAI line extended downward through
the steering axis.

For example- when the wheels are pushed out

from the body of the car, scrub radius
becomes more positive

. Negative scrub radius tends to toe in and

positive scrub radius tends to toe out

. Generally small positive scrub radius is

preferred, usually scrub radius should be 12mm
3.Steering linkages

. The steering linkage which connects the steering

gearbox to the front wheels.
when turning the steering wheel, the steering
linkage causes the front wheels to turn.

. The proper checking and maintenance of the

linkages will increases the tyre life and steering
stability.

. The main functional parts of the steering

linkage are, tie rods, ball joints and control arms.
 4.Suspension system
. The suspension system helps to absorb the impact from road shocks and their
by protecting the steering components, and helps to maintain vehicle stability

. There are three basic types of suspension components: linkages, springs, and shock
absorbers. the linkages are the bars and ball joints that support the wheels,

. Springs cushion the vehicle by damping shock loads from bumps and holes in the road.

. If a car becomes hard to steer, especially at low speed, something might be

wrong with the suspension (i.e steering linkages may bent)
Cornering force and Slip angle
. While taking a turn the centrifugal force acts on the vehicle which produce side thrust,
to sustain this force, plane of the wheel must make some angle with the
direction of motion of the vehicle.

. The angle through which the wheel has to turn to sustain the side force is called
the slip angle, and the force produced due to this which counters the side thrust
is known as cornering force.

. Value of the slip angle depends upon the amount of side force,flexibility of tyre
load carried by the wheel, camber angle and conditions of road surface.

. The ratio of side force to the slip angle is called cornering power.
 Self-Righting torque
. It is a torque which is created by the tyre
when the vehicle taking a corner/curve

. The cornering force created at the tyre path

acts towards the actual center of the wheel
this action is called pneumatic trail, it tends
to generate a torque about the vertical axis
known as self aligning torque.
Understeer and Oversteer
. When the slip angles of the front wheels are greater than that of rear wheels,
the radius of turn is increased. this means that the vehicle will turn
less sharply than it should for a given rotation of the steering wheel, then the
driver shall have to steer the wheel with a little effort this condition is called
understeer

. When the slip angles of the front wheels are lesser than that of rear wheels,
the radius of the turn is decreased. this means that the vehicle will turn
more sharply than it should for a given rotation of the steering wheel
this condition is called Oversteer
 Turning circle
. It is the circle which formed by the outer front wheel
of the car at driving and can traverse and obtained
when the wheels are at their extreme positions.

. The turning circle radius is measured between the

center point and the outer circle path.

. If larger the steering angle will give smaller turning circle.

 In a Glance
. Steering gear box Types

. Worm and roller type

. Worm and sector type

. Recirculating ball type

. Rack & pinion type

. Power steering system and types

. Collapsible type steering column

Steering gear box

. The steering gearbox contains certain gears that transmit the driver's steering inputs to the

steering linkage that turns the wheels.

. It multiplies the drivers steering force to the front steered wheels.

. It also converting the rotational movement of the steering wheel into angular movement

or to-and –fro movement of the steering link rod.

. Common types are Worm and roller, Worm and sector, Recirculating ball type, Rack & pinion type.
1. Worm and roller steering gear

. It have two teethed roller which are fastened to the cross shaft called roller shaft or sector shaft.

. The threads of the worm gear are meshed with roller shaft at the end of the steering tube.

. Diameter of worm is greater at end and reduced at center, and the bearings are designed

to resist both radial and end thrust.

. When the worm shaft is turned by the Steering tube, the roller will also be moved in an arc

for rotating the roller shaft.

. Commonly used in light comercial vehicles.

2. Worm and sector type

. It consist of sector gear which is carried in bearings in a cast iron alloy box,

the box is sealed and filled with hydraulic oil and the sector gear have partial gear teeth.

. The inner end of the steering shaft have a worm gear which is directly mesh with a

sector gear and the output of the sector gear is connected to the drop arm.

. When the steering wheel is turned,the shaft turns the worm gear, then the worm gear

teeth drives the sector gear teeth and the drop arm moves either backward or forward.

. In this type of steering gear only a sector of wheel is used instead of worm wheel.
3. Recirculating ball type

. In this type a nut is meshed on to the worm gear by means of a continuous row of
ball bearings, as the worm turns the nut moves up and down in the worm threads.

. The ball bearings not only reduce the friction between the worm and nut, but they
greatly reduce the wear, because the balls continually recirculate through the system,
and there by preventing the worm gear teeth from wear and tear.

. The nut has a number of teeth on outside, which mesh with the teeth on a worm wheel sector,
the turning of sector gear causes the drop arm moves either backward or forward.

. This type of steering gear does not transmit the tyre or wheel fluctuation to the steering wheel,
for these reasons Re-circulating steering gears are commonly used in heavy vehicles.
4. Rack and pinion steering gear

. The parts of the steering system is a long toothed rod (rack) and driving rod (pinion gear)

. The pinion gear is attached to the rack and the two ends of the rack is attached to the tie rods.

. The rotary motion of the steering wheel is transmitted to the pinion gear through universal joints.

. When the steering shaft rotates, then the pinion gear will operates rack,

. Then the rack converts the rotary motion to, to-and-fro movement of the tie rods.

tie rods are connected to the steering knuckle thus turning the front wheels.

. It is a simple, lighter, and generally cheaper than other type systems.

. It occupies very small space and uses lesser number of linkage components.

. It is mostly used in small and sports cars.

Power steering system

. A mechanical Steering system which power assisted is known as power steering system PAS.

. It is equipped on a motor vehicle that helps drivers to steer the vehicle by lesser steering effort.
. Mainly hydraulic or electric power is used for for easy turning of the steering system.

. It also provide the driver to steer the vehicle manually even if the power steering system fails.

. It is of two types hydraulic power steering and Electric power steering.

. In Hydraulic power steering system, a pump is driven by an engine crankshaft belt to build up

the fluid pressure. most power steering systems are operated by fluid under pressure of 7Mpa

and the fluid have a viscosity rating of SAE 5W or SAE 10W.

. In an Electric power steering system, an electric motor attached to the steering rack via a gear

mechanism and the microprocessor monitoring the steering dynamics and driver effort.

d.
Power steering system is classified in two
. Integral type - Power steering assembly is an integral part of the steering gear.eg- Hydraulic power steering.

. Non integral or Linkage type - In linkage type it is a part of linkage assembly eg- Electric power steering.
Hydraulic power steering system working

The main components of a Hydraulic power steering are.

. Hydraulic pump
. Rotary valve/spool valve
. Pressure lines/tubes
. Hydraulic cylinder
. Rack and pinion steering gear
Working of Hydraulic power steering

. In a Hydraulic power steering there are two main components other than the rack and pinion,

. One is the hydraulic cylinder and piston, it is arranged on the rack and the piston is

rigidly attached to it, inside the cylinder the piston is moving.

. Second is the Integral rotary valve, which is arranged on the steering shaft, it have two inlet and two

outlet, the two inlet in which one is connected to the hydraulic pump and other is connected to the

reservoir (return line), then the two outlet is connected to the two sides of the piston on the cylinder.
. When the steering wheel is rotate in clockwise direction (right turn) also the steering shaft rotates,
and the rotary valve inlet side is opened and admitting high pressure hydraulic oil from the pump
to the left side of the piston. so the piston pushes the rack in left and the wheel is turned to the right.
at this time oil from the right side of the cylinder is admitted to the return line (reservoir).

. When the steering wheel is rotate in Anticlockwise direction (left turn) also the steering shaft rotates,
and the rotary valve inlet side is opened and admitting high pressure hydraulic oil from the pump
to the Right side of the piston. so the piston pushes the rack in right and the wheel is turned to the left.
at this time oil from the left side of the cylinder is admitted to the return line (reservoir).
. The hydraulic pump is driven by the engine crankshaft belt.

. In this system the wrong adjustment of rotary valve or control valve will leads to low pressure.

. Presence of Air in the hydraulic line or the pump will cause Noise. to over come this fill the fluid to

correct level and the bleed the system.

Electronic power steering (EPS)

. The motive power of an EPS is the DC motor and is triggered with the battery be side vehicle.

. The main components are

. Controller/ECU

. Torque sensor

. High torque BLDC motor

. Reduction gear mechanism

. Rack and pinion steering gear

. Depending up on the position Of the motor EPS is three types

Column assist type, Pinion assist type, Rack assist type.

.The system consist of main two sensors (steering sensor), a torque sensor and rotation sensor.

.Torque sensor that converts the steering torque input and its direction into voltage signals,

. Rotation sensor that converts the rotation speed and direction into voltage signals, it is located

on the input shaft of the steering gear box.

. Inputs from the steering sensor and the vehicle speed sensor are received by the ECU where

these are compared with a preprogrammed force assist map.

. The control unit then sends the appropriate command signal to the current controller which

supplies the appropriate current to the electric motor.

. The motor pushes the rack to the right or left depending on in which direction the current flows.

. Increasing the current to the motor increases the amount of power assist.

. A fail safe relay is the protective part of the electronic power steering, which revert back it to

manual steering and warning light to the dash board alerts the driver. in case of failure occur.
Special steering columns

Special steering columns have been employed in many cars which provides
safety and ease operation to the driver. various types are follows.
. Energy absorbing steering column (collapsible type)
. Tilt wheel steering column
. Tilt and telescopic steering column
Collapsible steering column

. The collapsible steer column has a ‘tube within a tube’ type of structure.

It consists of hollow tubes of steel fitted into each other with the help of a special bearing and sealin

. This type of steering column provides safety by collapsing during impact in a front-end crash.

. It is also known as Energy absorbing steering column

. Different types of collapsible steering columns - Mesh type ,Tube and ball type.

. In mesh type, a steel mesh is inserted between the steering column, mesh is braked during collision.

. In tube and ball type some steel ball bearings fitted between two overlapping tubes,

these tubes groove-in under impact resulting in an energy absorption.

Tilt wheel steering column

. This type of steering allows the driver to tilt the steering wheel to the required position even
while driving, the driver can adjust it at convenient angle.
. This can be done easily by releasing a lever on the side of the steering column and moving the
wheel into the desired position.
Tilt and telescopic steering column

. This type of steering has all the features of telescopic and tilting steering column.
. The telescopic motion is under the steering wheel and operated with a lock lever.
. Both telescopic and tilting adjustments can be made with no loss of steering control
CHASSIS SYSTEM
Brakes
Brakes are one of the most
important control components
of the vehicle . They contribute
very much in the running and
control the vehicle .
The braking system used most
frequently operates hydraulically.
On some trucks and buses, the
braking system is operated by
air pressure (pneumatically)
In addition all cars have a
parking brake system which is
mechanically operated by a
separate foot or hand lever.
Requirements of good braking system

• The brakes should stop the vehicle within a reasonable

distance. The retardation shall be smooth and free
from jerk.

• The braking system should be very reliable to promote

highest degree of safety on the road.
• The braking system should not affected by water, heat,
dust etc.

• Pedal effort applied by the driver should not be more so

as not to strain the driver.
• Brakes should work equally good in all weathers.

• The wear and tear of the brake lining should be

minimum for its longer life.

• The brake design system should be capable of

dissipating heat generated by friction very quickly.
Functions of Brakes
1. To stop the moving vehicle in the
shortest possible time.

2. To help in controlling the speed of the

vehicle and to reduce the speed at
turnings and other crowded places

3. To hold the vehicle in its stationary

position , without the presence of the
operator , after it has been brought to
stop
Types of brakes
The brakes for automotive use may be classified according to
the following considerations
1. Purpose
2. Location
3. Construction
4. Method of actuation
5. Extra braking effort
1. Classification according to Purpose

According to the purpose, brakes may be classified as

• Service or primary and

• Parking or secondary brakes.
Service brakes / Primary brakes

The service brakes are the main

brakes used for controlling the
speed and stopping the vehicle
while in motion,
Parking brakes / Secondary brakes

The parking brakes are meant

to hold the vehicle on a slope.
2. Classification according to Location

The brake may be located either

• At transmission or
• At the wheels.
Transmission brake / driveline parking brake

The transmission brake is

provided solely as a parking
brake or handbrake.

The brake is mounted to the

rear output shaft of the
transfer box.
Normal wheel brakes are still
provided for use when driving,
transmission brakes could be
drum brakes or disc brakes.
2. Wheel brakes

In case of wheel brakes we

have four brake drums i.e.
one on each wheel, which
increases the area available
for heat dissipation.
3. Classification according to Construction

From construction point of view, brakes can be classified as

1. Drum brakes and

2. Disc brakes.
1. Drum brakes
2. Disc brakes.
4. Classification according to Method of Actuation

According to the method of actuation, brakes can be

classified in to

• Mechanical brakes
• Hydraulic brakes
• Air brakes
5. Classification according to Extra braking effort

When the weight of the vehicle is more, so that the driver

cannot apply the brakes comfortably without fatigue his
effort is supplemented with some source of energy which
makes the application of brakes easier.

• servo brakes or power-assisted brakes.

• power brakes power-operated brakes.
Drum Brakes & Disc Brake
DRUM BRAKES
A drum brake is a brake that uses
friction caused by a set of shoes
that press outward against a
rotating cylinder-shaped part called a
brake drum.

The term drum brake usually means a

braking system in which shoes press on
the inner surface of the drum.
Construction and Types
In this type of brakes, a brake drum is attached concentric to
the axle hub whereas on the axle casing is mounted a back
plate.

In case of front axle, the brakes plate is bolted to the steering

knuckle.
The brake shoes are anchored
at one end, whereas on the
other end a Force is applied by
means of some brake actuating
mechanism, which forces the
brake shoe against the
revolving drum, thereby
applying the brakes.
The back plate is made of pressed
steel sheet and is ribbed to increase
rigidity and to provide support for the
expander, anchor and brake shoes. It
also protects the drum and shoe
assembly from mud and dust.
It is also called “torque plate”
since it absorbs the complete
torque reaction of the shoes.
Two brake shoes are anchored
on the back plate. Friction
linings are mounted on the
brake shoes.
One or two retractor springs are
used which serve to keep the
brake shoes away from the
drum when the brakes are not
applied.
Types of Drum Brake
• Leading/trailing shoe type drum brake
• Twin leading shoe type
• Duo servo
leading' and 'trailing' shoes
Leading/trailing shoe type drum brake

“Leading (or primary) shoe” is a

term referring to the shoe that
moves in the direction of
rotation when it is being pressed
against the drum.
The other shoe is called the
“trailing (secondary) shoe.”
The leading shoe is pressed in the
same direction as the rotation of
the drums, and this rotation helps
to press the shoes against the
drum with greater pressure for
stronger braking force.

This is called the servo effect

(self-boosting effect)
The two shoes function in a way
they both become either the
trailing shoe or leading shoe
depending on whether the
vehicle is traveling forward or
backward.

Generally, this type is used for

the rear brakes of passenger
cars.
Twin leading shoe type

This type of drum brake has two-

wheel cylinders and two leading
shoes.
Each wheel cylinder presses on
one shoe so that both shoes act
as leading ones when the
vehicle moves forward,
providing superior braking force.
The lining wear also becomes
uniform on both the shoes.
However, when the vehicle is in reverse both the shoes
become trailing shoes and braking effect decreases
considerably This type is used mainly for the front brakes of
small-to-mid-sized trucks.
Duo servo type
Duo-servo drum brake systems
have a pair of brake shoes linked
by a hydraulic wheel cylinder near
the top and linked by an adjuster
at the bottom.

The uppermost ends of the shoes

rest against an anchor pin above
the wheel cylinder.
When brake is applied, wheel
cylinder pushes the upper parts
of the shoes outward.

The primary shoe wedges

against the rotating drum while
the drum tries to pull the shoe
along with it. This self-energizing
action pulls the shoe even more
tightly against the drum,
multiplying the braking force.
As the primary shoe shifts inside
the drum, its lower "foot" pushes
against the adjuster, applying
force to the secondary shoe and
forcing it outward against the
drum.
This, combined with the action
of the rotating drum, forces the
top of the secondary shoe
against the anchor post, which
stops the shoes from rotating
further and binds them more
tightly against the drum
The secondary shoe has a
longer and larger lining surface
than the primary shoe and is
relied on to do 75 percent of the
braking.
The term duo-servo means that
the force-multiplying servo
action of the brakes occurs
when the vehicle is moving
forward or in reverse.
Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages of Drum Brake System:

• Simple design.
• Low maintenance cost.
• Comparatively long life.
• Lower part.
• Easy and cheap to manufacture.
Disadvantages of Drum Brake System:

• Lower braking force than disc.

• The brake ‘fades’ when applied for a long time.
• The breaking grip is reduced significantly when wet.
• Non-asbestos lining captures moisture; Which caused
sudden brakes.
• A brake shoe lining made of asbestos is harmful to
humans.
Drum Brakes & Disc Brake
DISC BRAKE

Disc brake consists of a cast iron

disc bolted to the wheel hub and
a stationary housing called
Caliper.
Caliper contains pistons, which are
actuated While applying brake,
which forces the brake pads
against the rotating disc. The
friction between the shoes and the
disc slows and stops the disc.
Construction

• Disc
• Caliper
• Pistons
• Brake pads
Disc
Disc brake consists of a cast iron disc bolted to the wheel
hub

Pearlitic gray cast iron.

Discs are made of Cast steel

Carbon Fibre
 Types of discs

SOLID VENTILATED
Caliper

Brake caliper is the assembly

which houses the brake pads
and pistons.
 Types of calipers

Fixed calipers Floating calipers

Fixed Calliper

A fixed caliper does not change

its position relative to the disc. it
employs one or more pairs of
pistons to clamp each side of
the disc.
 Floating Caliper

Swinging Caliper Sliding Caliper

Swinging Caliper
In swinging caliper the caliper is hinged about a fulcrum pin
and one of the friction pads is fixed to the caliper.

The fluid under pressure presses the other pad against the
disc to apply the brake. The reaction on the caliper causes
it to move the fixed pad inward slightly, applying equal
pressure to the other side of the disc. The caliper
automatically adjusts its position by swinging about the pin.
In the sliding caliper
Sliding Calliper

In the sliding caliper type, the fluid

under pressure pushes the piston
which presses on friction pad directly
onto the disc, whereas the other pad
is pressed indirectly via the caliper.
Pistons
The most common brakes use a single hydraulically-
actuated piston within a cylinder in the caliper.

Pistons are generally made of aluminum or chrome plated

iron.
Brake pads
Earlier most brake pads are made of asbestos. After the
same has banned due to environmental hazards, many
materials are used. They are,
• Organic materials
• Semi metallic / sintered
• Metallic
• ceramic
Comparison between drum & disc brake
Comparison between drum & disc brake
Drum Brake Disc Brake
The drum brake uses a cylindrical drum. A disc brake uses disc-shaped rotors
A drum brake is available at a cheaper it is costlier
price as compared to Disc brake
It is used for trucks, buses, scooters. It is used for modern bikes or cars
It is slow braking It is fast and instant braking.
Slower heat dissipation. Faster heat dissipation.
At high temperatures, the performance is Here at a high temperature, the
reduced. performance is not reduced. Good braking
even at high temperatures.
Drum brake has a complex design. The design of the disc brake is easy.
Low ventilation property. Better ventilation property as
compared to drum brake.
A drum brake is almost 20 to 30 The disc brake has a low weight.
percent more than disc brake
weight.
changing or replacing brake shoe changing or replacing brake pads
is difficult. is not difficult. It is easy to change.

maintenance cost is less. The maintenance cost is more

Drum brake inspection is difficult. Disc Brake inspection is easy.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
Hydraulic brakes

Brakes which are operated by hydraulic pressure are

known as hydraulic brake.

cars today use hydraulically operated foot brakes on all

the four wheels with an additional hand brake
mechanically operated on the rear wheels.
The hydraulic brakes function on the principle
of Pascal's law

“ Pressure applied to a liquid is

transmitted equally in all directions.”
components of the hydraulic braking system

The hydraulic braking system contains two important

components upon which the system is mostly dependent,
these are

• Master cylinder
• Wheel cylinder
Master cylinder

This can called as the heart of the

hydraulic braking system. Master
cylinder is a control device that
converts force (commonly from a
driver's foot) into hydraulic
pressure.
 Master cylinder

Single circuit Tandem

master cylinder Master cylinder
The Combination Valve

The valve does the job of three

separate devices:

•The metering valve

•The pressure differential switch
•The proportioning valve
Metering Valve
The metering valve section of the combination valve is required on cars that
have disc brakes on the front wheels and drum brakes on the rear wheels.

the disc brake pad is normally in contact with the disc, while the drum brake
shoes are normally pulled away from the drum. Because of this, the disc brakes
are in a position to engage before the drum brakes when you push the brake
pedal down.

The metering valve compensates for this, making the drum brakes engage just
before the disc brakes. Having the rear brakes engage before the front brakes
provides a lot more stability during braking.
Pressure differential valve

It is employed to warn the driver of failure of one part of the hydraulic

braking system.
Proportioning Valve

The proportioning valve reduces the pressure to the rear

brakes. Regardless of what type of brakes a car has, the
rear brakes require less force than the front brakes.
Wheel cylinder
A wheel cylinder is a component of a
hydraulic drum brake system. It is
located in each wheel.

Wheel cylinders in the brake

system are meant to force the
brake shoes against the drum.
Wheel cylinders are mounted on
the back plate. The brake line
from the master cylinder is
attached to the inlet port and a
bleeder screw with a cover is
provided to bleed air from the
system whenever required.
Brake Bleeding
The process of removing air
from the hydraulic brake
system is called bleeding.

Air is compressible, and any air

in the system will be
compressed during brake
application, causing a spongy
pedal.
Steps in bleeding,

The master cylinder is topped up

completely with the brake fluid
A pipe is connected to the
bleeding valve nipple as
shown.

The other end of this pipe is

dipped in the brake fluid
contained in some jar.
One person sits on the driver's
seat and presses the brake
pedal, after which the bleeder
valve is opened by he second
person with a spanner, some air
bubbles will come out of the
pipe and escape through the
brake fluid.
The bleeder valve is now closed
and the brake pedal released
and pressed once more after
which the bleeder valve is
opened again when some more
air bubbles will come out.

This procedure is repeated till

no more air bubbles are noted
and is then repeated for all
wheels.
Advantages of hydraulic brakes

1. The fluid exerts equal pressure everywhere in its circuit. For this
reason equal braking effort is obtained at all the four wheels.

2. The system is simple in construction, due to the absence of

brake rods, joints etc. Moreover, pipelines can be bent and
shaped according to the underside of the body structure.

3. Due to absence of joints compared to mechanical brakes, rate

of wear is also less
Disadvantages of hydraulic brakes

1. Even slight leakage of air into the braking system makes it useless.

2. This system is suitable only for applying brakes intermittently. For

parking purpose, separate mechanical linkage has to be used.
AIR BRAKE
Air Brake
Air brakes uses compressed air to operate the braking
system

Air brake is mostly used in heavy vehicles like trucks

and buses etc.
Components

• Air compressor
• Reservoir
• Air Dryer
• Governor
• Safety Valve
• Foot valve.
• Brake chamber
• Brake Assembly
Air compressor
The function of the air
compressor is to build up and
maintain air pressure required to
operate air brakes and air-powered
accessories.

A compressor is designed to pump

air into a reservoir which stores
pressurized air.
Unloader valve
The unloader valve in the air braking
system serves to regulate the line
pressure. When the specified air pressure
has been attained, the unloader valve
relieves the compressor.

Similarly when the line pressure

decreases below the required limit, it
reestablishes the compression. It consists
mainly of a governor valve, an unloader
plunger and a non-return valve.
Air Dryer

An air dryer is installed

between the compressor and
the reservoir to remove
moisture from the
compressed air.
Reservoir
The reservoir stores compressed air
at the specified pressure for brake
application. It is made of steel.

A safety valve is provided at the top of

the reservoir to regulate the air
pressure. A drain plug is also
provided at the bottom for periodic
draining of the reservoir,
Safety Valve

A safety valve protects reservoirs

from becoming over-pressurized
and bursting if the unloader valve
malfunctioned and did not place
the compressor in the unloading
stage.
Foot valve
Foot Valve is used to draw
compressed air from reservoirs,
when it is needed for braking.

This foot-operated valve applies air to

operate the brakes. The amount of air
delivered to the brakes is regulated
by the driver according to the
distance the treadle or brake pedal
is depressed. Releasing the foot valve
treadle releases the brakes.
Brake chamber
Brake chamber is used to transfer
the force of compressed air to
mechanical linkages.

brake chambers convert

compressed air pressure energy
into mechanical force and
movement, which apply the
vehicle’s brakes.
Slack adjuster

It acts as a lever during braking.

Besides it is also used to adjust

the clearance between the
brake shoes and the drum, for
which it employs worm and
wheel.
Advantages of air brakes
1. Air brakes are much more powerful than the ordinary mechanical or
hydraulic brakes and that is the reason they are exclusively used in
heavy vehicles.

2. The air brake simplifies the chassis design, as it does not matter
where the components of the system are located on the chassis so
long as they are interconnected by a pipe line

3. Apart from braking. the compressed air from the reservoir can be
used for tyre inflation, windscreen wipers horns and many other
accessories.
WHEELS AND TYRES
Tyre
❑ A tyre is a cushion provided with an
automobile wheel.
❑ It consists of mainly the outer cover and the
tube inside.
❑ The tyre - tube assembly is mounted over
the wheel rim.
❑ It is the air inside the tube that carriers the
entire load and provides the cushion.
Functions

❑ To support the vehicle load.

❑ To provide cushion against shocks/absorb shock
❑ To transmit driving and braking forces to the
road.
❑ To provide cornering power for smooth steering.
❑ Grip the road surface in both wet and dry
condition.
❑ Withstand vehicle load.
Desirable tyre properties 1. Non – skidding
This is one of the most important
1. Non – skidding
tyre properties. The tread
2. Uniform wear
pattern on the tyre must be
3. Load carrying
suitably designed to permit least
4. Cushioning
amount of skidding even on wet
5. Power consumption
road.
6. Tyre noise
7. balancing
 2. Uniform Wear

To maintain the non-skidding

property, it is very essential that the
wear on the tyre tread must be uniform.
The ribbed tread patterns help to
achieve this.
3. Load - carrying

The tyre is subjected to alternating stresses

during each revolution of the wheel. The tyre material
and design must be able to ensure that the tyre is able to
sustain these stresses.
4. Cushioning

The tyre should be able to absorb

small high frequency vibrations set up
by the road surface and thus provide
cushioning effect .
5. Power consumption

The automotive tyre does absorb some power which is due to

friction between the tread rubber and road surface This
power comes from the engine fuel and should be the least
possible. It is seen that the synthetic tyres consume more
power while rolling than the ones made out of natural rubber.
 6. Tyre Noise

The tyre noise may be in the form of

definite pattern sing, a sequel or a
loud road. In all these cases, it is
desirable that the noise should be
minimum.
 7. Balancing

The tyre being a rotating part of the

automobile, it must be balanced statically
as well as dynamically. The absence of
balance gives rise to peculiar oscillations
called wheel tramp and wheel wobble.
 The use of solid tyres on automobiles is now obsolete and only the pneumatic
tyres are used universally. These pneumatic tyres may be classified as follows,

Type of tyres

1. Basic construction
2. Use
3. Ability to run flat 1. Basic construction
A. Conventional tubed tyre
B. Tubeless tyre
A. Conventional tubed tyre
❑ It consists of a two main parts, carcass and the thread.
❑ It is the most commonly used tyre.
❑ A tube is used inside the tyre.
❑ The tube is inflated with air at a pressure
recommended by the manufacturer.
❑ It provides cushioning.
❑ The outer portion of the tyre which keeps contact on
the road is made of synthetic rubber.
❑ This portion is called tread.
❑ Steel beads are provided at the inner edge.
❑ A number of ply of rayon cord are provided to give
strength to the tyre.
❑ The beads and ply provide strength to the tyre.
 ✓ The carcass is the basic structure taking mainly
Important points the various loads and consists of a number of
plies.
✓ The sidewall is a protective rubber coating on the
outside of the tyre carcass and is designed to
resist cutting, scuffing and cracking
✓ In order to prevent the tyre from being thrown off
the rim, the plies are attached to two rings of
bundles of bronze - coated high tension steel
wire strands, insulated with rubber.
✓ Beads are made to fit snugly against the wheel
rim, thereby anchoring the tyre to the rim, Beads
are considered the foundation of the tyre.
 The tread is the part of the tyre which contacts
the road surface when the wheel rolls.

 It is generally made of synthetic rubber and on the

design of the tyre tread depend various tyre
properties,

The grip
The noise
The wear

 The thread is moulded into a series of grooves, blocks

and ribs.
 Material of tyre

 Rubber - for tread

 Nylon/rayon - for cord

 High tensile steel wire - for bead.

 Blocks are the segments that make up most of the tyre tread.
 Their main function is to provide traction.

 Ribs are the straight - lined row of blocks that

create a circumferential contact band.
 The blocks and ribs provide the traction edges
required for gripping the road surface.
 The grooves provide passage for quick escape of
any foreign matter such as water.
 Traction edges and sipes are provided on the
blocks and ribs.
 Sipes are the small grooves moulded into the
ribs of the tyre tread.
 Sipes increase the traction ability of the tyre by increasing number of traction
edges.

 As the tyre flexes on the road surface, the sipes

open to provide extra gripping action.
 Sipes also act like a sponge by mopping up
water when opening on the ground and
releasing the same when closing while moving
up.
 Thus these help to dry up the contact patch
faster.

The void ratio is the amount of open space in the tread.

 High void ratio and Low void ratio

 A high void ratio means lesser contact of

tread - rubber and the road, which results
into the greater ability of the tyre to dam
water.
 A low void ratio would means greater grip
There are three types of
tread patterns,

1. Symmetrical
2. Asymmetrical
3. Unidirectional

Symmetrical : Both halves of the tread face are exactly similar

Asymmetrical : The tread pattern changes a cross the tyre face
Unidirectional : Are designed to rotate in only one direction , but
have smaller rolling resistance
Tubeless tyre
1. This type of tyre does not need a separate
tube.
2. A non - return valve is fitted to the rim
3. The inner construction of the tyre is almost
same as that of tubed tyre, except that it is
lined on inside with a special air - retaining
liner made up of a halogenated butyl
rubber like chlorobutyl or bromobutyl for
better air impermeability together with high
heat and weather resistance.
3. Another major difference between the tubed and tubeless tyres lies in
the bead area of the tyre.

The tubeless tyres possess following advantages

1. Lesser unsprung weight
2. Better cooling
3. Lesser rolling resistance
4. Comfortable ride
5. Slower leakage of air
6. Simpler assembly
7. Improved safety
 Tyre is specified in terms of the,
Tyre specification
 Shoulder width

 Bead circle diameter

 Ply rating (PR)

e.g. 9"x14" - 14 PR

Here,

1. Shoulder width is 9"

2. The bead circle diameter is 14"

3. The no. Of plies (ply rating PR) is 14

 Structure of tyre

W. Width in inches or millimeters

( taken at the widest point with tyre at
correct pressure )
( Generally inches are used for cross ply
millimeters for radial ply tyres )
D. Diameter in inches or millimeters ( taken at
the point of contact between tyre and rim )
.
 Aspect ratio

The aspect ratio, is the Tyre height

percentage ratio of Tyre height Half of height obtained by

to Tyre width. subtracting the rim diameter from the tyre

outer diameter.
Thread width
The width of the tyre tread
surface. This corresponds as a rule to the
distance between the most protruding
portions on both sides.
Thread radius
Bead circle diameter

 This also referred to The inside diameter of

as the crown R. The the tyre rim diameter is
radius of curvature is called as bead circle
expressed in diameter of tyre
millimeters
Changes of trends of aspect ratio of tyre

1. Older trend : tyre on narrow

wheel (aspect ratio 100 %)

2. New trend : tyre on wider wheel

(70 % which can be even lower)

Advantages of lower aspect ratio,

Disadvantages
1. Better load carrying capacity
2. Less wear 1. Uncomfortable ride
because of less vertical
3. Higher cornering power
flexibility
4. Better performance at high speed
Carcass types

Carcass or Skelton of a tyre is

3 types,
1. Cross ply or bias ply

2. Radial ply

3. Belted bias type

The tyre is named after the particular type of carcass it contains

as this is the main structure taking the stresses while in motion.
Cross ply or bias ply
 The ply cords are woven at an angle (30°-
40°) to the tyre axis.
 There are two layers which run in opposite
directions.
 The cords are not woven like warp and weft
of ordinary cloth, because that would lead
to rubbing of the two layers and thus
produce heat which would damage the
tyre material.
Carcass types

Carcass or Skelton of a tyre is

3 types,
1. Cross ply or bias ply

2. Radial ply

3. Belted bias type

The tyre is named after the particular type of carcass it contains

as this is the main structure taking the stresses while in motion.
Cross ply or bias ply
 The ply cords are woven at an angle (30°-
40°) to the tyre axis.
 There are two layers which run in opposite
directions.
 The cords are not woven like warp and weft
of ordinary cloth, because that would lead
to rubbing of the two layers and thus
produce heat which would damage the
tyre material.
Radial ply type

 The ply cords run in the radial direction.

 i.e. In the direction of the tyre axis.
 A number of breaker strips in the circumferential direction.
 The material for the breaker strips must be flexible.
 Without the breaker strips, radial plies would give very
soft ride,
 But there will not be any lateral stability.
Tyre wear indicators
 To provide a visible check of the tyre
condition.
 Tread wear indicators are provided at the
bottom of the tread grooves.
 Tread wear indicators are 9 mm deep in a
new tyre.
 The indicators appear in the form of 12 mm
wide bands.
 1.6 mm in case of cars
 1 mm in case of trucks
Belted bias type
1. This is a combination of the above two
types.
2. The basic construction is the bias - ply
over which run a number of breaker belts.
3. the breaker belts hold the tread flatter
against the road surface , thus causing
increase of traction and safety.
4. the belts increase the resistance of the
tyre to cuts and punctures.
Tyre rotation

 Uneven tyre wear on all the wheels will cause instability of

the vehicle.
 Front tyres wear out faster than the rear tyres, as the front
wheels steer the vehicle at turns.
 In order to have uniform wear on all the wheels, it is necessary
that the wheel position is changed after completing a
specified travel.
 Changing the position of wheels in a set
pattern is called tyre rotation.
 All manufacturers recommend a set pattern
of tyre rotation after covering certain
kilometers.

1. The spare wheel (5) is fitted to the

rear right.
2. The rear right (1) to front left.
3. The front left (2) is fitted to rear left.
4. The rear left (3) to the front right and
5. The front right (4) is kept as the
spare wheel.
A radial tyre is represented by a code number which contains the following

1. Width
2. speed rating
S upto 170 kmph ( 105 mph )
H upto 210 kmph ( 130 mph )
V above 210 kmph ( 130 mph )
3. R signifies that the tyre is of radial type
4. diameter
For example,
The code 145 SR - 13
signifies that the tyre has
 Speed rating upto 170 kmph
 is of radial type
 W = 145 mm and
 D = 13 inches ( or 330 mm )
For example the code P205 / 75R1485H

stamped on a tyre would mean that,

 The tyre is for a passenger car

 Its section width is 205 mm
 Aspect ratio is 75 is of radial construction
 Is meant for 14 inches rim diameter wheel
 With load index 85 ( indicating a maximum of 515 kg per wheel)
 And is to be used for a maximum of 130 mph ( 210 kph) speed .
 Tyre inflation

1. A tyre should be normal inflated at the

specified pressure to have complete
contact on road.
2. If the tyre is over-inflated, it will have
contact with the road only at the centre
and the tyre will wear out faster at the
centre.
3. If it is under-inflated it will have contact with the
road only at the edges which will wear out faster.
TYRE SPEED RATINGS
 Tyre color

 Tyres are black in color

 Early tyres were made from rubber
 That is naturally white
 This natural rubber could not give adequate traction.
 So carbon black was added to the rubber used for treads.
 Gradually the entire tyre was made out of rubber with
carbon black.
 Tyre wear

The different types of tyre wear are,

Tyre wear depends upon its 1. Rapid wear at shoulders
1. position (front or rear), 2. Rapid wear at centre
2. load 3. Wear on one side
3. road condition 4. Feather edge
4. inflation and 5. Bald spots wear
5. mechanical faults of the car 6. Cracked treads
1. Rapid wear at shoulders

 Tyre wears out faster at the shoulder.

 Under-inflation is the main cause for this.

6. Cracked treads

Cracked treads The main causes for this are under-inflation

or excessive speed
 2. Rapid wear at centre

Over-inflation is the main cause for this.

 3. Wear on one side

The main cause for this is improper camber.

 The angle between the vertical line from

the central point of the tyre and the central
line of the tyre is known as camber angle.
4. Feather edge

The main cause for this is incorrect toe-in.

Incorrect toe-in causes,

1. Abnormal tyre wear

2. Tyre slip
3. Poor steering stability

 When viewed from the top, if the front wheels are

inclined inward at the front it is called toe-in
 5. Bald spots wear

1. The main cause for this is

improper dynamic and static
balancing of wheels.
2. Fierce braking, driving habits
also may lead such to such
patchy wear.
 Wheels

 Wheels are connected to the front and rear axles.

 As power is supplied to either front or rear axle

 Axle shafts turn the wheels and the vehicle moves.

The wheel assembly consists of

 A hub
 Rim
 Tyre
 Tube
 Functions

 Able to withstand the driving and braking torque,

and support the weight of the vehicle
 Able to absorb road shocks Types of wheels
 Statically and dynamically balanced  Pressed steel disc
 Able to grip the road surface wheel
 Wire wheel
 Light alloy wheel
 pressed steel disc wheel

 The pressed steel disc wheel is used by over 90 percent

manufacturers worldwide because of its
 Simplicity ,
 Robust construction ,
 Lower cost of manufacture and
 Ease in cleaning
wire wheel

 The wire wheel is the earliest type of wheel but presently it's use is
limited to certain vintage sports and racing cars.
 It is lighter
 Heat dissipation is better
 It can be fitted and removed very easily
 Tubeless tyres cannot be fitted over wire wheels.
 Difficult to clean
 The light alloy cast or forged wheel

 The light alloy cast or forged wheel is the most recent type
 Whose use is ever increasing in both road - and sports cars.
 The use of light alloy ( aluminium and magnesium alloys ) makes it
possible to use wider rims.
 Which allow low aspect ratio ( Wider ) tyres to be fitted
 Thus improving road adhesion
 Especially on corners .
 Good heat conductors
 Dissipate heat produced by tyres and brakes more
efficiently than steel
 However , these are relatively costly and more
prone to corrosion
 Disc wheel

This type of wheel consists of two parts,

1. A steel rim
2. A pressed steel disc

 The rim and the disc may be integral

 Permanently attached or attachable
 Depending upon design
 Without the well it would not be possible to mount or
remove the tyre from the wheel.

 The rim where the tyre rests usually has a 5 degree or 15

degree taper so that as the tyre is inflated.
 The beads are forced up the taper to give a wedge fit.
 With tubeless tyres , the taper helps to make a good seal

 The steel disc performs the functions of the spokes.

Pitch circle diameter of the wheel

 The diameter of the imaginary circle , in millimeters , drawn through the

centre of the mounting holes on the wheel is called the pitch circle
diameter of the wheel.
A wheel may be inset , zero set and outset , depending upon the position
of the rim in relation to attachment face of the disc.
 zero set

A zero set wheel is the one is which

the rim centre line coincides with the
attachment face of the disc
 Outset

In the outset wheel the centre line of

the rim is located outboard of the
attachment face of the disc.
 Inset

 In the inset wheel, the centre line of

the rim is located inboard of the
attachment face of the disc .
 ' Inset ' is the distance from the
attachment face of the disc to the
centre line of the rim.
 Reversible wheel

 A wheel whose disc can be

mounted on either face to
provide inset or outset , thus
decreasing or increasing the
wheel track is called reversible
wheel.
Divided wheel

A wheel constructed in two parts ,

which when securely fastened
together combine to form a rim
having two fixed flanges , is called a
divided wheel
1. For heavier vehicles , e.g. , buses and
trucks , the large tyres are bulkier in
the bead region.

2. For such tyres, the well rims are not

used.
3. flat based rims are used.
4. which may be of 2 , 3 , 4 or 5 - piece
construction
5. In these types of wheels the lock ring and the loose
flange have to be removed first to remove the tyre
These rims can be used only with the tubed tyres because they
cannot be made air tight
 WIRE WHEEL

 Wire Wheel Unlike the disc wheel the wire

wheel has a separate hub, which is
attached to the rim through a number of
wire spokes.
 Each spoke is individually hooked at one
end of the hub while its other end is pushed
through a hole in the wheel rim, where a
tapered nut, called nipple, is screwed down
pulling the spoke tight.
 The spokes are mounted in a
complicated criss - cross fashion in
 Spokes are long, thin wires and as all the three planes.
such these cannot take any
compressive or bending stresses.
 All types of loads are sustained
by the spokes in tension.
 If a spoke is too loose or too tight, the
rim would distort.
 The spokes carry,
1. The weight
2. Transmit the driving and braking
torques.
3. Withstand the side forces while
cornering, in tension.
 The side forces on cornering are taken up by the spoke forming
triangular arrangement.

 The initial tension of the spokes can be adjusted

by means of screw nipples which also serve to
secure the spokes to the rim
 The hub is provided with internal splines to correspond to the
splines provided on the axle shaft.

 The advantages of this type of wheel are,

1. light weight and high strength
2. provides much better cooling of the brake
drum
3. It is also very easy to change the wheel when
required.

wire wheels are expensive due to their intricate construction

 The rim of a wired wheel has holes,
it is not possible to fit tubeless tyres
on wire wheels.
Light alloy cast or forged wheel

 The latest trend in case of automobile

wheels is the use of wheels made from
aluminium or magnesium alloys
 Cast wheels are generally used for cars.
 Forged wheels are preferred for wheels
of heavier vehicles.
The main advantage of light - alloy wheel

 light alloys are better conductors of heat which helps the wheels
dissipate any heat generated by the tyres or brakes and thereby run
cooler.
 wider rims are possible in their case , which improves stability on
cornering
 cast or forged wheels have to be machined , yet this helps to maintain
close tolerances and also produce better appearance .
 Magnesium alloy wheels

 Magnesium alloys have high impact and fatigue

strength.
 That they can stand vibrations and shock loading
better.
 Sports and racing cars usually have magnesium
alloy wheels.
Being prone to corrosion, these have to be given some protective coating.
Aluminium alloy wheels

 Aluminium alloys do not have high resistance to

vibration and shock as in case of magnesium
alloys.
 But these are relatively easier to cast or forge.
 Less prone to corrosion.
 Used for wheels of cars and commercials vehicles.

The only disadvantage of light alloy wheels is higher cost

Wheel dimensions W = rim width in inches (or in millimeters)
D = rim diameter in inches (or in millimeters)
Wheel is denoted by a code number which contains
the following in sequence.
(1) Rim width
(2) A letter identifying the rim profile
(3) Rim diameter
For example,
5.50 B – 13
4 𝟏Τ𝟐 J – 14
Wheel dimensions

 Wheels of the same dimensions W and D may

have different offsets ( C )
 The offset , measured in millimeters.
 the distance from the mounting surface to the
wheel rim's center line.
 It may be positive or negative.
 A positive offset means the wheel is in front of the
mounting surface
 Offset is said to be negative when the wheel rim center line is behind
the mounting surface.
 Wheels of identical offsets must only be fitted to a vehicle,