Frequency Regulation in A Hybrid Renewable Power Grid: An Effective Strategy Utilizing Load Frequency Control and Redox Flow Batteries

www.nature.
com/scientificreports
OPEN Frequency regulation in a hybrid

renewable power grid: an effective
strategy utilizing load frequency
control and redox flow batteries
Ahmed H. A. Elkasem 1, Salah Kamel 1*, Mohamed Khamies 2 & Loai Nasrat 1
Renewable energy sources (RESs) have become integral components of power grids, yet their
integration presents challenges such as system inertia losses and mismatches between load demand
and generation capacity. These issues jeopardize grid stability. To address this, an effective approach
is proposed, combining enhanced load frequency control (LFC) (i.e., fuzzy PID- T I Dµ) with controlled
energy storage systems, specifically controlled redox flow batteries (CRFBs), to mitigate uncertainties
arising from RES integration. The optimization of this strategy’s parameters is achieved using the
crayfish optimization algorithm (COA), known for its global optimization capabilities and balance
between exploration and exploitation. Performance evaluation against conventional controllers (PID,
FO-PID, FO-(PD-PI)) confirms the superiority of the proposed approach in LFC. Extensive testing
under various load disturbances, high renewables penetration, and communication delays ensures its
effectiveness in minimizing disruptions. Validation using a standardized IEEE 39-bus system further
demonstrates its efficiency in power networks grappling with significant renewables penetration. In
summary, this integrated strategy presents a robust solution for modern power systems adapting to
increasing renewable energy utilization.
Keywords Fuzzy-PID + (T I Dµ) controller, Crayfish optimization algorithm, Load frequency control,
Renewable energy resources, Controlled redox flow batteries, Communication delay time
Abbreviations
RESs Renewable energy resources
PV Photovoltaic
ESSs Energy storage systems
SMES Superconducting magnetic energy storage
SSSC Static synchronous series compensator
PEVs The plug-in electric vehicles
CRFBs The controlled redox flow batteries
P.u The value of the per unit
ACE The area control error
Ush Undershoot
RLD Random load disruption
Osh Overshoot
SLD Step load disruption
AGC The automatic generation control
MW Mega-watt
LFC Load frequency control
CDT Communication delay time
FLC Fuzzy logic control
Tsim Total simulation time
dt Error signal sampling interval
1
Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Aswan University, Aswan 81542,
Egypt. 2Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Sohag University, Sohag 82524,
Egypt. *email: [email protected]
Scientific Reports | (2024) 14:9576 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-58189-2 1
Vol.:(0123456789)
www.nature.com/scientificreports/
TID Tilted-integral-derivative controller

ISE The integral square error
PID Proportional-integral-derivative controller
ITAE The integral time absolute error
FOCs Fractional-order-controllers
FO-(PD-PI) Fractional-order-proportional-derivative-proportional-integral controller
PD-PI Proportional-derivative-proportional-integral controller
TI Dµ Tilt-fractional-order-integral-fractional-order-derivative controller
FOPID Fractional-order PID controller
HHO Harris hawks optimization method
MRFO Manta ray foraging optimization method
AOA Arithmetic optimization algorithm
Min Minutes
J The objective function
Sec Seconds
ESAOA Eagle strategy arithmetic optimization algorithm
COA Crayfish optimization algorithm
LMRFO Leader manta ray foraging optimization
fa Area a frequency fluctuation
Ptiea−b Power flow from area-a to area-b via the tie-line
fb Area b frequency fluctuation
Ptieb−a Power flow from area-b to area-a via the tie-line
Tab Synchronization coefficient
aab Capacity ratio of control area
KT The thermal unit’s participation factor
Ba Area a’s frequency bias
KG The gas turbine’s participation factor
Bb Area b’s frequency bias
KH The hydropower plant’s participation factor
Tcr Time delay regarding gas turbine combustion reaction
Yc Lag time constant regarding the speed governor of gas turbine
bg The gas turbine constant of valve positioner
cg The valve positioner of the gas turbine
Tcd Discharge volume-time constant regarding gas turbine compressor
Tfc The fuel time constant of the gas turbine
Xc Lead time constant regarding the speed governor of gas turbine
Tr The time constant of reheater steam turbine
Tt The time constant of turbine
Kr The gain of reheater steam turbine
R1 The value of thermal turbine regulating constant
λ The integrator’s fractional-order
R2 The value of hydropower plant regulating constant
µ The differentiator’s fractional-order
R3 The value of gas turbine regulating constant
Tsg The time constant of governor
Pwt Generated wind turbine power
VW The speed of wind
Cp The coefficient of rotor blades
ωT Speed of the rotor
AT A turbine’s swept area
Ρ The density of air
rT The rotor radius
C1-C7 Turbine coefficients
Β The pitch angle
i The intermittent tip-speed ratio
T The optimum tip-speed ratio
Trs The speed governor reset time of the hydro turbine
Trh The transient droop time constant of the hydro turbine speed governor
Tps The time constant of power system
Kps The gain constant of power system
Tgh The speed governor time constant of hydro turbine
Tw The nominal string time of water in penstock
Background
Energy storage systems (ESSs) are becoming increasingly important as RESs become more prevalent in power
systems. ESSs provide distinct benefits while also posing particular barriers in the field of energy storage , engag-
ing a critical role in spanning the gap between energy generation and demand while integrating renewable
Vol:.(1234567890)
energy sources , but necessitating careful technological advances in selection , adaptability , and incorporation
into existing infrastructure. On the other hand , it is essential to maintain equilibrium among power generation
and demand in order to reinstate the power grid frequency to its desired orientation value. This task have been
achieved by LFC1. In recent times , the significance of LFC has grown substantially due to the expansion and
complexity of interconnected power grids , rising operational costs , and the limitations of traditional units.
These factors can potentially result in inadequate control performance. To address these challenges , extensive
research has been conducted considering LFC , with a particular revolve around exploring the potential benefits
of demand response. Numerous studies in the literature have aimed to investigate and comprehend how demand
response2 , ESSs3–5 , RESs for example photovoltaic (PV) p lants6 , flexible alternative current transmission system
controllers7 , and wind turbine g enerators8.
State‑of‑the‑art literature review

The traditional approach to frequency control in power grids involves approximating the system as a linear
model based on a specific operating condition without taking into account the dynamics of the generators.
One commonly used method for frequency regulation is proportional-integral-derivative (PID) control , which
has been commonly applied in the ancient due to its merits such as affordability and simplicity. Nevertheless ,
PID controllers are susceptible to vagaries in system constraints (e.g. , system uncertainty and nonlinearities)9.
However , in recent years , several control strategies , such as fractional order controllers (FOCs) 10,11 , fuzzy logic
control (FLC)12 , sliding mode c ontrol13 , artificial neural n etwork14 , and model predictive control (MPC)15 , has
been developed to address the frequency deviation problem.
In contrast, FOCs offer numerous advantages for power system stabilization , providing a boarder extent of
freedom and increased configuration flexibility. These characteristics make FOCs a perfect option for controlling
power grids. Unlike traditional PID controllers , FOCs require the fine-tuning of different types of poles , like
hyper-damped poles , which expands the stable area and provides increased design flexibility for controllers. As
a result , FOCs reduce overshoot , the settling time , as well as undershoot values , surpassing PID controllers and
their variations. Furthermore , wide-ranging researches have been conducted on the tender of FOCs in various
studies , with two common forms being firstly , the title integral derivative (TID) form as well as the fractional
order PID (FOPID)4. These FOCs have been thoroughly researched with the goal in order to boost the stability
of frequency of today’s electrical power grids16–18. While these controllers have demonstrated promising results
in normal operating conditions.
In addition , the fuzzy controller offers several key benefits , including its straightforward implementation ,
its ability to effectively respond to system variations , as well as its ability to accommodate variations in the
operational situations or system constraints through online updates of the controller constraints. These
advantages stem from the controller’s simplicity in execution and its high sensitivity to fluctuations in the power
grid19. The initial application of FLC in addressing the LFC problem involved combining it with a PID controller ,
as described i n20. Furthermore , a self-tuning fuzzy-PID controller has been introduced to improve the stability
of the frequency of a two-area power g rid21. Moreover , the fuzzy-PID controller has been employed to stabilize
the power structure’s frequency that incorporates multiple power sources22. According to the merits of FOCs and
FLC , the authors proposed the (fuzzy-PID) + (T I Dµ) controller to handle the LFC problematic in the analyzed
two-area interconnected power grid. However , the FLC utilizes various strictures such as inputs , scaling factors ,
membership functions , and rule base. But , there are no fixed rules to determine the values of these parameters.
Typically , trial-and-error methods have been employed to choice these values , but they may not always yield
optimal performance. To address this issue , a meta-heuristic technique known as the Crayfish Optimization
Algorithm (COA) has been used to select the optimal constraints of the proposed controller.
Lastly, multiple controllers in the LFC issue have been addressed through the application of optimization
methods including a tracking m ethodology23 and aggregation s trategies24 have been used to address. However,
these prior techniques have certain downsides. To address the limitations of traditional optimization methods,
which can get trapped in local minimums, require a high number of iterations, and are sensitive to initial
conditions, researchers have focused their attention on meta-heuristic optimization methods, for example Coyote
Optimization Algorithm25 , Dandelion Optimizer26 , Harris Hawks Algorithm27 , Archimedes Optimization
Algorithm28 , Sine Cosine Algorithm29 , Ant Colony O ptimization30 , Whale Optimization A lgorithm31 , Grey Wolf
Optimizer Artificial Bee Colony Algorithm Imperialist competitive Algorithm (ICA)34 , Quasi-oppositional
32 , 33 ,
Harmony Search35,36 , Quasi-opposition Pathfinder Algorithm37 , Chaotic Chimp Sine Cosine Optimization
Algorithm38 , Quasi-oppositional Whale Optimization A lgorithm39. These alternative approaches have gained
attention as they offer a way to overcome these limitations and find optimal solutions more efficiently. By
leveraging meta-heuristic optimization techniques, researchers can enhance the performance of LFC controllers
and find more robust and effective parameter settings. Accordingly , the authors propose appling the COA
algorithm to determine the finest constraints of the considered controller. As, the considered COA method has
been developed to address the limitations associated with traditional optimization techniques. The COA method
offers advantages over conventional optimization algorithms by employing a gradient-free mechanism, which
helps overcome the issue of getting stuck in local solutions. Moreover, the COA algorithm has the capability
to find global solutions using a small number of search agents, further enhancing its superiority over other
optimization methods40. In this work, it is the first time to apply the COA technique in handling the LFC issue.
From a different perspective, when there is a large impact as well as a high penetration of renewable energy,
the frequency and tie line may be different for a long time, and oscillations may still occur. In this case, the
LFC response may not be sufficient to absorb the frequency change due to the slowness and poor quality of the
response. As a result, it is necessary to apply ESSs. However, different studies have applied different energy storage
Vol.:(0123456789)
strategies with rapid rejoinder, like superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) , fuel cell systems (FCSs) ,
plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) , and redox flow batteries (RFBs) , for addressing the LFC issue. The utilization
of these devices has emerged as a new and intriguing research a rea3,4,41–47. Among these, RFB has shown its
advantages over other electronic devices (such as SMES) due to its ability to operate at normal temperature,
low loss and long service life. Consequently, RFBs is anticipated to be the most effective s olution48. In a study
described in 49 , the influence of RFBs and SMES units on enhancing the performance of a power grid was
investigated. Simulation outcomes indicated that the incorporation of RFB units more effectively dampened
dynamic responses in comparison to the SMES units. Additionally, the authors of demonstrated the superior
performance of RFBs in combination with the Unified Power Flow Controller and Interline Power Flow
Controller in Automatic Generation Control (AGC) on nonlinear power s ystems43,50. Furthermore, the stability
is achieved in a nonlinear power system by incorporating integral control of the LFC model with RFBs storage
and a Static Synchronous Series C ompensator51.
Research gap
Despite the pre-mentioned studies successfully achieved their objectives, these studies did not focus on the high
incorporation of RESs in the presence of high load demand. For example, more than one previous study focused
on conventional power plants and did not adequately consider the impact of RESs7,22,41,42. Nevertheless, the
present study emphasizes high renewables penetration like wind and solar energy, which are commonly utilized
in both areas of the power grid under examination. Additionally, numerous studies overlook the influence of
diverse load perturbation shapes, which can be essential for evaluating the applied controller25,26,28,30,31. However,
this study considered numerous load perturbation profiles like, step load disruptions (SLD) , series SLD, and
random load disruptions (RLD) which represent the forced outage of power plants or high change on the load
demand. Moreover, most previous studies considered applying different types of ESSs without applying any
controller to control their output5,43. However, this study consider the controlled ESSs to control the amount
of the power which will injected to the overall system. The standard IEEE 39 buses test system is considered.
Furthermore, the durability of the indicated controller is examined in this work by considering the challenge of
the communication delay time (CDT). The purpose is to validate the effectiveness of the proposed controller in
achieving stability and reliability in a practical power system setting. Furthermore, this paper’s main objective is
to address the limitations uncovered in previously published investigations concerning the frequency stability
problem. Therefore, Table 1 provides a clear overview of the variances between this study and other researches
in the literature, emphasizing the unique contributions and approaches taken in this paper.
Article motivations and contributions

The scope and contribution of this research can be summarized as follows:
• Proposing a concerted strategy based on enhanced LFC in coordination with ESSs (i.e., CRFBs) improves
power grid stability during periods of disturbances in load and high RESs penetration. Where the proposed
controller in LFC is (fuzzy-PID) + (T I Dµ ) controller, whose superiority is confirmed by comparing its
performance with other controllers like the (PID, FO-PID, PD-PI and FO-(PD-PI)).
• Considering the COA technique to select the optimal parameters of the considered controllers, according to
its good optimization properties (i.e., balancing between exploration and exploitation) in order to enhance
the performance of the analyzed power grid.
• The superiority of the proposed strategy is validated considering high RESs, load disturbances as well as
CDT in considered hybrid power grid. Furthermore, the standard IEEE 39 buses is considered to confirm
the superiority of the proposed strategy.
References 5 7 16 22 49 51
This work
Fuzzy logic
Fuzzy fine-tuning (fuzzy-PID) + (T
Controller design Combining TD-TI Cascaded TID based self- PI I
approach I Dµ)
tuning PID
High penetration
√ × × × × × √
levels of RESs
Additional
Considered series Considered RFBs/ Considered RFBs/
improvements Considered PEVs Considered capacitor not considered Considered CRFBs
capacitors SMES SSSC
incorporation
Real-time validation
IEEE-39 bus system/
considering various × × × × × ×
SLD
load patterns
considering high × × × × × × √
RESs penetration
× × × × × × √
considering CDT
Table 1. Comparison of the present work’s motivation to those of other published studies.
Vol:.(1234567890)
The remaining content of the manuscript is structured as follows: "Background" provides a detailed overview
of the power grid under investigation, emphasizing its substantial penetration of renewable energy sources and
the integration of controlled redox flow battery (CRFB) systems within the proposed strategy. "State-of-the-art
literature review" describes the recommended approach, which involves the fuzzy-PID and (T I Dµ) controller,
and formulates the problem under analysis. "Research gap" outlines the methodology employed for the cray-
fish optimization algorithm (COA) procedure. "Article motivations and contributions" presents the simulation
results obtained from the aforementioned scenarios. Finally, in "Modeling of an investigated system", the study’s
conclusions and key findings are discussed and reviewed.
Modeling of an investigated system

The configuration of the considered system base
The power grid that is mentioned in the literature is a two-identical area, with a three-traditional unit included
within each area. A tie-line connecting the two areas is an AC tie-line. Thermal, hydro, and gas turbines are
the three conventional units, which are dispersed throughout the two zones. In the present study, a 2000 MW,
total capacity electrical system is examined. In contrast, having a 1087 MW, contribution, the thermal unit has
the biggest capacity. The second-largest capacity, contributing 653 MW, is possessed by the hydropower facil-
ity. And finally, 262 MW, is contributed by the gas turbine capacity. Furthermore, Fig. 1 simplifies the diagram
of the examined power grid, while the block diagram of the examined power grid is illustrated as Fig. 2. Next,
each block’s mathematical equation from Fig. 2 is presented in detail in Table 2. For the purpose of dealing with
fluctuations in frequency in each area (e.g. , area a -area b) and control the tie-line power flow between them, a
(fuzzy-PID) + (T I Dµ) controller is proposed to be implemented for each power plant. The Area Control Error
(ACE) serves as the input signal for the controller , while the output signal represents the specific supplementary
control action for each power plant. The aim of this procedure is to produce additional active power in order to
improve the currently assessed grid performance. Appendix A provides comprehensive information about all
the parameters related to the analyzed power grid, including their nominal values52. The following equations
describe the formularies used to calculate the ACEs related to interconnected areas.
ACE a = Ptiea−b + Ba fa (1)
ACE b = Ptieb−a + Bb fb (2)
Conceptualization of the wind farm

As highlighted in this analysis, the study’s power grid is a hybrid system that contains a significant proportion
of RESs, with a focus on wind generating facilities. The following formulae can be used to calculate wind output
power3,4.
1
Pwt = ρAT vw3 Cp (, β) (3)
2
The wind output power, denoted as Pwt (in MW ) , is determined by various factors. These factors include the
flounced sectioned area, AT (in m2) , the tip-speed ratio (TSR), , the power coefficient, Cp , of the rotor blades,
Re-heat Re-heat
thermal thermal
Turbine Hydro Turbine
Hydro Turbine
Turbine
RFB 1 RFB 2
fa fb
LFC Area 1 LFC Area 2
Load Load
Gas AC Gas
Turbine Transmission Link Turbine
Wind Farm PV Arrays Wind Farm PV Arrays
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the considered grid.
Vol.:(0123456789)
Primary control PV Kpv

Area a
loops a 1/R1 arrays Tpv.s+1
RESs
1/R2 +
1/R3 +
Wind Kwind
Ba
farm Twind.s+1
Controller
1
‫ــ‬
1 Kr.Tr.s+1 1
KT fa
ACEa + Tsg.s+1 Tr.s+1 Tt.s+1
‫ــ‬ Controller Thermal Reheater a Thermal
‫ــ‬ 2 Governor a Turbine a + +
‫ــ‬ 1 Trs.s+1 -Tw.s+1 + + Kpsa
KH + ‫ــ‬
Controller + Tgh.s+1 Trh.s+1 (0.5).Tw.s+1 Tpsa.s+1
3 ‫ــ‬
Hydro Transient Droop Hydro Power
Governor a Compensation a Turbine a System a
‫ــ‬ Xc.s+1 1 Tcr.s+1 1
KG
Optimized via bg.s+cg Tfc.s+1 Tcd.s+1 Load
+ Yc.s+1
COA variation a
Secondary
Secondary
Gas Turbine Valve Fuel System & Gas Turbine
Speed Positioner a Combuster a Dynamics a
control
control loop a Governor a
loops 1 Ptie (2.pi.Tab) +
s ‫ــ‬
a Optimized via PV Kpv
ab
COA arrays Tpv.s+1

a ab
RESs
+
+
Wind Kwind
Controller
farm Twind.s+1 fb
1
ACEb
‫ــ‬ Controller ‫ــ‬
+ + Kpsb
‫ــ‬ 2 1 Kr.Tr.s+1 1
KT + Tpsb.s+1
‫ــ‬ Tsg.s+1 Tr.s+1 Tt.s+1 ‫ــ‬
Controller Power
Thermal Reheater Thermal
3
Governor b b Turbine b + System b
Bb + 1 Trs.s+1 -Tw.s+1 +
KH + Load
‫ــ‬ Tgh.s+1 Trh.s+1 (0.5).Tw.s+1 variation b
Hydro Transient Droop Hydro
Secondary Governor b Compensation b Turbine b
+ Xc.s+1 1 Tcr.s+1 1
control loop b KG
‫ــ‬ Yc.s+1 bg.s+cg Tfc.s+1 Tcd.s+1
Gas Turbine Valve Fuel System & Gas Turbine
Speed Positioner b Combuster b Dynamics b
Governor b
1/R1 1/R2 1/R3
Primary control loops b Area b
Figure 2. The linearized model of the Power grid under investigation.
the air density, ρ (in kg /m3) , the wind speed, VW (in m/ s ) , and the blade pitch angle, β. The Cp can be expressed
as follow53:
Cp (i , β) = 0.5 i − 0.022β 2 − 5.6 ×e−0.17i (4)

3600 × R
i = (5)
1609 ×
ωB × R
= (6)
VW
where ωB specifies the angular velocity value of the blade (rad/sec).
The wind farm at Zafarana, Egypt, with a total installed capacity of 85 MW, is included in this study. Addi-
tionally, Fig. 3 presents the real output power data for the Zafarana windmill. One may theoretically describe
Vol:.(1234567890)
Description of A block Formulation of transfer functions
Power system a Kpsa

Tpsa ·s+1
Power system b Kpsb

Tpsb ·s+1
Hydro turbine −Tw ·s+1

(0.5).T w ·s+1
Transient droop compensation Trs ·s+1

Trh ·s+1
Hydro governor 1
Tgh ·s+1
Reheater of thermal turbine Kr ·Tr ·s+1

Tr ·s+1
Thermal governor 1
Tsg .s+1
Thermal turbine 1
Tt .s+1
Gas turbine’s speed governor xc ·s+1
Yc ·s+1
Gas turbine dynamics 1

Tcd ·s+1
Gas turbine’s valve positioner 1

bg ·s+cg
Fuel system and combustor Tcr ·s+1

Tfc ·s+1
Synchronizing coefficient (2.pi.T ab )

s
Wind farm KWind

TWind .s+1
PV Power plant KPV

TPV .s+1
Table 2. The mathematical formulas regarding the considered power grid blocks.
the characteristics of the transfer function, which depicts the behavior of the integrated induction generator
in a wind power plant, as 0.3 s for the time constant (Twind ) and a unity gain ( Kwind ). Additionally, the overall
capacity applied in this work is ten Zafarana wind farms, with a total capacity of 850 MW .
Conceptualization of the photovoltaic (PV) power plant

This research also takes into account photovoltaic (PV) power plants, which generate electricity from solar energy
besides utilized wind farms. Multiple variables, like the PV cell’s surface area, the intensity of solar radiation,
and the surrounding air temperature, affect a PV system’s output power. For calculating the amount of energy
generated by the module of PV in this current study, an equation is employed, taking into account these factors.
P = ηsc τg αsc RA[1 − µsc (Tsc − Tr )] (7)
In the PV system, several parameters influence the output power calculation. These parameters include the
cell reference efficiency denoted as ηsc , the entire solar cell’s (SC) surface area denoted as A (measured in m2) , the
solar radiation denoted as R (measured in W/m2) , the transmissivity of the glass denoted as τg , the absorptivity of
the SC denoted as αsc , the PV cell efficiency thermal coefficient denoted as µsc (measured in ◦%C) , the temperature
of the SC denoted as Tsc (measured in ◦ C) , then the reference temperature signified as Tr (measured in ◦ C). These
parameters are used in a formula to determine the PV module’s electrical power output.
0.3
0.25
0.2
ΔPwt (pu)
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Time (min)
Figure 3. Energy generated by the Zafarana windmill s tation53.
Vol.:(0123456789)
This study focuses on a specific power grid and examines a realistic 50 MW PV system. The southern Egypt
represents the location of this aforementioned realistic PV power plant. Whereas, the realistic PV power plant
is modeled by a transfer function with 10 ms time constant (TPV ) and a unity gain ( KPV ). The output power
of this PV system is depicted in Fig. 4 illustrates the diagram of the output power produced by the PV system.
Appendix B provides the results of the analysis of data gathered for identifying the correlation between bright-
ness and PV temperature. Furthermore, the characteristics of the studied PV system are displayed in Figs. 5,6,
which emphasize the associations between the produced active power, the values of brightness, the produced
active power, and the temperature of the surroundings. Additionally, the overall capacity applied in this work is
ten realistic PV power plants, with a total capacity of 500 MW .
Controlled redox flow batteries (CRFBs) conceptualization

The CRFBs functions as an electrochemical power source that has the ability to be recharged. CRFBs can rapidly
and efficiently save energy for the power network; additionally it can also employ the generator’s kinetic energy
when requested50. It functions as a rapid energy compensating equipment for high load electrical consumption
and additionally aids in frequency fluctuation suppression. The CRFBs has a broad range of applications and
0.25
0.2
ΔPpv (pu)
0.15
0.1
06:00 AM
0.05
06:00 PM
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Time (min)
Figure 4. The exact PV power plant power g eneration53.
Figure 5. Radiation and power generation characteristics of the PV energy station.
Vol:.(1234567890)
Figure 6. Power generation characteristics and ambient temperature of the PV energy station.
offers excellent features such as improved power quality, load compensation, higher capacity compared to
conventional batteries, quick response time, and independence from self-discharge issues. During low load
demand periods, the CRFBs stores and saves the energy that is equivalent to the demand variations. This stored
energy can then be unrestricted back into the grid during load fluctuations, aiding in the elimination of power
grid oscillations.
In this study, a significant aspect of CRFBs modeling is the utilization of a comprehensive and realistic
dynamic model of redox flow batteries, rather than the simplistic first-order transfer function models commonly
used in several recent papers. The model incorporates the f (change in frequency) as an input. This paper
presents a controller design that incorporates a feedback path to generate control signals for CRFBs. This design
enables the CRFBs to respond efficiently to disturbances, resulting in improved performance. The designed
controller, denoted as K(s), is considered as a PID controller in this work. The relevant parameters of the CRFBs
are provided in the Appendix B. Figure 7 illustrates the block diagram of CRFBs. Equation (8) indicates how the
CRFBs unit is woven into the studied power g rid45.

1+s
�PCRFBi = kp,CRFBi �fi × − initial value × K(s)
1 + kr,CRFBi + s Tr,CRFBi + Td,CRFBi + s2 Tr,CRFBi Td,CRFBi
(8)
Proposed control mechanism and problem description

In order to address the difficulties caused by the high renewables penetration, several load profile themes, and
communication delays, it is crucial to design a reliable controller that can boost system performance under
irregular situations. This paper recommends the utilizing of a (fuzzy-PID) + (T I Dµ) controller to alleviate
the deviations resulting from the aforementioned factors. Structure-wise, both the TID and PID controllers are
1 fi (s)
Td,CRFBi .s+1 + kP,CRFBi
pCRFBi
K(s)
+ -
Kkr,CRFBi
- r,RFPi
Tr,CRFBi .s+1
Designed controller
Initial value
Figure 7. CRFBs unit’s transfer function m
odel45.
Vol.:(0123456789)
exactly the same, with one significant difference. Instead of the proportional component, the TID controller
incorporates a tilted component with a transfer function of s−(1/n) , where n represents the FOCs. The TID
controller has numerous benefits over a typical PID controller. It exhibits better disturbance rejection, simplified
tuning process, and reduced sensitivity to variations in system parameters, resulting in improved dynamic
response. Additionally, another type of FOCs called the fractional-order-integral-derivative (FO-ID) controller
is available, which offers enhanced system performance and flexibility. Thus, this study replaced the second and
third gains in TID controller by the FO-I and FO-D terms to attain the T I Dµ controller. Where the frequency
fluctuations of the area (fi ) attends as the T I Dµ controller’s input signal. Furthermore, the mathematical
expression of T I Dµ controller is expressed according to the next equation:
Kti,i Ki,i
TI Dµ (s) = 1 + + Kd,i Sµ (9)
S n S
The constraints of gain values, kti,i(TI Dµ ) , ki,i(TI Dµ ) , kd,i(TI Dµ ) , n(TI Dµ ) , (TI Dµ ) , and µ(TI Dµ ) utilized in
this work in both areas of the considered power grid are expressed as follows:
kti,i(TI Dµ )max ≥ kti,i(TI Dµ ) ≥ kti,i(TI Dµ )min (10)
ki,i(TI Dµ )max ≥ ki,i(TI Dµ ) ≥ ki,i(TI Dµ )min (11)
kd,i(TI Dµ )max ≥ kd,i(TI Dµ ) ≥ kd,i(TI Dµ )min (12)
n(TI Dµ )max ≥ n(TI Dµ ) ≥ n(TI Dµ )min (13)
(TI Dµ )max ≥ (TI Dµ ) ≥ (TI Dµ )min (14)
µ(TI Dµ )max ≥ µ(TI Dµ ) ≥ µ(TI Dµ )min (15)

where i refers scheme of the suggested controller for each of the three mentioned traditional power plants; thus,
(i =1, 2, 3). The gain values (kti,i(TI Dµ ) , ki,i(TI Dµ ) , kd,i(TI Dµ ) , n(TI Dµ ) , (TI Dµ ) , and µ(TI Dµ )) are chosen between
[0, 10] , n(TI Dµ ) is set among the range [1, 10] , the fractional derivative (µ(TI Dµ )) and fractional integrator
((TI Dµ )) orders are chosen among the range [0, 1].
Additionally, Fig. 8 illustrates the proposed controller structure for the three considered generating units.
Where, the considered controller has dual inputs: the ACE value and the derivative value of ACE. The scalability
variables for the inputs are symbolized as K 1 and K 2, while the scalability variables for the output are symbolized
as K3 and K 4. Traditionally, determining these scaling factors has been a challenge, often relying on trial-and-
error methods. This can make obtaining optimal parameter values that improve system performance difficult.
However, this study overcomes this limitation by designing the considered (fuzzy-PID) + (T I Dµ) controller.
Furthermore, the COA algorithm is used to determine these optimized values, where, the fuzzy membership
function can be either triangular or Gaussian shape. In practical applications of electrical systems, triangular
membership is often preferred due to its computational efficiency and simplicity. It is a first-order function of
controller
kt 1
s 1/n
fi +
1 + + Ui
Input ki ∑ ∑
s ++ Control
signal +
signal
kd s
Scaling factor Proportional gain
k1 k3
ACEi +
Input +
signal d k2 k4
dt Fuzzy Logic
Derivative gain Integral gain
Controller
fuzzy-PID controller
Figure 8. Considered (fuzzy-PID) + (T I Dµ) controller arrangement.
Vol:.(1234567890)
mathematics that decreases computational load. Triangular membership functions are typically used with PID
controllers and exhibit abundantly symmetric characteristics in both output as well as input. Furthermore, the
mathematical expression of (fuzzy-PID) controller is expressed according to the following equation:
K4,i
fuzzy − PID(s) = K1,i + K3,i + + K2,i s (16)
s
The constraints of gain values, K1,i , K2,i , K3,i , and K4,i utilized in this work in both areas of the analyzed power
grid are expressed as follows:
k1,i(fuzzy−PID)max ≥ k1,i(fuzzy−PID) ≥ k1,i(fuzzy−PID)min (17)

The gain values (k1,i(fuzzy−PID) , k2,i(fuzzy−PID) , k3,i(fuzzy−PID) , and k4,i(fuzzy−PID)) are chosen between [0, 10].
The decision about the choice of fuzzy control settings is influenced by the specific characteristics of the
system under consideration as well as the designer’s expertise. The range of fuzzy function memberships is
determined by predicting the system’s input and output discourse universes. Typically, a decision-maker defines
the acceptable risk level for the output and input variables. In this study, the range intervals are selected between
-1 and 1, as deviations beyond this range are not necessary to achieve system stability. Symmetric triangular
membership functions with 50% overlap are recommended, and a tuning procedure can be applied to adjust
the spread and overlap as needed to achieve satisfactory results. In this study, the fuzzy-PID controller in this
work utilizes five triangular membership functions: negative big (NB) , negative small (NS) , zero (Z) , positive
small (PS) , and positive big (PB). These membership functions, depicted in Fig. 9, are utilized for outputs as
well as inputs. Consequently, the fuzzy-PID controller requires 25 rules to generate fuzzy outputs, which play
a crucial role in its performance. These rules are presented in Table 3. Also, the arrangement of the considered
combination of (fuzzy-PID) and (T I Dµ) controller is depicted in Fig. 8. According to various published studies,
the load frequency controller’s input signal is usually ACE. In this study, the authors proposed (fuzzy-PID) + (T
NB NS Z PS PB
1
0
_ _ _ _ _
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Figure 9. The triangular membership functions of the FLC’s input and output.
dACE/dt
ACE NB NS Z PS PB
NB NB NB NB NS Z
NS NB NB NS Z PS
Z NB NS Z PS PB
PS NS Z PS PB PB
PB Z PS PB PB PB
Table 3. Rule base of the FLC.
Vol.:(0123456789)
I Dµ) controller, which combines two concepts. The first (fuzzy-PID) controller term receives the ACE signal
as an input. The extra (T I Dµ) controller term employs the f signal to improve system performance. It is
obviously true that the total arrangement of the proposed controller demonstrates superior rejection of existing
disturbances by mitigating all low- and high-frequency d isturbances4,6.
In this study, the authors propose the utilization of the integral time absolute error (ITAE) criteria as a means
for minimizing the value of the cost function. Optimizing development is improved by adding the element of a
time term to the ITAE criteria and the system constancy will be more enhanced compared to using the integral
of squared error (ISE) criteria. Increased efficacy in error reduction is achieved by multiplying the factor of time
by the integral of the absolute error. The ITAE principles can be expressed as follows:
Tsim

(21)

J = ITAE = t. |fa | + |fb | + ptie .dt
0
Where J denotes the value of proposed cost function which seeks to be the lowest possible value in this
work, |fa | represents the area-afrequency waveform’s absolute error, |fb | represents the area-b frequency
waveform’s absolute error, ptie represents the tie-line’s power flow change absolute error, Tsim denotes the

overall simulation runtime, and the variable dt symbolizes the error signal sampling period throughout the
simulation procedure.
The crayfish optimization algorithm (COA)

The Crayfish Optimization Algorithm (COA) principles which is proposed by Heming et.al is discussed in
detail in this section40. Foraging, competition, and summer resort behaviors are the three crayfish behaviors that
the COA simulates. To equilibrium the algorithm’s exploration and exploitation features, these behaviors are
classified into three stages of actions (i.e. , summer resort, competition, and foraging). The summer resort stage
symbolizes the COA’s exploring phase, while the competition and foraging stages indicate the exploitation phase.
The temperature has an effect on the algorithm’s exploration and exploitation. The initial stage of the algorithm
defines
a crawfish colony, denoted as X, where Xi indicates a solution and describes the position of the ith crayfish.
( Xi= Xi,1 , Xi,2 , Xi,3 . . . Xi,dim , dim is the dimension which denotes the optimization problem’s characteristic

quantity. Random constants that represent the ambient temperature have an influence on individual’s behavior.
When the temperatures increase, the COA moves into the stage of summer resort or the competition stage. New
solutions are updated at the summer resort stage depending on the position of an individual , Xi and the position
of cave , Xshade . When the ambient temperature is appropriate and warm enough, the COA begins the foraging
stage. During this stage, the best location, likewise regarded as an optimal solution, reveals the location of food.
The fitnessi value of the current solution (gained through Xi ) and the optimal solution fitnessfood value (gained
as a result of the optimal solution) define the size of the food. During foraging, crayfish obtain new solutions by
considering their position, Xi a food intake constant p, and the update of the food position X food. If crayfish want
to eat food that is excessively large for them, they will first break it down with their claw foot before alternating
between their second and third walking feet. Overall, the COA simulates crayfish behavior by incorporating
exploration and exploitation through temperature regulation, updating solutions based on individual and optimal
positions, and considering the size and consumption of food.
This subsection summarizes the methodology of the COA algorithm:
Initialization process of COA

This study proposes a controller with both lower and upper limits for parameters. To accomplish the global goal,
the population of the COA method is formed between these boundaries using main mathematical procedures.
The population of the COA method can be expressed using Eq. (22).
Xi,j = rand × (UBj − LBj ) + LBj (22)
Where Xi,j represents where the individual i is located in the j dimension, LBj represents the jth dimension’s lower
bound, UBj represents the jth dimension’s upper bound, and rand is a random number.
The COA method starts by generating candidate solutions ( X ) randomly. In each iteration, the obtained
solution that is closest to the global goal (target) represents the optimal solution. The obtained solutions’ positions
are indicated in the next matrix.
 
X1,1 X1,j · · · X1,dim
 Xi,1 Xi,j · · · Xi,dim 
X= . .. .. (23)
 
 .. .. 
. . . 
XN,1 XN,j . . . XN,dim
where X refers the initial population position, N refers the population number, dim refers the population
dimension.
The fitness solution, which represents the solution with the best fitness value among the obtained solutions,
is calculated as following:
ffitness = [f 1f 2f 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . fN ]T (24)
Vol:.(1234567890)
Definition of the crayfish temperature and its intake

The behavior of crayfish is influenced by changes in temperature, which determine the stage they enter.
Temperature is determined by Eq. (25). When the temperature exceeds 30 °C, crayfish will seek out cooler areas
for taking a summer vacation. Crayfish will begin to forage when the temperature is appropriate. Temperature
influences the amount of food consumed by crayfish. Crayfish prefer temperatures between 15 °C and 30 °C for
feeding, with 25 °C being the most favorable. Equation (26) provides the mathematical representation of the
crayfish intake.
Temp = rand × 15 + 20 (25)
In this equation, "Temp " denotes the temperature of the crayfish’s environment.
2
1 − Temp − µ
p = C1 × √ × exp( ) (26)
2×π ×σ 2σ 2
Among them, σ and C1 is used to regulate crayfish intake at various temperatures, while µ refers to the optimal
crayfish temperature.
The exploration stage (summer resort stage)

When the temperature exceeds 30 °C, it is considered too high, and crayfish will choose to seek refuge in caves
to take the period of summer vacation. The cave Xshade is identified as listed below:
Xshade = (XG + XL )/2 (27)
In this scenario, XG demonstrates the optimal position attained so far throughout iterations, while XL
represents the current population’s optimal position.
The competition among crayfish for caves is a random occurrence. When a randomly generated number
rand<0.5, it means that there aren’t any other crayfish fighting for caves. In such instances, the crayfish are going
to move directly to the cave for their break during the summer vacation. This behavior is governed by Eq. (28).

t+1 t t
Xi,j = Xi,j + C2 × rand × Xshade − Xi,j (28)
Where t refers the current iteration number, and t+1 refers the number of the next generation iteration,C2
refers the decreasing curve, as proved by Eq. (29).
C2 = 2 − (t/T) (29)
where t indicates the maximum iterations’ number.
Crayfish’s goal at the summer resort stage is to go close to the cave, which represents the optimal solution.
Consequently, crayfish will move towards the cave in an effort to get closer to the optimal solution. Individuals
become closer to the best solution through this process, which also improves the COA algorithm’s exploitation
capability, thus allowing for faster convergence.
The exploitation stage (competition stage)

When the temperature exceeds 30 °C and rand≥0.5, it indicates that other crayfish are also captivated by the cave.
In this situation, they will engage in a competitive fight to gain access to the cave. As per Eq. (30), the crayfish
competes over the cave:
t+1 t t
Xi,j = Xi,j − Xz,j + Xshade (30)
Where z sums up the crayfish’s arbitrarily individual, as demonstrated in Eq. (31):

z = round(rand × (N − 1) + 1 (31)
Crayfish compete over the cave during the competition stage. Each crayfish, denoted as Xi , adjusts its position
depending on where another crayfish is located, Xz as described in Eq. (30). This adjustment of positions expands
the search range of the COA algorithm, enhancing its exploration ability.
The exploitation stage (foraging stage)

When the Temp ≤ 30 °C, it seems to be appropriate for feeding crayfish. In this case, the crayfish will keep moving
in the direction of the food supply. Once they find the food, crayfish will assess its size. Crayfish will use their
claws to rip apart food if it is deemed to be excessively large. Then, they will alternately use their two remaining
walking feet to consume their food. Food location, denoted as Xfood , is defined as follows:
Xfood = XG (32)
The food size Q is defined as:
Q = C3 × rand × (fitnessi /fitnessfood ) (33)
Here, C3 refers the factor of food, which represents the largest food size and has a constant value of 3. " fitnessi"
refers the ith crayfish’s fitness value, while “fitnessfood” refers the food location’s fitness value. The crayfish uses the
Vol.:(0123456789)
Determine the temperature Compute fitness value Set parameters and

using Eq. (14) and obtain XG and XL initialize the population
Start
While No The food intake P and food size Q are While Yes
Crayfish shreds food
temp <30 obtained using Eq. (15) and Eq. (22) Q <2 using Eq. (23)
Yes No
Determine cave Xshade using Crayfish foraging Crayfish foraging
Eq. (16) using Eq. (25) using Eq. (24)
t=t+1 Foraging stage
While Yes Crayfish conducts the summer
rand > 0.5 resort stage using Eq. (17)
Update fitness values XG
No Crayfish compete for caves using and XL
Eq. (20)
Summer resort stage
No While
t> T
Yes
End
Figure 10. The flow chart of the COA algorithm40.
largest food’s quantity as a benchmark for determining the size of food. When Q surpasses (C3+1)/2, it implies
a large amount of the food. Here, the crayfish is going to utilize their first claw foot for ripping the food. The
mathematical equation representing this action is provided as follows:

Xfood = exp −1Q × Xfood (34)
This mechanism enables crayfish to adapt their feeding behavior depending on the size of the food available,
ensuring efficient consumption and utilization of resources.
When the food becomes crumbly and smaller, the crayfish will pick it up with their second and third paws
alternatively and put it in their mouth. A sine and cosine function combination is utilized to describe this
alternating process. Furthermore, the crayfish’s food intake is related to the food they get. Foraging is calculated
as follows:
t+1 t
Xi,j = Xi,j + Xfood × p × (cos(2 × π × rand) − sin(2 × π × rand) (35)
When Q ≤ (C3+1)/2, the crayfish only needs to proceed forward to the food and devour it immediately. The
equation for this behavior is provided as follows:

t+1 t t
Xi,j = Xi,j − Xfood × p + p × rand × Xi,j (36)
Crayfish use a variety of feeding strategies during the foraging stage, which are determined by their food
size, denoted as Q . The food location Xfood represents the optimal solution in this context. If the food Q ’s size is
appropriate for crayfish feeding, they will approach the food and consume it. However, if Q is too large, it shows
that there is a significant difference between the optimal solution and the crayfish. In such cases, Xfood needs to
be adjusted to reduce the difference as well as moving it up close to the food. Furthermore, the randomness of
the crayfish food intake enhancement algorithm is under executive control. This ensures that the crayfish can
approach the optimal solution more effectively during the foraging stage. Through this process, the COA algo-
rithm gradually converges towards the optimal solution, enhancing its exploitation ability and achieving good
convergence performance. Here, Fig. 10 depicts the COA method’s flowchart.
Ethical approval
This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.
Execution and results discussion

In this work, a supplementary control scheme called (fuzzy-PID) + (T I Dµ) is proposed as well as implemented
for the analyzed power grid. According to the merits of fuzzy logic and fractional order schemes, the proposed
controller outperforms superior rejection of existing disturbances by dampening all low- and high-frequency
disruptions. This present study addresses the presence of high renewables penetration in the power grid. Multiple
scenarios are scrutinized to evaluate how well the suggested control approach coordinates several different
Vol:.(1234567890)
controllers. The proposed algorithm’s performance is additionally assessed in comparison to different techniques.
To optimize the suggested controller, the COA technique is employed to alleviate system frequency excursions.
The simulations are conducted using MATLAB/SIMULINK® program (R2016a) on a computer with specific
hardware specifications. For optimizing the proposed control structure, an m-file containing the original COA
algorithm code and paired with the stipulated power grid model is employed. The several simulation scenarios
are executed on a PC with the following specifications: 8.00 GB of RAM with a 2.60 GHz Intel Core i5 processor.
Furthermore, the frequency stability assessing takes into consideration varied operational conditions in the
scenarios listed below:
Scenario A Evaluating the analyzed power grid’s performance with different varied load pattern profiles.
Scenario B Evaluating the examined power grid’s performance involving high renewables penetration, aiming
to examine the grid’s capability to handle this issue.
Scenario C Evaluating the suggested controller’s robustness in real-time for stability and reliability using the
IEEE-39 bus system. The validation includes considering the impact of SLD.
Scenario D Evaluating the efficacy of the recommended controller utilizing a real-time IEEE-39 bus system,
considering high renewables penetration within the system, to assess its effectiveness with the goal to attain
dependability and stability.
Scenario E Evaluating the performance of the proposed controller under varying CDT conditions before and
after the LFC in the IEEE-39 bus system. This evaluation also considers high renewable energy penetrations.
Scenario F Evaluating the proposed strategy’s effectiveness by comparing the effectiveness of the IEEE 39 buses
system with and without the proposed strategy, considering high renewables penetration.
Scenario G Stability analysis of the proposed (fuzzy-PID) + (T I Dµ) controller.
When optimizing the proposed (fuzzy-PID) + (T I Dµ) controller using the COA algorithm, certain arrange-
ments should be considered. These include employing 30 search agents and performing 50 iterations. Figure 11
shows the obtained convergence curve, which provides insights into the investigated power grid’s performance
with the recommended COA-based controller. It should be noted that the presented convergence curve in the
figure is obtained assuming a 1% SLD occurring to area-a at t = 10 s within the examined power grid, without
considering a high renewables penetration. Whereas, the behavior of proposed controller based on COA is
summarized as beginning with a value of the objective function near 0.00201 and dropping with each attempt
until it achieves a value near 0.00188.
Scenario A Evaluating the analyzed power grid’s performance with different varied load pattern profiles.
The following scenario is intended to provide an initial comparison for accurately verifying the suggested
controller’s efficiency and algorithm in achieving frequency stabilization of the analyzed power grid. To conduct
a more detailed analysis, a comparison is made among various aforementioned published controllers.
Case A.1 In this case, it is assumed that area-a of the assessed power grid includes a step load. The purpose
is to assess the effectiveness of the COA algorithm in addressing the frequency stability issue through the use
of the supplementary control loop. Assuming a step load of 1% magnitude at t = 10 s, representing either the
disconnection of generation power plants or the disconnection of a variety of electrical loads. The obtained
controller parameters for the proposed controller and the other mentioned controllers are presented in Table 4.
Additionally, the system’s performance is depicted in Fig. 12.
The values of maximum overshoots (Osh) and maximum undershoots (Ush) obtained from the various con-
sidered dynamic responses of the analyzed power grid using the recommended controller relied on the COA
method are considerably lower than the results obtained with other mentioned controllers via various different
0.00202
0.002
0.00198
The objective function value
0.00196
0.00194
0.00192
0.0019
0.00188
0.00186
0.00184
0.00182
0.0018
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49
Iteration No.
Figure 11. Obtained convergence curve of the suggested controller tuned by the COA method.
Vol.:(0123456789)
Objective function value

Controller structures Thermal unit Hydro unit Gas unit (ITAE)
PID-optimized via AOA18 kp= 10, ki = 1.5975, kd = 2.7449 kp= 1.5975, ki = 0.0837, kd = 0.0875 kp= 10, ki = 10, kd = 1.2779 0.189
18 kp= 8.9645, ki = 9.9979, kd = 9.7397, kp= 6.6278, ki = 9.1570, kd = 4.631, kp= 9.7594, ki = 9.9997, kd = 7.976,
FOPID-optimized via ESAOA 0.1233
λ = 0.7266, µ = 0.8519 λ = 0.587, µ = 0.0887 λ = 0.9159, µ = 0.3775
kp1= 5, kd1 = 5, kp2 = 5, kp1= 5, kd1 = 0.4447, kp2 = 5, ki1 =
PD-PI- optimized via HHO3 kp1= 5, kd1 = − 5, kp2 = 5 , ki1 = 5 0.04312
ki1 = 5 − 2.6257
kp1= 8.4889, kd1 = 4.7798, kp1= 8.3087, kd1 = 7.8085, kp1= 0.4128, kd1 = 4.8394,
FO-(PD-PI)- optimized via
µ = 0.888, kp2 = 3.3705, ki1 = 9.1858, µ = 0.4372, kp2 = 7.6906, ki1 = µ = 0.6828, kp2 = 1.8088, ki1 = 0.03477
MRFO3
λ = 0.63405 9.3538, λ = 0.13835 0.95754, λ = 0.82713
k1= 10, k2 = 9.9846, k3 = 7.561, k4
k1= 10, k2 = 9.9229, k3 = 6.923, k4 = k1= 9.9962, k2 = 10, k3 = 9.984, k4
Fuzzy-PID + (T I Dµ)- optimized = 1.6455, kt = 6.771, ki = 9.9041, kd
10, kt = 10, ki = 9.9827, kd = 5.3442, = 4.039, kt = 5.5703, ki = 10, kd = 0.00188
via COA = 8.2064, λ = 0.8804, µ = 1×e−8 ,
λ = 0.7279, µ = 1×e−8 , n = 4.682 9.987, λ = 0.3176, µ = 0.3844, n = 1
n = 4.25
Table 4. Optimal values of various optimized controllers.
10-3
0
1% SLP
-2 PID based AOA [18]
FOPID based ESAOA [18]
PD-PI based HHO [3]
Δfa (pu)
-4 FO-(PD-PI) based MRFO [3]

Fuzzy-PID+(TIλ Dµ) based COA
-6
-8
-10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (sec)
10-3
0
1% SLP
-1 PID based AOA [18]
FOPID based ESAOA [18]
Δfb (pu)
PD-PI based HHO [3]

λ µ
Fuzzy-PID+(TI D ) based COA
-3
-4
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (sec)
-4
10
0
-2 1% SLP
ΔPtie (p.u. MW)
PID based AOA [18]

-4 FOPID based ESAOA [18]
PD-PI based HHO [3]
λ µ
-8
-10
-12
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (sec)
Figure 12. LFC controllers’ dynamic responses to step load disruption for Case A.1.
Vol:.(1234567890)
Considered dynamic response

Controller structures Considered dynamic response of (�fa ) Considered dynamic response of (�fb ) of (Ptie)
Osh= 1.158 Osh= 0.0209 Osh= 0.01107
PID-optimized via AOA18
Ush = − 11.42 Ush = − 4.443 Ush = − 1.249
Osh= 0.0802 Osh= 0.0018 Osh= 0.00109
FOPID-optimized via ESAOA18
Ush = − 8.344 Ush = − 2.456 Ush = − 0.7403
Osh= 0.7113 Osh= 0.02308 Osh= 0.0137
PD-PI-optimized via HHO3
Ush = − 5.06 Ush = − 0.760 Ush = − 0.2735
Osh= 0.0249 Osh= 0 Osh= 0
FO-(PD-PI)-optimized via MRFO3
Ush = − 3.734 Ush = − 0.4837 Ush = − 0.1623
Osh= 0.1983 Osh= 0.0203 Osh= 0.0083
Fuzzy-PID + (T I Dµ)-optimized via COA
Ush = − 0.4975 Ush = − 0.1839 Ush = − 0.08528
Table 5. Specifications of the analyzed system’s transient response for scenario A.1. All values are multiplied
by (10−3).
fa fb Ptie

Controller structures Ush Osh Ush Osh Ush Osh
FOPID-optimized via ESAOA18 26.93 93.07 44.72 91.39 40.73 90.15
PD-PI-optimized via HHO3 55.69 38.58 82.89 10.43 78.1 23.76
FO-(PD-PI)-optimized via MRFO3 67.3 97.84 89.11 100 87 100
Fuzzy-PID + (T I Dµ)-optimized via COA 95.64 82.88 95.86 2.87 93.17 25.02
Table 6. Percentage improvements in Osh and Ush for Case A.1. Optimal percentage values are highlighted in
bold format.
techniques, as shown in Fig. 12. Furthermore, Table 5 provides an in-depth overview of the system performance
in Case A.1. Then, Table 6 further highlights the percentage improvements in Osh and Ush for this specific case,
illustrating the enhancements achieved compared to the previous controllers.
Case A.2 A series SLD pattern is applied in this case to assess the performance of the proposed (fuzzy-
PID) + (T I Dµ) controller. This pattern involves a succession of forced switches of generators or outages of
connected loads, which can potentially lead to power grid instability. Figure 13 depicts the series SLD form.
Then, Fig. 14 presents the system’s various dynamic responses for this case.
Figure 14 illustrates that the maximum Osh and maximum Ush values obtained from the system’s dynamic
responses using the proposed (fuzzy-PID) + (T I Dµ) controller relied on COA are significantly lower than the
results obtained from the aforementioned published controllers. Furthermore, Table 7 provides the precise values
of Osh and Ush for the power flowing in the tie-line and frequencies for both areas. Additionally, Table 8 highlights
the system’s overall improvement percent achieved in this case.
Case A.3 Additionally, in area-a of the analyzed power grid, a random load fluctuation form is assumed,
occurring at t = 100 s. This form represents a wide range of disruptions in series in industrially interconnected
loads, producing similar grid effects, such as grid instability and the occurrence of blackouts. Figure 15 clarifies
the applicable RLD pattern. Furthermore, Fig. 16 provides a comparative analysis of the examined power grid’s
0.05 The series SLD pattern
0.04
ΔPL (pu)
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (sec)
Figure 13. The implemented area-a series SLD form.
Vol.:(0123456789)
0.01
0.005
Δfa (pu)
-0.005 PD-PI based HHO [3]
FO-(PD-PI) based MRFO [3]
-0.01 Fuzzy-PID+(TIλ D µ) based COA
-0.015
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (sec)
-3
10
0
Δfb (pu)
-1 PD-PI based HHO [3]

λ µ
-2
-3
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (sec)
10-4
4
2
ΔPtie (p.u. MW)
0
-4 λ µ
-6
-8
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (sec)
Figure 14. LFC controllers’ dynamic responses to series step load disruption for Case A.2.
Considered dynamic response

Controller structures Considered dynamic response of (�fa ) Considered dynamic response of (�fb ) of (Ptie)
Osh= 10.121 Osh= 1.52 Osh= 0.5469
PD-PI-optimized via HHO 3
Ush = − 15.181 Ush = − 2.28 Ush = − 0.82035
Osh= 7.45 Osh= 0.94914 Osh= 0.31477
FO-(PD-PI)-optimized via MRFO3
Ush = − 11.203 Ush = − 1.451 Ush = − 0.48686
Osh= 1.12 Osh= 0.3051 Osh= 0.1670
Fuzzy-PID + (T I Dµ)-optimized via COA
Ush = − 1.817 Ush = − 0.5570 Ush = − 0.2364
by (10−3).
Vol:.(1234567890)
fa fb Ptie

FO-(PD-PI)-optimized via MRFO3 26.2 26.39 36.36 37.56 40.65 42.44
bold format.
dynamic performance according to the recommended controller scheme and the other two aforementioned
controllers.
Figure 16 shows that the maximum Osh and maximum Ush values obtained from the considered power grid’s
dynamic responses utilizing the recommended (fuzzy-PID) + (T I Dµ) controller relied on COA are significantly
lower than the values obtained from the aforementioned published controllers. Furthermore, Table 9 shows the
precise values of Osh and Ush for the power flowing in the tie-line and frequencies for both areas. Table 10 also
shows the system’s overall improvement percent.
Scenario B Evaluating the examined power grid’s performance involving high renewables penetration, aiming
to examine the grid’s capability to handle this issue.
The scenario’s purpose is to examine the disturbances caused by a significant penetration of renewables in
both of the analyzed power grid’s areas. Specifically, area-a has been incorporated by 10 windmills and 10 PV
power plants at 100 min and 400 min, respectively, utilizing a random demand fluctuation pattern. In area-b, the
identical integration parameters for the penetration of renewables are applied; PV power plants integrate at 700
min and windmills at 600 min. The generated power from the RESs integrated into the analyzed power grid, as
well as various system dynamic responses, are elucidated in Figs. 17,18, respectively.
Furthermore, Table 11 shows the different acquired values of Osh and Ush for the power flowing in the tie-line
and frequencies for both areas applying all of the previously mentioned controllers. Table 12 also clarifies the
system’s overall improvement percent for this case.
Scenario C: Evaluating the suggested controller’s robustness in real-time for stability and reliability using
the IEEE-39 bus system. The validation includes considering the impact of SLD.
For evaluating the suggested (fuzzy-PID) + (T I Dµ) controller approach for load frequency management, the
standard real-world New England IEEE-39 bus system is applied in this scenario. The standard real-world New
England IEEE-39 bus system consists of ten reheat thermal generators, nineteen loads, thirty-eight transmission
lines, and twelve transformers, as shown in Fig. 19. The system is divided into three interconnected areas, namely
area 1, area 2, and area 3, with respective rated area power capacities of Pr1 = 1500MW, Pr2 = 2000MW, and
Pr3 = 1500MW . Appendix B provides the system parameter values. In this approach, each area’s generating
units are substituted with a single equivalent generation unit. The following equations are used to calculate the
equivalent inertia constant and speed regulation p arameters54:
H1 S1 + H2 S2 + · · · + Hn Sn
Heqv = (37)
Ssystem
1
Revq = HZ/MW pu
(38)

1 S1 1 S2 1 Sn
R1 Ssystem + R2 Ssystem + ··· + Rn Ssystem
Ssystem = S1 + S2 + · · · + Sn (39)
0.025 The RLD pattern
0.02
ΔPL (pu)
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (sec)
Figure 15. The implemented area-a RLD form.
Vol.:(0123456789)
-3
10
Δfa (pu)
0
-2

-6 λ µ
-8
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (sec)
10-4
0
Δfb (pu)
-5
PD-PI based HHO [3]
-10 Fuzzy-PID+(TIλ Dµ) based COA
0 100 200 300 400 500 600

Time (sec)
10-4
2
ΔPtie (p.u. MW)
-2
PD-PI based HHO [3]
Fuzzy-PID+(TIλ Dµ) based COA
-4
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (sec)
Figure 16. LFC controllers’ dynamic responses to RLD for Case A.3.
Considered dynamic response Considered dynamic response Considered dynamic response

Controller structures of (�f a ) of (�f b ) of (Ptie)
Osh= 5.06 Osh= 0.7597 Osh= 0.27321
Ush = − 7.591 Ush = − 1.14 Ush = − 0.41013
FO-(PD-PI)-optimized via Osh= 3.722 Osh= 0.4714 Osh= 0.1557
MRFO3 Ush = − 5.606 Ush = − 0.72973 Ush = − 0.24566
Fuzzy-PID + (T I Dµ)-optimized Osh= 0.664 Osh= 0.20182 Osh= 0.08012

via COA Ush = − 0.795 Ush = − 0.3076 Ush = − 0.1574
by (10−3).
Vol:.(1234567890)
fa fb Ptie

bold format.
where Si , Ri and Hi refer the specified generation unit’s power rating, the factors of both speed regulation and
inertia constant respectively related to ith generation units.
The simulation results, using the optimized parameters of the suggested controller listed in Table 13, show
improved performance compared to previous studies. The frequencies of the three interconnected areas and the
power exchange in various tie lines demonstrate shorter settling times, decreased overshoots, and undershoot.
Specifically, the suggested controller outperforms the I controller and FO-(PD-PI) controller used i n3,54 respec-
tively. Figure 20 displays the distinct SLD profiles experienced by the three interconnected areas. The dynamic
responses of the system, presented in Fig. 21, highlight the proposed controller’s substantial performance in
minimizing excursions and preserving system stability.
Figure 21 depicts that the proposed controller improves the system performance by 96.43% and 94.74% when
compared to the I controller and FO-(PD-PI) controller, respectively.
Scenario D: Evaluating the efficacy of the recommended controller utilizing a real-time IEEE-39 bus system,
considering high renewables penetration within the system, to assess its effectiveness with the goal to attain
dependability and stability.
Similarly, this scenario involves the suggested controller’s real-time validation using the IEEE-39 bus sys-
tem, but with a specific focus on diminishing frequency excursions. The evaluation takes into account the high
renewable energy penetrations within the system as depicted in Fig. 19. In this study, ten wind power plants
and ten PV power plants have penetrated into areas 1 and 2 of the IEEE-39 bus system via switches (s1) and (s2)
respectively. Figure 22 depicts a fair maiden comparison clarifying the superior performance of the proposed
controller in attaining the system frequency to a closely predefined value (≈50 HZ) over the performance of PID
controller tuned by COA. Table 14 presents the obtained optimal PID controller parameters optimized by COA.
Figure 22 shows that the proposed controller strengthens the system performance by 75.19% when compared
to the PID controller tuned via COA considering high renewables penetration in the studied system.
Scenario E: Evaluating the performance of the proposed controller under varying CDT conditions before
and after the LFC in the IEEE-39 bus system. This evaluation also considers high renewable energy penetrations.
To validate the proposed controller, experiments were conducted on the IEEE-39 bus system. The system was
designed to incorporate high penetration levels RESs. In these experiments, different CDT values were introduced
before and after the supplementary controllers. When the CDT challenge is executed, Fig. 23 provides a sufficient
comparison of the considered system dynamic responses.
The proposed controller demonstrates its capability to effectively handle the perturbations caused by RESs
and the challenges posed by CDT. It successfully maintains the frequencies of different areas within predefined
values. This highlights the proposed controller’s durability in addressing the complexities introduced by RESs
and communication delays, ultimately ensuring stable and reliable operation of the system.
Scenario F: Evaluating the proposed strategy’s effectiveness by comparing the effectiveness of the IEEE 39
buses system with and without the proposed strategy, considering high renewables penetration.
Wind power in Area a

0.3 Wind power in Area b
RESs output power (pu)
PV power in Area a
0.25 PV power in Area b
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Time (min)
Figure 17. The high renewable energy penetration’s generated output power in areas (a) and (b) for Case B.
Vol.:(0123456789)
0.03 PD-PI based HHO [3]

λ µ
0.02
Δfa (pu)
connect wind power area-b
0.01 connect PV power area-a
connect PV power area-b

connect wind power area-a
-0.01
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Time (min)
0.03 PD-PI based HHO [3]
λ µ
0.02
Δfb (pu)
connect wind power area-b

0.01 connect PV power area-a
connect PV power area-b

connect wind power area-a
-0.01
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Time (min)
10-3
5 PD-PI based HHO [3]
connect wind power area-b Fuzzy-PID+(TIλ D µ) based COA
ΔPtie (p.u. MW)
connect PV power area-a
connect wind power area-a connect PV power area-b
-5
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Time (min)
Figure 18. LFC controllers’ dynamic responses to high penetration levels of RESs and RLD pattern for Case B.
Considered dynamic response Considered dynamic response Considered dynamic response

Controller structures of (�f a ) of (�f b ) of (Ptie)
Osh= 28.742 Osh= 28.814 Osh= 4.082
Ush = − 7.54 Ush = − 6.32 Ush = − 4.036
FO-(PD-PI)-optimized via Osh= 17.572 Osh= 17.774 Osh= 2.559
MRFO3 Ush = − 5.395 Ush = − 1.539 Ush = − 2.45
Fuzzy-PID + (T I Dµ)-optimized Osh= 8.115 Osh= 8.082 Osh= 1.129

via COA Ush = − 2.334 Ush = − 0.7005 Ush = − 1.167
Table 11. Specifications of the analyzed system’s transient response for scenario B. All values are multiplied by
(10−3).
Vol:.(1234567890)
fa fb Ptie

Table 12. Percentage improvements in Osh and Ush for Case B. Optimal percentage values are highlighted in
bold format.
G8
Area 1
37 S1
G10
Wind farm
25 26 28 29
30
27 38
2
18 S3
RFB 1 G9
17
24
1
G6
16
G1 3
15 35
21
4
22
14 19
5 12
S4 39
6
13 23
RFB 2 7
11 20 33
10
8
Area 2 9 36
G4
34
32
31 G7
PV Area 3
array G5
S2 G3
G2
Figure 19. The standard IEEE-39 bus system schematic diagram.
Controller structures Local area 1 Local area 2 Local area 3

k1= 6.6413, k2 = 8.996, k3 = 6.1475, k4 = k1= 10, k2 = 1.1999, k3 = 3.7147, k4 = 10, kt = k1= 3.8123, k2 = 6.779, k3 = 9.8212, k4 =
Fuzzy-PID + (T I Dµ)-optimized via COA 5.4056, kt = 4.8275, ki = 5.3264, kd = 5.98, 9.6025, ki = 0.8318, kd = 3.6435, λ = 0.9964, 5.2815, kt = 9.7263, ki = 2.434841, kd = 7.913,
λ = 0.8059, µ = 0.4159, n = 8.0807 µ = 0.5549, n = 1.2751 λ = 0.5881, µ = 0.1521, n = 6.9069
Table 13. The optimal optimized coefficients of the recommended controller for scenario C.
In this specific scenario, the IEEE-39 bus system performance is examined while considering a significant
integration of RESs. Whereas, wind energy is integrated into area 1 at t = 100 min, and PV energy is integrated
into area 2 at t = 200 min. The proposed coordinated strategy involves the incorporation of CRFBs systems in
area 1 and area 2. These CRFBs systems work collaboratively by closing switches (s3) and (s4) over different
simulation durations. When wind energy penetrates area 1, the CRFBs included in area 1 share their active power
with the assessed power system. Additionally, when PV energy penetrates area 2, the CRFBs included in area 2,
share their extra active power with the assessed power system. The CRFBs utilize stored energy to enhance LFC
and optimize the overall performance of the power system under unusual circumstances. The major objective is
to regulate the system frequency, which is prone to considerable fluctuations as a result of the high renewables
penetration in both areas. Table 15 illustrates the PID controller variables that were obtained for the proposed
Vol.:(0123456789)
0.8 Applying SLP with 0.90 pu Applying SLP with 0.95 pu Applying SLP with 0.98 pu
ΔPL (pu)
0.6
Area 1 Area 2 Area 3

0.4
0.2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Time (sec)
Figure 20. Different load disturbances applied in the three areas.
strategy. Figure 24 depicts the CRFBs systems’-controlled output signal, which denotes the outcome of the active
power quantity. Additionally, Fig. 25 compares the total dynamic responses of the entire system in the IEEE-39
bus system with and without the proposed strategy.
Figure 25 indicates that the proposed strategy, which includes the LFC besides CRFBs, demonstrates its
capability to successfully handle the perturbations caused by RESs in the studied system. It successfully maintains
the frequencies of different areas within predefined values. Whereas, the proposed strategy improves the system
performance by 50% as compared to without it.
Scenario G Stability analysis of the proposed (fuzzy‑PID) + (T I Dµ) controller

Figure 26 illustrates the bode plot of the loop gains of the analyzed power grid using the proposed (fuzzy-
PID) + (T I Dµ ) controller. The magnitude of the gain margin plot is observed to be more stable across all
frequencies when employing the proposed controller. Additionally, the phase margin shows an infinite value,
indicating that the suggested controller is capable of effectively handling system uncertainties.
Conclusion
This study has presented significant findings that contribute to power system stability when transitioning from
traditional power stations to renewable energy sources (RESs). Firstly, an effective structure has been presented
to ensure stable frequency in the power system during this transition. This structure combines the improved
load frequency controller (LFC) and controlled redox flow batteries (CRFBs) to effectively manage frequency
fluctuations in considered grid. Furthermore, the controller in LFC depend on (fuzzy-PID) + (T I Dµ) controller.
The proposed controller improves the system performance than more on controller such as (PID, FO-PID,
PD-PI, and FO-(PD-PI)) controllers. Furthermore, the proposed controller contributes with CRFBs to maintain
the system stability during high renewables. The constraints for this proposed scheme have been determined
using the crayfish optimization algorithm. LFC controller effectiveness has been validated by comparing its
performance to that of other published controllers. Importantly, the proposed strategy demonstrates the ability
to maintain system reliability even during periods of high renewable energy penetration. The authors intend
to incorporate more ESSs into the system in future research, ensuring its seamless operation throughout the
day. Furthermore, as all generation sources will be renewable, the design process took into account the virtual
synchronous generator.
Vol:.(1234567890)
Figure 21. LFC controllers’ dynamic responses considering SLD in a standardized IEEE system for Case C.
Vol.:(0123456789)
Figure 21. (continued)
Vol:.(1234567890)
50.015 PID based COA

Fuzzy-PID+(TIλ D µ) based COA
50.01
Δf1 (HZ)
50.005
50
connect PV power area-2
connect wind power area-1

49.995
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Time (min)
50.01 PID based COA

Fuzzy-PID+(TIλ D µ) based COA
50.008
50.006
Δf2 (HZ)
50.004
50.002 connect PV power area-2
50
49.998
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Time (min)
50.01 PID based COA

λ µ
50.008
50.006
Δf3 (HZ)
50.004
50
49.998
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Time (min)
Figure 22. LFC controllers’ considered dynamic responses with high renewables penetration in a standardized
IEEE system for Case D.
Controller structures Local area 1 Local area 2 Local area 3

PID-optimized via COA kp= 9.9789, ki = 8.6957, kd = 6.8607 kp= 8.8642, ki = 2.2517, kd = 3.9077 kp= 2.2822, ki = 0.3942, kd = 2.0487
Table 14. The Optimum optimized PID controller coefficients for scenario D.
Vol.:(0123456789)
With CDT=0.98s
50.004 With CDT=0.70s
With CDT=0.40s
Without CDT
50.003
Δf1 (HZ)
50.002
50.001
50
49.999
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

Time (min)
50.0006 With CDT=0.98s

With CDT=0.70s
With CDT=0.40s
50.0004 Without CDT
50.0002
Δf2 (HZ)
50
49.9998
49.9996
49.9994
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Time (min)
50.0003 With CDT=0.98s

With CDT=0.70s
With CDT=0.40s
Without CDT
50.0002
Δf3 (HZ)
50.0001
50

49.9999
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Time (min)
Figure 23. LFC controllers’ considered dynamic responses with high renewables penetration and CDT
challenge in a standardized IEEE system for Case E.
Controller Structures Local area 1 Local area 2

PID-optimized via COA kp= 10, ki = 10, kd = 0.0001 kp= 8.4772, ki = 4.4128, kd = 5.4788
Table 15. The optimum values of the PID controller tuned by COA for the proposed strategy.
Vol:.(1234567890)
0.3 Wind power in Area 1

PV power in Area 2
RESs output power (pu)

0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Time (min)
Figure 24. The controllable generated power of the CRFBs systems in both local areas for Case F.
Vol.:(0123456789)
LFC based fuzzy-PID + (TIλ D µ)

Proposed strategy
50.003

50.002
Δf1 (HZ)
50.001
50
49.999 connect wind power area-1
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

Time (min)
50.0006
Proposed strategy
50.0004
50.0002
Δf2 (HZ)
50

49.9996
49.9994
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Time (min)

50.0002 Proposed strategy

50.0002
Δf3 (HZ)
50.0001
50.0001
50

50.0000
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Time (min)
Figure 25. LFC controllers’ considered dynamic responses considering a coordinated strategy besides high
renewables penetration in the IEEE-39 bus system for Case F.
Vol:.(1234567890)
100 λ µ
Magnitude (dB)
combining (fuzzy-PID)+TI D based COA
-100
-200
-45
-90
Phase (deg)
-135
-180
-225
-270
10-2 100 102 104
Frequency (rad/sec)
Figure 26. The bode plot of the power grid loop gains with the proposed (fuzzy-PID) + (T I Dµ) controller.
Data availability
All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article and its supplementary
information file.
Received: 24 December 2023; Accepted: 26 March 2024
References
1. Elkasem, Ahmed. H. A., Kamel, S., Khamies, M., Kabalci, E. & Shahinzadeh, H. Frequency Stability Enhancement of Hybrid
Multi-area Power Grid Considering High Renewable Energy Penetration Using TID Controller. 2022 4th Global Power, Energy
and Communication Conference (GPECOM) https://doi.org/10.1109/gpecom55404.2022.9815729. (2022).
2. Meng, J. et al. Dynamic frequency response from electric vehicles considering travelling behavior in the Great Britain power
system. Appl. Energy 162, 966–979 (2016).
3. Elkasem, A. H. A., Khamies, M., Hassan, M. H., Nasrat, L. & Kamel, S. Utilizing controlled plug-in electric vehicles to improve
hybrid power grid frequency regulation considering high renewable energy penetration. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 152,
109251 (2023).
4. Ahmed, M., Khamies, M. & Kamel, S. A robust control approach integrating with optimal fuel cells to strengthen the frequency
stability of a diverse-sources power system including renewables. ISA Trans. 143, 420–439 (2023).
5. Elkasem, A. H. A., Khamies, M., Hassan, M. H., Agwa, A. M. & Kamel, S. Optimal design of TD-TI controller for LFC considering
renewables penetration by an improved chaos game optimizer. Fract. Fract. 6, 220 (2022).
6. Ahmed, M., Khamies, M., Hassan, M. H., Domínguez-García, J. L. & Kamel, S. A modified controller scheme for frequency stability
enhancement of hybrid two-area power grid with renewable energy sources. IET Renew. Power Gener. 17, 1035–1067 (2022).
7. Khezri, R., Oshnoei, A., Oshnoei, S., Bevrani, H. & Muyeen, S. M. An intelligent coordinator design for GCSC and AGC in a two-
area hybrid power system. Appl. Soft Comput. 76, 491–504 (2019).
8. Khamies, M., Kamel, S., Hassan, M. H. & Elnaggar, M. F. A developed frequency control strategy for hybrid two-area power system
with renewable energy sources based on an improved social network search algorithm. Mathematics 10, 1584 (2022).
9. Ogar, V. N., Hussain, S. & Gamage, K. A. A. Load frequency control using the particle swarm optimisation algorithm and Pid
controller for effective monitoring of transmission line. Energies 16, 5748 (2023).
10. Zamani, A., Barakati, S. M. & Yousofi-Darmian, S. Design of a fractional order PID controller using GBMO algorithm for load–
frequency control with governor saturation consideration. ISA Trans. 64, 56–66 (2016).
11. Debbarma, S., Saikia, L. C. & Sinha, N. Automatic generation control using two degree of freedom fractional order PID controller.
Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 58, 120–129 (2014).
12. Arya, Y. & Kumar, N. BFOA-scaled fractional order fuzzy PID controller applied to AGC of multi-area multi-source electric power
generating systems. Swarm Evol. Comput. 32, 202–218 (2017).
13. Mi, Y. et al. The sliding mode load frequency control for hybrid power system based on disturbance observer. Int. J. Electr. Power
Energy Syst. 74, 446–452 (2016).
14. Sharma, G., Panwar, A., Arya, Y. & Kumawat, M. Integrating layered recurrent ANN with robust control strategy for diverse
operating conditions of AGC of the power system. IET Gener. Trans. Distrib. 14, 3886–3895 (2020).
15. Oshnoei, A., Kheradmandi, M. & Muyeen, S. M. Robust control scheme for distributed battery energy storage systems in load
frequency control. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 35, 4781–4791 (2020).
16. Guha, D., Roy, P. K. & Banerjee, S. Maiden application of SSA-optimised CC-TID controller for load frequency control of power
systems. IET Gener. Trans. Distrib. 13, 1110–1120 (2019).
17. Abdulnasser, G., Ali, A., Shaaban, M. F. & Mohamed, E. E. M. Stochastic multi-objectives optimal scheduling of energy hubs with
responsive demands in smart microgrids. J. Energy Storage 55, 105536 (2022).
18. Elkasem, A. H. A., Kamel, S., Hassan, M. H., Khamies, M. & Ahmed, E. M. An eagle strategy arithmetic optimization algorithm
for frequency stability enhancement considering high renewable power penetration and time-varying load. Mathematics 10, 854
(2022).
19. Mudi, R. K. & Pal, N. R. A self-tuning fuzzy PI controller. Fuzzy Sets Syst. 115, 327–338 (2000).
20. Chang, C. S. & Fu, W. Area load frequency control using fuzzy gain scheduling of PI controllers. Electr. Power Syst. Res. 42, 145–152
(1997).
21. Yeşil, E., Güzelkaya, M. & Eksin, İ. Self tuning fuzzy PID type load and frequency controller. Energy Conversat. Manag. 45, 377–390
(2004).
Vol.:(0123456789)
22. Ahmadi, S. et al. FUZZY aided PID controller is optimized by ga algorithm for load frequency control of multi-source power
systems. In 2020 IEEE 18th World Symposium on Applied Machine Intelligence and Informatics (SAMI) (eds Ahmadi, S. et al.) (IEEE,
2020). https://doi.org/10.1109/sami48414.2020.9108759.
23. Kwatny, H. G., Kalnitsky, K. C. & Bhatt, A. An optimal tracking approach to load-frequency control. IEEE Trans. Power Appar.
Syst. 94, 1635–1643 (1975).
24. Aoki, M. Control of large-scale dynamic systems by aggregation. IEEE Trans. Automat. Contr. 13, 246–253 (1968).
25. Sharma, M., Dhundhara, S., Arya, Y. & Prakash, S. Frequency excursion mitigation strategy using a novel COA optimised fuzzy
controller in wind integrated power systems. IET Renew. Power Gener. 14, 4071–4085 (2020).
26. Ali, T., Malik, S. A., Daraz, A., Aslam, S. & Alkhalifah, T. Dandelion optimizer-based combined automatic voltage regulation and
load frequency control in a multi-area, multi-source interconnected power system with nonlinearities. Energies 15, 8499 (2022).
27. Ahmed. H. A., E., Kamel, S., Korashy, A. & Jurado, F. Application of Harris Hawks Algorithm for Frequency Response Enhancement
of Two-Area Interconnected Power System with DFIG Based Wind Turbine. 2019 21st International Middle East Power Systems
Conference (MEPCON) https://doi.org/10.1109/mepcon47431.2019.9007991. (2019).
28. Ali, T. et al. Load frequency control and automatic voltage regulation in a multi-area interconnected power system using nature-
inspired computation-based control methodology. Sustainability 14, 12162 (2022).
29. Hamdy, A., Kamel, S., Nasrat, L. & Jurado, F. Frequency stability of two-area interconnected power system with doubly fed induc-
tion generator based wind turbine. Power Syst. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-54275-7_11 (2020).
30. Dhanasekaran, B., Siddhan, S. & Kaliannan, J. Ant colony optimization technique tuned controller for frequency regulation of
single area nuclear power generating system. Microprocess. Microsyst. 73, 102953 (2020).
31. Hasanien, H. M. Whale optimisation algorithm for automatic generation control of interconnected modern power systems includ-
ing renewable energy sources. IET Gener. Trans. Distrib. 12, 607–614 (2017).
32. Paliwal, N., Srivastava, L. & Pandit, M. Application of grey wolf optimization algorithm for load frequency control in multi-source
single area power system. Evol. Intell. 15, 563–584 (2020).
33. Kumar, N. K. et al. Fuzzy logic-based load frequency control in an island hybrid power system model using artificial bee colony
optimization. Energies 15, 2199 (2022).
34. Arya, Y. ICA assisted FTIλDN controller for AGC performance enrichment of interconnected reheat thermal power systems. J.
Ambient Intell. Hum. Comput. 14, 1919–1935 (2021).
35. Shiva, C. K. et al. Load frequency stabilization of stand-alone hybrid distributed generation system using QOHS algorithm. Int. J.
Numer. Model. Electr. Netw. Dev. Fields 35, e2998 (2022).
36. Vigya, Shiva, C. K., Vedik, B. & Mukherjee, V. Comparative analysis of PID and fractional order PID controllers in automatic
generation control process with coordinated control of TCSC. Energy Syst. 14, 133–170 (2021).
37. Saxena, A., Shiva, C. K., Shankar, R. & Vedik, B. Impacts of wind farms with multi-terminal HVDC system in frequency regulation
using quasi-opposition pathfinder algorithm. Int. J. Syst. Assurance Eng. Manag. 12, 1434–1446 (2021).
38. Vigya, et al. A novel chaotic chimp sine cosine algorithm part-II: Automatic generation control of complex power system. Chaos,
Solitons Fract. 173, 113673 (2023).
39. Mudi, J., Shiva, C. K. & Mukherjee, V. Quasi-oppositional whale optimization optimized load frequency stabilization of hybrid
power systems integrated with electric vehicle. Adv. Theory Simul. https://doi.org/10.1002/adts.202100510 (2022).
40. Jia, H., Rao, H., Wen, C. & Mirjalili, S. Crayfish optimization algorithm. Artif. Intell. Rev. 56, 1919–1979 (2023).
41. Pappachen, A. & Fathima, A. P. Load frequency control in deregulated power system integrated with SMES–TCPS combination
using ANFIS controller. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 82, 519–534 (2016).
42. Pradhan, P. C., Sahu, R. K. & Panda, S. Firefly algorithm optimized fuzzy PID controller for AGC of multi-area multi-source power
systems with UPFC and SMES. Eng. Sci. Technol. Int. J. 19, 338–354 (2016).
43. Chidambaram, I. A. & Paramasivam, B. Optimized load-frequency simulation in restructured power system with redox flow bat-
teries and interline power flow controller. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 50, 9–24 (2013).
44. Oshnoei, S., Oshnoei, A., Mosallanejad, A. & Haghjoo, F. Novel load frequency control scheme for an interconnected two-area
power system including wind turbine generation and redox flow battery. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 130, 107033 (2021).
45. Heshmati, M., Noroozian, R., Jalilzadeh, S. & Shayeghi, H. Optimal design of CDM controller to frequency control of a realistic
power system equipped with storage devices using grasshopper optimization algorithm. ISA Trans. 97, 202–215 (2020).
46. Peddakapu, K. et al. A state-of-the-art review on modern and future developments of AGC/LFC of conventional and renewable
energy-based power systems. Renew. Energy Focus 43, 146–171 (2022).
47. Choudhary, R., Rai, J. N. & Arya, Y. Cascade FOPI-FOPTID controller with energy storage devices for AGC performance advance-
ment of electric power systems. Sustain. Energy Technol. Assess. 53, 102671 (2022).
48. Enomoto, K., Sasaki, T., Shigematsu, T. & Deguchi, H. Evaluation study about Redox flow battery response and its modeling. IEEJ
Trans. Power Energy 122, 554–560 (2002).
49. Selvaraju, R. K. & Somaskandan, G. Impact of energy storage units on load frequency control of deregulated power systems. Energy
97, 214–228 (2016).
50. Gorripotu, T. S., Sahu, R. K. & Panda, S. AGC of a multi-area power system under deregulated environment using redox flow
batteries and interline power flow controller. Eng. Sci.Technol. Int. J. 18, 555–578 (2015).
51. Shankar, R., Bhushan, R. & Chatterjee, K. Small-signal stability analysis for two-area interconnected power system with load
frequency controller in coordination with FACTS and energy storage device. Ain Shams Eng. J. 7, 603–612 (2016).
52. Parmar, K. P. S., Majhi, S. & Kothari, D. P. Load frequency control of a realistic power system with multi-source power generation.
Int. J. Elect. Power Energ. Syst. 42(1), 426–433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2012.04.040 (2012).
53. Hasanien, H. M. & El-Fergany, A. A. Salp swarm algorithm-based optimal load frequency control of hybrid renewable power
systems with communication delay and excitation cross-coupling effect. Electr. Power Syst. Res. 176, 105938 (2019).
54. Pathak, N. & Hu, Z. Hybrid-peak-area-based performance index criteria for AGC of multi-area power systems. IEEE Trans. Ind.
Inform. 15, 5792–5802 (2019).
Acknowledgements
The icons used through this paper were developed by Freepik, Amethyst Design, Arkinasi and Smash icons
from www.flaticon.com.
Author contributions
AHAE contributed to conceptualization, methodology, software; SK contributed to conceptualization,
methodology, software; MK contributed to conceptualization, methodology, software; LN contributed to
conceptualization, software, writing— original draft preparation.
Vol:.(1234567890)
Funding
Open access funding provided by The Science, Technology & Innovation Funding Authority (STDF) in coopera-
tion with The Egyptian Knowledge Bank (EKB).
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at https://doi.org/
10.1038/s41598-024-58189-2.
Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to S.K.
Reprints and permissions information is available at www.nature.com/reprints.
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
institutional affiliations.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or
format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the
Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this
article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the
material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not
permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from
the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
© The Author(s) 2024
Vol.:(0123456789)

Frequency Regulation in A Hybrid Renewable Power Grid: An Effective Strategy Utilizing Load Frequency Control and Redox Flow Batteries

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Frequency Regulation in A Hybrid Renewable Power Grid: An Effective Strategy Utilizing Load Frequency Control and Redox Flow Batteries

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Frequency Regulation in A Hybrid Renewable Power Grid: An Effective Strategy Utilizing Load Frequency Control and Redox Flow Batteries

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

www.nature.

OPEN Frequency regulation in a hybrid

Scientific Reports | (2024) 14:9576 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-58189-2 1

TID Tilted-integral-derivative controller

Scientific Reports | (2024) 14:9576 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-58189-2 2

State‑of‑the‑art literature review

Scientific Reports | (2024) 14:9576 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-58189-2 3

Article motivations and contributions

Scientific Reports | (2024) 14:9576 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-58189-2 4

Modeling of an investigated system

ACE b = Ptieb−a + Bb fb (2)

Conceptualization of the wind farm

Wind Farm PV Arrays Wind Farm PV Arrays

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the considered grid.

Scientific Reports | (2024) 14:9576 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-58189-2 5

Primary control PV Kpv

COA arrays Tpv.s+1

1/R1 1/R2 1/R3

Primary control loops b Area b

Figure 2. The linearized model of the Power grid under investigation.

Cp (i , β) = 0.5 i − 0.022β 2 − 5.6 ×e−0.17i (4)

Scientific Reports | (2024) 14:9576 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-58189-2 6

Description of A block Formulation of transfer functions

Power system a Kpsa

Power system b Kpsb

Hydro turbine −Tw ·s+1

Transient droop compensation Trs ·s+1

Reheater of thermal turbine Kr ·Tr ·s+1

Gas turbine dynamics 1

Gas turbine’s valve positioner 1

Fuel system and combustor Tcr ·s+1

Synchronizing coefficient (2.pi.T ab )

Wind farm KWind

PV Power plant KPV

Conceptualization of the photovoltaic (PV) power plant

Scientific Reports | (2024) 14:9576 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-58189-2 7

Controlled redox flow batteries (CRFBs) conceptualization

Figure 5. Radiation and power generation characteristics of the PV energy station.

Scientific Reports | (2024) 14:9576 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-58189-2 8

Proposed control mechanism and problem description

Scientific Reports | (2024) 14:9576 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-58189-2 9

ki,i(TI  Dµ )max ≥ ki,i(TI  Dµ ) ≥ ki,i(TI  Dµ )min (11)

kd,i(TI  Dµ )max ≥ kd,i(TI  Dµ ) ≥ kd,i(TI  Dµ )min (12)

n(TI  Dµ )max ≥ n(TI  Dµ ) ≥ n(TI  Dµ )min (13)

(TI  Dµ )max ≥ (TI  Dµ ) ≥ (TI  Dµ )min (14)

µ(TI  Dµ )max ≥ µ(TI  Dµ ) ≥ µ(TI  Dµ )min (15)

Scaling factor Proportional gain

Figure 8. Considered (fuzzy-PID) + (T I  Dµ) controller arrangement.

Scientific Reports | (2024) 14:9576 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-58189-2 10

k3,i(fuzzy−PID)max ≥ k3,i(fuzzy−PID) ≥ k3,i(fuzzy−PID)min (18)

k4,i(fuzzy−PID)max ≥ k4,i(fuzzy−PID) ≥ k4,i(fuzzy−PID)min (19)

k2,i(fuzzy−PID)max ≥ k2,i(fuzzy−PID) ≥ k2,i(fuzzy−PID)min (20)

Table 3. Rule base of the FLC.

Scientific Reports | (2024) 14:9576 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-58189-2 11

The crayfish optimization algorithm (COA)

Initialization process of COA

Scientific Reports | (2024) 14:9576 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-58189-2 12

Definition of the crayfish temperature and its intake

The exploration stage (summer resort stage)

TID Tilted-integral-derivative controller

ACE b = Ptieb−a + Bb fb (2)

Cp (i , β) = 0.5 i − 0.022β 2 − 5.6 ×e−0.17i (4)

ki,i(TI Dµ )max ≥ ki,i(TI Dµ ) ≥ ki,i(TI Dµ )min (11)

kd,i(TI Dµ )max ≥ kd,i(TI Dµ ) ≥ kd,i(TI Dµ )min (12)

n(TI Dµ )max ≥ n(TI Dµ ) ≥ n(TI Dµ )min (13)

(TI Dµ )max ≥ (TI Dµ ) ≥ (TI Dµ )min (14)

µ(TI Dµ )max ≥ µ(TI Dµ ) ≥ µ(TI Dµ )min (15)

Figure 8. Considered (fuzzy-PID) + (T I Dµ) controller arrangement.

Figure 10. The flow chart of the COA algorithm40.

fa fb Ptie

fa fb Ptie

Fuzzy-PID + (T I Dµ)-optimized Osh= 0.664 Osh= 0.20182 Osh= 0.08012

fa fb Ptie

Fuzzy-PID + (T I Dµ)-optimized Osh= 8.115 Osh= 8.082 Osh= 1.129

fa fb Ptie

Scenario G Stability analysis of the proposed (fuzzy‑PID) + (T I Dµ) controller