Chemistry Research Journal, 2016, 1(2):1-5

Available online www.chemrj.org

ISSN: 2455-8990
Research Article CODEN(USA): CRJHA5

Utilization of Citrus sinensis seeds in purification of water from Challawa George Dam in
Kano Nigeria

Ibrahim NS1, Ahmad IM1, Attah C2, Ibrahim MA3, Yunusa I1

1
Biochemistry Department, Kano University of Science and Technology, Wudil, PMB 3244 Kano,
Nigeria
2
Chemistry Department, Federal College of Education, Kano Nigeria
3
Biochemistry Department, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria Kaduna Nigeria

Abstract This study was designed to evaluate the activity of Citrus sinensis seed extract on tap water source from
Kano State, Nigeria. Citrus sinensis seed wings were removed and the kernels were ground to a fine powder.
Different concentrations of Citrus sinensis seed solutions were made by dissolving 1g, 3g, and 5g of the Citrus
sinensis seed powder in to a 100mls of distilled water each contained in a conical flask to obtain 1%, 3% and 5%
concentrations respectively. Physicochemical parameters such as turbidity, conductivity, temperature, pH and total
dissolved solid (TDS) were determined before and after treatment of the water samples. Five percent seed extract
solution show greater effect than 3% and 1% respectively. The decrease and increase in physicochemical parameters
before and after treatment with 5% showed turbidity (514±22.91 vs 52.90±8.29NTU), conductivity (45±6.00 vs
209±21.52 µS/cm), pH (8.90±0.20 vs 6.25±0.25), temperature (27.60±3.70 vs 28.70±1.20 0C) and TDS (30.0±2.30
vs 170±6.40ppm) respectively. Therefore, Citrus sinensis seed could be regarded as water treatment agent, which
can provide remedy to the incidence of water borne disease leading to high incidence of death in the developing
world.

Keywords Citrus sinensis seeds, purification, Kano-Nigeria.

Introduction
Water is used for several purposes by humans, but the level of purity of the water consumed is very crucial since it
has a direct effect on health [1]. Currently drinking water sanitary practices depends on a number of chemical
compounds, such as chlorine, fluoride, ozone and polyacrylamides used as disinfectants and/or coagulants [2]. Every
year, billions of people lack availability of safe drinking water which eventually turns into a big reason of mortality
especially among young age groups from fatal diseases like diarrhea [3]. The conventional method of water
purification using aluminum sulphate (alum) and calcium hypochlorite add chemicals to drinking water which are
considered potentially hazardous to human health at relatively high concentrations [1].
Coagulation and flocculation are two most important physicochemical treatment steps to reduce the suspended and
colloidal materials responsible for turbidity of the wastewater and also for the reduction of organic matters which
contributes to the Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) content of the
wastewater [4]. In developing countries, most of the chemicals used in water purification and production are
imported thereby making it expensive and beyond the reach of most people in rural areas [5]. We are presenting, for
the first time, Citrus sinensis seeds as an alternative, safe, inexpensive and easily available means to chemical
substances for removing turbidity and colour from tap water source in the most populated state of West African sub
region.

Chemistry Research Journal

1
Ibrahim NS et al Chemistry Research Journal, 2016, 1(2):1-5

Materials and Methods

Preparation of Citrus sinensis seed suspensions and extract
Citrus sinensis seeds used were collected from the Kano State Agricultural and Rural Development Authority
(KNARDA). The seed wings were removed and the kernels were ground to a fine powder using domestic food
blender. Different concentrations of Citrus sinensis seed solutions were made by dissolving 1g, 3g, and 5g of the
seed powder into a 100mls of distilled water each to obtain 1%, 3% and 5% concentrations respectively. The
solution was shaken vigorously for 1 minute to extract and activate the coagulant in the seed powder. Each of the
concentrations was poured into one litre of the raw water contained in a beaker (2 litre capacity) and the water
stirred extensively for 60 seconds and then slowly for 2 minutes. The treated water was then allowed to stand
undisturbed for 12 hours. After which 100mls was collected from the top of the water and subjected to post
treatment analysis [6].

Treated water
Treated water was obtained from the Challawa Water Treatment Plant, Kano state, Nigeria. The water sample was
collected between 6-8am using sample containers, collection were done at different location of the dam.

Results and Discussion

Table 1: Physicochemical parameters of treated water with Citrus sinensis seeds from
Challawa Gorge Dam, Kano State, Nigeria
Parameters Unit Treatments
Raw water 1% 3% 5%

Turbidity NTU 514.00±22.91a 146.00±18.03b 70.30±17.39c 52.90±8.29d

Conductivity µS/cm 45.00±6.00e 121.00±8.00f 161.00±19.70g 209.00±21.52h
pH - 8.90±0.20i 7.50±0.44j 6.53±0.03k 6.25±0.25l
0
Temperature C 27.60±3.70m 28.70±2.20n 28.80±2.05o 28.70±1.20p
Total Dissolved Solid Ppm 30.00±2.30q 100.00±12.40r 130.00±13.50s 170.00±6.40t

Values are mean±S.D., values on the same row with the different letters are considered significantly different
(p<0.05).

The physicochemical parameters of treated water from Challawa Gorge Dam, Kano State, Nigeria is presented in
Table 1. From the results, the turbidity of the water sample before treatment with Citrus sinensis seeds extract was
found to be 514±22.91 NTU. After treatment of the water with 1g/L, 3g/L and 5g/L of the seed extract, turbidity
decreased to 146±18.03, 70.3±17.39 and 52.9±8.29NTU respectively. This clearly indicates that turbidity decreases
significantly (p<0.05) with increase in concentration of the seed extract. This effect of Citrus sinensis seed extract in
decreasing water turbidity indicated that the suspension has a clarifying potential, which could be attributed to the
inherent bioactive component of the seeds. These bioactive compounds could as well be water soluble proteins
carrying positive charges that attach/bind themselves with the impurities in the water samples having predominantly
negative charge as earlier suggested [1]. Clear water is usually considered an indicator of healthy water [7]. Water
clarity is directly related to turbidity, as turbidity is a measure of water clarity [8].
It was cautioned that a sudden increase in turbidity in a previously clear body of water is a cause for concern [9]; it
can inhibit photosynthesis by blocking sunlight, resulting into decreased plant survival and decreased dissolved
oxygen output [10]. Increased in turbidity can often indicate potential pollution [11], not just a decrease in water
quality [12], contributing to high level of water contaminants such as bacteria, protozoa, nutrients (e.g. nitrates and
phosphorus), pesticides, mercury, lead and other metals [13]. Recommended levels were set for turbidity in drinking
water below 0.2 NTU, with a mandatory maximum of 1 NTU for drinking water [14].
According to the [15], water for human consumption should have turbidity levels below 1 NTU, though for some
regions, up to 5 NTU is allowed if it can be proven to be disinfected [15]. The American Water Works Association
suggests that a level of 5 NTU or lower is acceptable for recreation purposes [16]. The North Carolina code allows
up to 10 NTU for trout waters, 25 NTU for non-trout streams and as high as 50 NTU for non-trout lakes [17].
The conductivity of the water before treatment with Citrus sinensis seed extract was found to be 45±6.00µScm-1.
Treatment of the water with 1g/L, 3g/L and 5g/L of the seed extract increased the conductivity to 121±8.00,
161±19.70 and 209±21.52µScm-1 respectively. This conductivity significantly increases (p<0.05) with the increase
in concentration of the seed extract. Conductivity is a measure of water’s capability to pass electrical flow [18]. This

Chemistry Research Journal

2
Ibrahim NS et al Chemistry Research Journal, 2016, 1(2):1-5

ability is directly related to the concentration of ions in the water. These conductive ions come from dissolved salts
and inorganic materials such as alkalis, chlorides, sulfides and carbonate compounds [19].
It was suggested that a sudden increase or decrease in conductivity in a body of water can indicate pollution [20],
which could results from agricultural runoff or a sewage leak due to the additional chloride, phosphate and nitrate
ions [18]. When water temperature increases, so will conductivity [19]. For every 1°C increase, conductivity values
can increase 2-4%. Tap water and portable water in the US were observed to have conductivity of 50-800 and 30-
1500 respectively [17].
Our study revealed the pH of tap water source for Kano state to be 8.90±0.20. Following treatment, the pH was
observed to decrease significantly (p<0.05) to 7.50±0.44, 6.53±0.03 and 6.25±0.25 at 1g/L, 3g/L and 5g/L seed
extract concentrations respectively. The recommended acceptable range of pH for drinking water specified by [15]
is between 6.0 and 8.0. A rise in pH observed from a water body could be attributed to carbonate-rich soils
(carbonates and bicarbonates) such as limestone [12]. pH decrease may also be caused by sewage outflow and
aerobic respiration [18].
The alkalinity of water also plays an important role in daily pH levels. The process of photosynthesis by algae and
plants uses hydrogen, thus increasing pH levels [21]. Likewise, respiration and decomposition can lower pH levels.
Most bodies of water are able to buffer these changes due to their alkalinity, so small or localized fluctuations are
quickly modified and may be difficult to detect [21]. pH can also affect the solubility and toxicity of chemicals and
heavy metals in the water [22]. Humans have a higher tolerance for pH levels (drinkable levels range from 4.0-11.0
with minimal gastrointestinal irritation), there are still concerns [23]. pH values greater than 11 can cause skin and
eye irritations, as does a pH below 4.0. A pH value below 2.5 will cause irreversible damage to skin and organ
linings in aquatic animals [23]. Lower pH levels increase the risk of mobilized toxic metals that can be absorbed,
even by humans, and levels above 8.0 cannot be effectively disinfected with chlorine, causing other indirect risks
[23]. Additionally, pH levels outside of 6.5-9.5 can damage and corrode pipes and other systems, further increasing
heavy metal toxicity [17].
Temperature of the tap water source was observed to be 27.6±3.70 0C. After treatment with 1g/L, 3g/L and 5g/L, it
was found to increase to 28.7±2.20, 28.8±2.05 and 28.7±1.20 0C respectively. Temperature, being an important
factor to consider when assessing water quality influences several other parameters and can alter the physical and
chemical properties of water [24]. It can also affect the metabolic rates and biological activity of aquatic organisms
[25]. In addition to its effects on aquatic organisms, high water temperatures can increase the solubility and thus
toxicity of certain compounds [26]. These elements include heavy metals such as cadmium, zinc and lead as well as
compounds like ammonia [27]. Temperature affects conductivity through ionic concentration; salts are more soluble
at higher temperatures [28]. However, temperature before and after treatment with the C. sinensis extract are within
the range of 27-30ºC [15].
Total dissolve solids of the tap water source from our study was observed to be 30.00±2.30mg/l, following treatment
with various concentrations of seed extracts at 1g/L, 3g/L and 5g/L, TDS was observed to increased significantly
(p<0.05) to 100.00±12.40, 130.00±13.50 and 170.00±6.40 ppm respectively. TDS is made up of inorganic salts, as
well as a small amount of organic matter [29]. Common inorganic salts that can be found in water include calcium,
magnesium, potassium and sodium, which are all cations, and carbonates, nitrates, bicarbonates, chlorides and
sulfates, which are all anions [30]. TDS can also affect water taste, and often indicates a high alkalinity or hardness
[31]. High concentration of dissolved solids is usually not a health hazard [32].]Regulations protect water which has
less than 10,000 milligrams per litre (mg/l) total dissolved solids. To put this value into perspective, most drinking
water averages between 200 and 300 milligrams per liter total dissolved solids and water with TDS greater than 500
milligrams per liter is not recommended for human consumption [33.

Conclusion and Recommendations

Citrus sinensis seeds extract demonstrated a promising potential in the treatment of tap water source by its combined
significant effect of reducing the turbidity and pH as well as increasing the conductivity and total dissolved solids. It
could therefore be considered as a cheaper, safer and alternative coagulant/flocculant to other chemical agents.

References
1. Omodamiro, O.D.,Nwankwo, C.I. &Ejiofor, E.U. (2014). Antimicrobial and Coagulant Property of
MoringaOleiferaSeed in Water Purification, Scholars Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science.
1(4B),279-287.

Chemistry Research Journal

3
Ibrahim NS et al Chemistry Research Journal, 2016, 1(2):1-5

2. Nahla, N.Y., Hassan, B.E., Hiba, A.A. & Abdel Moneim, E.S.(2013). Utilization of MoringaoleiferaSeeds
in Purification of Tap Water in Khartoum State, Sudan, Journal of Microbiology Research. 3(5),171-175.
3. Shahzad, A.O., Shaukat, S.S., Sikandar, K.S., Murtaza, G, Kashif, M., Qureshi, S.A., Khuld, H., Ali, Y. &
Ali, S.M.(2013). Treatment of Drinking Water Using MoringaOleifera Lim.: An Application
OfBioremediation, International Journal ofChemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 4 (1).
4. Tasneembano, K. & Arjun, V. (2013). Treatment of Tannery Wastewater Using Natural Coagulants,
International Journal of Innovative Research in Science,Engineering and Technology, 2 (8).
5. Aminata, K., Boubacar, S., Harmonie, C.O., Adama, S., Francis, R., Alfred, S.T. &Dayéri, D.(2015).
Microbiological Quality of Surface Water Treated with MoringaoleiferaSeeds or Cakes during the Storage:
Case Study of Water Reservoirs of Loumbila, Ziga and Ouaga 3 Dams in Burkina Faso, Journal of Water
Resource and Protection, 7, 312-321.
6. Folkard, G.K. McConnachie, M.A. & Sutherland, J.P.; (2000). Field trials of appropriate hydraulic
flocculation processes, Journal of Water Research, 33(6),1425-1434.
7. Anderson, C.W. (2005). Turbidity 6.7. In USGS National Field Manual for the Collection of Water-Quality
Data. U S Geological Survey.
8. Hakanson, L. (2005). The relationship between salinity, suspended particulate matter and water clarity in
aquatic systems. In The Ecological Society of Japan. Retrieved from
http://www.met.uu.se/miljoanalys/pdf/sal_spm_secchi.pdf
9. Wood, M.S. (2014). Estimating suspended sediment in rivers using acoustic Doppler meters. In U.S.
Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2014-3038. N.p. U S Geological Survey.
10. Chesapeake Bay Program(2012). Water Clarity. In The Bay Ecosystem. Retrieved from
https://www.chesapeakebay.net/discover/bayecosystem/waterclarity
11. Perlman, H. (2014). Turbidity. In The USGS Water Science School. Retrieved from
http://water.usgs.gov/edu/turbidity.html
12. Murphy, S. (2007). General Information on Solids. In City of Boulder: USGS Water Quality Monitoring.
http://bcn.boulder.co.us/basin/data/NEW/info/TSS.html
13. Arizona Department of Health Services(2014). Waterborne Diseases. In Arizona Department of Health
Services. Retrieved from http://www.azdhs.gov/phs/oids/epi/waterborne/list.htm
14. Ireland EPA(2009). Advice Note No. 5: Turbidity in Drinking Water. EPA Drinking Water Advice Note.
http://www.epa.ie/pubs/advice/drinkingwater/Advice%20Note%20No5.pdf
15. WHO(2014). Fact Sheet 2.33: Turbidity Measurement. In Fact sheets on environmental sanitation.
http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/hygiene/emergencies/fs2_33.pdf
16. Osmond, D.L., D.E. Line, J.A. Gale, R.W. Gannon, C.B. Knott, K.A. Bartenhagen, M.H. Turner, S.W.
Coffey, J. Spooner, J. Wells, J.C. Walker, L.L. Hargrove, M.A. Foster, P.D. Robillard, & D.W.
Lehning.(1995). Turbidity. In WATERSHEDSS: Water, Soil and Hydro-Environmental Decision Support
System, http://h2osparc.wq.ncsu.edu. Retrieved from
http://www.water.ncsu.edu/watershedss/info/turbid.html
17. Fundamentals of Environmental Measurements(2015).www.fundamentalsofenvironmentalsmeasurements
18. EPA (2012). Conductivity. In Water: Monitoring and Assessment. Retrieved from
http://water.epa.gov/type/rsl/monitoring/vms59.cfm
19. Miller, R.L., Bradford, W.L., & Peters, N.E.(1988). Specific Conductance: Theoretical Considerations and
Application to Analytical Quality Control. In U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper. Retrieved from
http://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/2311/report.pdf
20. LCRA(2014). Water Quality Indicators. In Colorado River Watch Network.
http://www.lcra.org/water/quality/colorado-river-watch-network/Pages/water-quality-indicators.aspx
21. Washington State Department of Ecology(1991). Chapter 2 – Lakes: pH in Lakes. In A Citizen’s Guide to
Understanding and Monitoring Lakes and Streams.
http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/wq/plants/management/joysmanual/ph.html
22. USGS(2013). Water Properties: pH. In The USGS Water Science
School. http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/ph.html
23. World Health Organization(2003). pH in Drinking-water. In Guidelines for drinking-water quality.
http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/chemicals/en/ph.pdf
24. Wilde, F. (2006). Temperature 6.1. In USGS Field Manual. Retrieved from
http://water.usgs.gov/owq/FieldManual/Chapter6/6.1_ver2.pdf
25. Wetzel, R.G. (2001). Limnology: Lake and River Ecosystems (3rd ed.). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Chemistry Research Journal

4
Ibrahim NS et al Chemistry Research Journal, 2016, 1(2):1-5

26. Bhadja, P., &Vaghela, A.(2013). Effect of temperature on the toxicity of some metals to Labeobata.
International Journal of Advanced Life Sciences (IJALS), 6(3).
27. Wurts, W. 2012. Daily pH Cycle and Ammonia Toxicity. In World Aquaculture.
http://www2.ca.uky.edu/wkrec/pH-Ammonia.htm
28. Merriam-Webster(2014). Viscosity. In Merriam-Webster Dictionary. http://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/viscosity
29. Health Canada(2007). Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality: Chemical and Physical
Parameters.http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/doc_sup-appui/sum_guide-
res_recom/chemical-chimiques_e.html#4.
30. Saskatchewan Environment(2006). Saskatchewan’s Drinking Water Quality Standards and
objectives(summarized).http://www.se.gov.sk.ca/environment/protection/water/Drinking_Water_Standards
_post.pdf.
31. Thompson, K., AWWA Research Foundation, WateReuse Foundation, & Water Quality
Association(2006). Characterizing and Managing Salinity Loadings in Reclaimed Water Systems. N.p.
American Water Works Association.
32. United States Environmental Protection Agency(2007). The Water Sourcebooks: Grade Level 9 - 12 Fact
Sheets. http://www.epa.gov/safewater/kids/wsb/index.html#about.
33. Underground injection control (2015). http://www.epa.gov/uic/underground

Chemistry Research Journal