TRANSLATION ANDEDITION OFTEXT

ENG26

ENGLISH 26 – TRANSLATION AND EDITION OF TEXTPART I – Overview of Translation

1.1 Etymology of Translation

The English word "translation" derives from the Latin word translation, which comes from trans, "across"
+ ferre, "to carry" or "to bring" (-latio in turn coming from latus, the past participle of ferre). Thus,
translation is "a carrying across" or "a bringing across" – in this case, of a text from one language to
another. Some, Slavic languages and the Germanic languages (other than Dutch and Afrikaans) have
calqued their words for the concept of "translation" on translation, substituting their respective Slavic or
Germanic root words for the Latin roots. The remaining Slavic languages instead calqued their words for
"translation" from an alternative Latin word, trāductiō, itself derived from trādūcō ("to lead across" or "to
bring across")—from trans("across") + dūcō, ("to lead" or "to bring"). The West and East Slavic languages
(except for Russian) adopted the translātiō pattern, whereas Russian and the South Slavic languages
adopted the trāductiō pattern. The Romance languages, deriving directly from Latin, did not need to
calque their equivalent words for "translation"; instead, they simply adapted the second of the two
alternative Latin words, trāductiō. The Ancient Greek term for "translation", μετάφρασις (metaphrasis, "a
speaking across"), has supplied English with "metaphrase" (a "literal", or "word-for-word", translation)—
as contrasted with "paraphrase" ("a saying in other words", from παράφρασις,
paraphrasis)."Metaphrase" corresponds, in one of the more recent terminologies, to "formal
equivalence"; and "paraphrase", to "dynamic equivalence". Strictly speaking, the concept of
metaphrase—of "word-for-word translation"—is an imperfect concept, because a given word in a given
language often carries more than one meaning; and because a similar given meaning may often be
represented in a given language by more than one word. Nevertheless, "metaphrase" and "paraphrase"
may be useful as ideal concepts that mark the extremes in the spectrum of possible approaches to
translation.

1.2 History of Translation

The first important translation in the West was that of the Septuagint, a collection of Jewish Scriptures
translated into early Koine Greek in Alexandria between the 3rd and 1stcenturies BCE. The dispersed Jews
had forgotten their ancestral language and needed Greek versions (translations) of their Scriptures.
Throughout the Middle Ages, Latin was the lingua franca of the western learned world. The9th-century
Alfred the Great, king of Wessex in England, was far ahead of his time in commissioning vernacular Anglo-
Saxon translations of Bede's Ecclesiastical History and Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy. Meanwhile,
the Christian Church frowned on even partial adaptations of St. Jerome's Vulgate of c. 384 CE, the standard
Latin Bible. In Asia, the spread of Buddhism led to large-scale ongoing translation efforts spanning well
over a thousand years. The Tangut Empire was especially efficient in such efforts; exploiting the then
newly invented block printing, and with the full support of the government (contemporary sources
describe the Emperor and his mother personally contributing to the translation effort, alongside sages of
various nationalities), the Tanguts took mere decades to translate volumes that had taken the Chinese
centuries to render. [citation needed. The Arabs undertook large-scale efforts at translation. Having
conquered the Greek world, they made Arabic versions of its philosophical and scientific works. During
the Middle Ages, translations of some of these Arabic versions were made into Latin, chiefly at Córdoba
in Spain.[95] King Alfonso X the Wise of Castile in the 13th century promoted this effort by founding a
Schola Traductorum (School of Translation) in Toledo. There Arabic texts, Hebrew texts, and Latin texts
were translated into the other tongues by Muslim, Jewish, and Christian scholars, who also argued the
merits of their respective religions. Latin translations of Greek and original Arab work of scholarship and
science helped advance European Scholasticism, and thus European science and culture.

1.3 History of Literary Translation

Translation of literary works (novels, short stories, plays, poems, etc.) is considered a literary pursuit in
its own right. Notable in Canadian literature specifically as translators are figures such as Sheila Fischman,
Robert Dickson, and Linda Gaboriau; and the Canadian Governor General's Awards annually present prizes
for the best English-to-French and French-to-English literary translations. Other writers, among many who
have made a name for themselves as literary translators, include Vasily Zhukovsky, Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński,
Vladimir Nabokov, Jorge Luis Borges, Robert Stiller, Lydia Davis, Haruki Murakami, Achy Obejas, and
Jhumpa Lahiri.

In the 2010s a substantial gender imbalance was noted in literary translation into English, with far more
male writers being translated than women writers.

In 2014 Meytal Radzinski launched the Women in Translation campaign to address this.

1.4 General Purposes

General Purposes

1. Retrieval of lost information

2. Understanding of the Universal Truth

3. Sharing of beliefs

4. Understanding and appreciation of culture

5. Bridging cultural barrier

6. Advancement in human achievement

7. Addressing social needs

8. Social Empowerment

9. Binding nations

10. Neo-culture development

PART II – Types of Translation

2.1 Language Interpretation

Language interpretation General Definition

Language interpretation refers to the process of providing ease of understanding between users of
language of origin and target language. This could take the form of sign-language, oral interpretation or
technologically-assisted programs.

Interpreting refers to the actual process of providing ease of understanding from one language form into
its actual or approximate equivalent. Interpretation pertains to the output of interpreting one language
to another form (speech, signals, text, etc.) Interpreter assumes the position of the person who converts
thoughts or expression of a language form and defines its equivalent to target language. Equivalence in
interpretation refers to linguistic, emotional, tonal and cultural parallel meaning of a language format with
the target language.
General Contrast

Modes of Language Interpretation

Simultaneous (extempore)

- interpreter renders the message in the target language as quickly as he can formulating from the source
language while the source continuously provides input.

Consecutive interpretation (CI)

- interpreter renders the message into the target language after the source stopped provided the
information. The interpreter relies on memory and sometimes uses memory aids to render long passages.

Sight translation - refers to the process of transferring the language as he sees it and usually done for
legal or medical documents. Could also be classified as partial or full consecutive interpretation.

Whispered

- interpreter sits or stands next to the small target-language group and simultaneously interprets
information coming from the source language.

Relay

-usually used when there are several target languages. A source-language interpreter interprets the text
to a language common to every interpreter, who then render the message to their respective target
languages.

Liaison

- involves passing on the message through relay, between two or more, consecutively with the assistance
of short notes as memory aid.

2.2 Technical Translation

Technical Translation

A technical translation refers to the need for specialist translators due to the use of uncommon vocabulary
in a text. Topics such as medicine, finance, law, engineering, software, manuals, etc. would all be
considered as technical.

These fields usually contain number of specific circumstances or ways to describe situations from the
subject and contain high amount of jargon, words that are used (almost) only within that specific technical
field. Technical translation can also be defined as the translation of technical writing (owner's manuals,
user guides, etc.), or more specifically, texts that contain a high degree of technical or specialized
terminology, that is, words or phrases that are virtually used only within a specific profession or describe
that profession in great detail.

Technical translation covers the translation of many kinds of specialized texts which requires a high level
of subject knowledge and mastery of the relevant terminology.

In general, technical translation and language translation contrast in many ways. One of the differences
would be the subject of their focus – technical translation focus on easing the understanding of jargons
used while language translation finds a way to convert the language format into another language format
as a whole. Technical translation may use similar language format for the origin language and the target
language, but concentration would be on the set of language use in understanding the literature. It is also
interesting to note that language translation uses text-to-text format while technical translation uses the
process of explaining the details if actual equivalent is not available. As previously defined, translation
refers to the process of giving target language equivalent to the language of origin. The same process is
being applied in technical translation as the translators attempt to produce actual equivalent or
approximate equivalent through explanation of the source language into the target language format.

2.3 Literal Translation

Literal translation

Transference of one language format to another following the form of the source language and using the
‘verbum pro verbo’ principle. This is also known as metaphrase process and commonly used in technical
translation and legal annotation conversions to preserve the original format of the text undermining the
context of the original text. In the light of contextual aspect, literal translation can be considered as
erroneous since it does not carry the register of the source language.

As for usage, literal translation can be a very useful tool for translation preparation as it serves as a
foundation in translating unfamiliar language format. In communication, literal translation is currently
being used in the form of machine translation. One the most common example of these would be internet
translators (i.e. babel fish, google translate, Microsoft translator, free translation, world lingo, etc.)
Without the tweaking process of human translators, machine translation could be misleading and
sometimes totally erroneous. The common result of this would be pidgins or translation with reference
to the target language’s native format and mistranslations that contextually unacceptable.

2.4 Legal Translation

Legal translation

By nature, legal translation is a delicate process that only professional translators commissioned by the
court should handle the process. Laws are culturally subjective and require expertise in understanding
passages of documents that are legal in nature.

In international law, legal translation follows the following general rules:

1. Legal system of the source language must suit the culture of the language format and reflective of the
legal language.

2.The translation should be read by someone who is well-versed with the other legal system where the
translation was prepared

3. Proper documentation of the translation is required such as certificate of accuracy, witness statement,
court orders, immigration documents, labels, and other related documents. Since legal translation is
culture-based, the process is lexis dependent and must be structure base on the linguistics standards
which is generally accepted to produce formal and legal equivalence of the target language.

Some examples of legal translations are contracts, international court decisions and proceedings, safety
precaution instructions, flight transactions, import/export laws, international transactions, etc.

PART III – Context Retention

3.1 Principle of Equivalence

Vinay and Darbelnet and their definition of equivalence in translation

Vinay and Darbelnet view equivalence-oriented translation as a procedure which 'replicates the same
situation as in the original, whilst using completely different wording' (ibid.:342). They also suggest that,
if this procedure is applied during the translation process, it can maintain the stylistic impact of the SL text
in the TL text. According to them, equivalence is therefore the ideal method when the translator has to
deal with proverbs, idioms, clichés, nominal or adjectival phrases and the onomatopoeia of animal
sounds. With regard to equivalent expressions between language pairs, Vinay and Darbelnet claim that
they are acceptable as long as they are listed in a bilingual dictionary as 'full equivalents' (ibid.:255).
However, later they note that glossaries and collections of idiomatic expressions 'can never be exhaustive'
(ibid.:256). They conclude by saying that 'the need for creating equivalences arises from the situation, and
it is in the situation of the SL text have to look for a solution' (ibid.: 255). Indeed, they argue that even if
the semantic equivalent of an expression in the SL text is quoted in a dictionary or a glossary, itis not
enough, and it does not guarantee a successful translation. They provide a number of examples to prove
their theory, and the following expression appears in their list: Take one is a fixed expression which would
have as an equivalent French translation Prenez-en un. However, if the expression appeared as a notice
next to a basket of free samples in a large store, the translator would have to look for an equivalent term
in a similar situation and use the expression Échantillon gratuit(ibid.:256).

Jakobson and the concept of equivalence in difference:

Roman Jakobson's study of equivalence gave new impetus to the theoretical analysis of translation since
he introduced the notion of 'equivalence in difference'. On the basis of his semiotic approach to language
and his aphorism 'there is no signatum without signum'(1959:232), he suggests three kinds of translation:

• Intralingual (within one language, i.e. rewording or paraphrase)

• Interlingual (between two languages)
• Intersemiotic (between sign systems)

Jakobson claims that, in the case of interlingual translation, the translator makes use of synonyms in order
to get the ST message across. This means that in interlingual translations there is no full equivalence
between code units. According to his theory, 'translation involves two equivalent messages in two
different codes' (ibid.:233). Jakobson goes on to say that from a grammatical point of view languages may
differ from one another to a greater or lesser degree, but this does not mean that a translation cannot be
possible, in other words, that the translator may face the problem of not finding a translation equivalent.
He acknowledges that 'whenever there is deficiency, terminology may be qualified and amplified by
loanwords or loan-translations, neologisms or semantic shifts, and finally, by circumlocutions' (ibid.:234).
Jakobson provides a number of examples by comparing English and Russian language structures and
explains that in such cases where there is no a literal equivalent for a particular ST word or sentence, then
it is up to the translator to choose the most suitable way to render it in the TT. There seems to be some
similarity between Vinay and Darbelnet's theory of translation procedures and Jakobson's theory of
translation. Both theories stress the fact that, whenever a linguistic approach is no longer suitable to carry
out a translation, the translator can rely on other procedures such as loan-translations, neologisms and
the like.

Both theories recognize the limitations of a linguistic theory and argue that a translation can never be
impossible since there are several methods that the translator can choose. The role of the translator as
the person who decides how to carry out the translation is emphasized in both theories. Both Vinay and
Darbelnet as well as Jakobson conceive the translation task as something which can always be carried out
from one language to another, regardless of the cultural or grammatical differences between ST and TT.
It can be concluded that Jakobson's theory is essentially based on his semiotic approach to translation
according to which the translator has to recode the ST message first and then s/he has to transmit it into
an equivalent message for the TC.

Nida and Taber: Formal correspondence and dynamic equivalence:

Nida argued that there are two different types of equivalence, namely formal equivalence— which in the
second edition by Nida and Taber (1982) is referred to as formal correspondence—and dynamic
equivalence. Formal correspondence 'focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and content',
unlike dynamic equivalence which is based upon 'the principle of equivalent effect' (1964:159). In the
second edition (1982) or their work, the two theorists provide a more detailed explanation of each type
of equivalence.
Formal correspondence consists of a TL item which represents the closest equivalent of a SL word or
phrase. Nida and Taber make it clear that there are not always formal equivalents between language pairs.
They therefore suggest that these formal equivalents should be used wherever possible if the translation
aims at achieving formal rather than dynamic equivalence. The use of formal equivalents might at times
have serious implications in the TT since the translation will not be easily understood by the target
audience (Fawcett, 1997). Nida and Taber themselves assert that 'Typically, formal correspondence
distorts the grammatical and stylistic patterns of the receptor language, and hence distorts the message,
so as to cause the receptor to misunderstand or to labor unduly hard' (ibid.:201).Dynamic equivalence is
defined as a translation principle according to which a translator seeks to translate the meaning of the
original in such a way that the TL wording will trigger the same impact on the TC audience as the original
wording did upon the ST audience. They argue that 'Frequently, the form of the original text is changed;
but as long as the change follows the rules of back transformation in the source language, of contextual
consistency in the transfer, and of transformation in the receptor language, the message is preserved and
the translation is faithful' (Nida and Taber, 1982:200).One can easily see that Nida is in favor of the
application of dynamic equivalence, as amore effective translation procedure. This is perfectly
understandable if we take into account the context of the situation in which Nida was dealing with the
translation phenomenon, that is to say, his translation of the Bible. Thus, the product of the translation
process, that is the text in the TL, must have the same impact on the different readers it was addressing.
Only in Nida and Taber's edition is it clearly stated that 'dynamic equivalence in translation is far more
than mere correct communication of information'(ibid:25). Despite using a linguistic approach to
translation, Nida is much more interested in the message of the text or, in other words, in its semantic
quality. He therefore strives to make sure that this message remains clear in the target text.

Catford and the introduction of translation shifts:

Catford's approach to translation equivalence clearly differs from that adopted by Nidasince Catford had
a preference for a more linguistic-based approach to translation and this approach is based on the
linguistic work of Firth and Halliday. His main contribution in the field of translation theory is the
introduction of the concepts of types and shifts of translation.

Catford proposed very broad types of translation in terms of three criteria:

• The extent of translation (full translation vs partial translation);

• The grammatical rank at which the translation equivalence is established (rank-bound translation
vs. unbounded translation);
• The levels of language involved in translation (total translation vs. restricted translation).

We will refer only to the second type of translation, since this is the one that concerns the concept of
equivalence, and we will then move on to analyze the notion of translation shifts, as elaborated by
Catford, which are based on the distinction between formal correspondence and textual equivalence. In
rank-bound translation an equivalent is sought in the TL for each word, or for each morpheme
encountered in the ST. In unbounded translation equivalences are not tied to a particular rank, and we
may additionally find equivalences at sentence, clause and other levels. Catford finds five of these ranks
or levels in both English and French, while in the Caucasian language Kabardian there are apparently only
four. Thus, a formal correspondence could be said to exist between English and French if relations
between ranks have approximately the same configuration in both languages, as Catford claims they do.
One of the problems with formal correspondence is that, despite being a useful tool to employ in
comparative linguistics, it seems that it is not really relevant in terms of assessing translation equivalence
between ST and TT. For this reason we now turn to Catford’s other dimension of correspondence, namely
textual equivalence which occurs when any TL text or portion of text is 'observed on a particular occasion
... to be the equivalent of a given SL text or portion of text' (ibid.:27). He implements this by a process of
commutation, whereby 'a competent bilingual informant or translator' is consulted on the translation of
various sentences whose ST items are changed in order to observe 'what changes if any occur in the TL
text as a consequence' (ibid.:28).As far as translation shifts are concerned, Catford defines them as
'departures from formal correspondence in the process of going from the SL to the TL' (ibid.:73).
Catford argues that there are two main types of translation shifts, namely level shifts, where the SL item
at one linguistic level (e.g. grammar) has a TL equivalent at a different level (e.g. lexis), and category shifts
which are divided into four types:

1.Structure-shifts, which involve a grammatical change between the structure of the ST and that of the
TT;

2.Class-shifts, when a SL item is translated with a TL item which belongs to a different grammatical class,
i.e. a verb may be translated with a noun;

3.Unit-shifts, which involve changes in rank;

4.Intra-system shifts, which occur when 'SL and TL possess systems which approximately correspond
formally as to their constitution, but when translation involves selection of a non-corresponding term in
the TL system' (ibid.:80). For instance, when the SL singular becomes a TL plural.

Catford was very much criticized for his linguistic theory of translation. One of the most scathing criticisms
came from Snell-Hornby (1988), who argued that Catford's definition of textual equivalence is 'circular',
his theory's reliance on bilingual informants 'hopelessly inadequate', and his example sentences 'isolated
and even absurdly simplistic' (ibid.:19-20). She considers the concept of equivalence in translation as being
an illusion. She asserts that the translation process cannot simply be reduced to a linguistic exercise, as
claimed by Catford for instance, since there are also other factors, such as textual, cultural and situational
aspects, which should be taken into consideration when translating. In other words, she does not believe
that linguistics is the only discipline which enables people to carry out a translation, since translating
involves different cultures and different situations at the same time and they do not always match from
one language to another.

House and the elaboration of overt and covert translation:

House (1977) is in favor of semantic and pragmatic equivalence and argues that ST and TT should match
one another in function. House suggests that it is possible to characterize the function of a text by
determining the situational dimensions of the ST.* In fact, according to her theory, every text is in itself is
placed within a particular situation which has to be correctly identified and taken into account by the
translator. After the ST analysis, House is in a position to evaluate a translation; if the ST and the TT differ
substantially on situational features, then they are not functionally equivalent, and translation is not of a
high quality. In fact, she acknowledges that 'a translation text should not only match its source text in
function, but employ equivalent situational-dimensional means to achieve that function' (ibid.:49).
Central to House's discussion is the concept of overt and covert translations. In an overt translation the
TT audience is not directly addressed and there is therefore no need at all to attempt to recreate a 'second
original' since an overt translation 'must overtly be a translation' (ibid.:189).

By covert translation, on the other hand, is meant the production of a text which is functionally equivalent
to the ST. House also argues that in this type of translation the ST 'is not specifically addressed to a TC
audience' (ibid.:194).

House (ibid.:203) sets out the types of ST that would probably yield translations of the two categories. An
academic article, for instance, is unlikely to exhibit any features specific to the SC; the article has the same
argumentative or expository force that it would if it had originated in the TL, and the fact that it is a
translation at all need not be made known to the readers. A political speech in the SC, on the other hand,
is addressed to a particular cultural or national group which the speaker sets out to move to action or
otherwise influence, whereas the TT merely informs outsiders what the speaker is saying to his or her
constituency. It is clear that in this latter case, which is an instance of overt translation, functional
equivalence cannot be maintained, and it is therefore intended that the ST and the TT function differently.
House’s theory of equivalence in translation seems to be much more flexible than Catford’s. In fact, she
gives authentic examples, uses complete texts and, more importantly, she relates linguistic features to
the context of both source and target text.

Baker's approach to translation equivalence:

New adjectives have been assigned to the notion of equivalence (grammatical, textual, pragmatic
equivalence, and several others) and made their appearance in the plethora of recent works in this field.
An extremely interesting discussion of the notion of equivalence can be found in Baker (1992) who seems
to offer a more detailed list of conditions upon which the concept of equivalence can be defined. She
explores the notion of equivalence at different levels, in relation to the translation process, including all
different aspects of translation and hence putting together the linguistic and the communicative
approach.

She distinguishes between:

• Equivalence that can appear at word level and above word level, when translating from one
language into another. Baker acknowledges that, in a bottom-up approach to translation,
equivalence at word level is the first element to be taken into consideration by the translator. In
fact, when the translator starts analyzing the ST s/he looks at the words as single units in order to
find a direct 'equivalent' term in the TL. Baker gives a definition of the term word since it should
be remembered that a single word can sometimes be assigned different meanings in different
languages and might be regarded as being a more complex unit or morpheme. This means that
the translator should pay attention to a number of factors when considering a single word, such
as number, gender and tense (ibid.:11-12).
• Grammatical equivalence, when referring to the diversity of grammatical categories across
languages. She notes that grammatical rules may vary across languages and this may pose some
problems in terms of finding a direct correspondence in the TL. In fact, she claims that different
grammatical structures in the SL and TL may cause remarkable changes in the way the information
or message is carried across. These changes may induce the translator either to add or to omit
information in the TT because of the lack of particular grammatical devices in the TL itself.
Amongst these grammatical devices which might cause problems in translation Baker focuses on
number, tense and aspects, voice, person and gender.
• Textual equivalence, when referring to the equivalence between a SL text and a TL text in terms
of information and cohesion. Texture is a very important feature in translation since it provides
useful guidelines for the comprehension and analysis of the ST which can help the translator in
his or her attempt to produce a cohesive and coherent text for the TC audience in a specific
context. It is up to the translator to decide whether or not to maintain the cohesive ties as well as
the coherence of the SL text. His or her decision will be guided by three main factors, that is, the
target audience, the purpose of the translation and the text type.
• Pragmatic equivalence, when referring to implicatures and strategies of avoidance during the
translation process. Implicature is not about what is explicitly said but what is implied. Therefore,
the translator needs to work out implied meanings in translation in order to get the ST message
across. The role of the translator is to recreate the author's intention in another culture in such a
way that enables the TC reader to understand it clearly.

3.2 Back Translation

Back translation Involves taking the translated version of a document or file and then having a separate
independent translator (who has no knowledge of or contact with the original text) translate it back into
the original language. A back translation allows you to compare translations with the original text for
quality and accuracy. Back translations help to evaluate equivalence of meaning between the source and
target texts. Due to the nature of language, a back translation will never be 100% exactly the same as the
original source text, but it does help to identify any confusion, ambiguities or errors that may arise from
the nuances of language.

Back Translations are often performed as literally as possible to give an accurate depiction of the exact
meaning of the translation in the target language. Because of this, some backtranslations may feel artificial
or unnaturally written. However, if there are major semantic differences between the source and back
translation, it is not clear whether the fault is with the forward translation or with back translation. At this
point, you may opt for reconciliation.
3.3 Fidelity and Transparency

Fidelity and transparency are two factors that, for thousands of years, have been regarded as the highest
ideals to be endeavored for in human translation (particularly literary translation); even up until now,
when translation jobs are farmed out to different professional translation groups and translation service
freelancers, these twin qualities are still considered top-priority guidelines to better achieve successful
translation work with clear messages. In other words, a translation could have more fidelity and less
transparency or vice-versa, but never both at equally high amounts. More to the point, as many a
translation service agency or professional translation company knows, fidelity refers to the faithfulness of
the translation to the source text, while transparency refers to the comprehensibility of the translation in
terms of the target audience's cultural perspective.

In-Depth Definition

Fidelity refers to the limits to which a given human translation work precisely depicts the underlying
message or meaning of the source text without distorting it, without intensifying or weakening any part
of its context, and otherwise without subtracting or adding to it at all.

Meanwhile, transparency pertains to the degree to which a translation caters to native speakers and the
target audience, such that idiomatic, syntactic, and grammatical conventions are followed while cultural,
political, and social context is kept in mind at all times. Translations that have high fidelity are classified
as "faithful" translations; in turn, translations that meet the second standard are referred to as "idiomatic"
translations. Then again, the two ideals aren't necessarily mutually exclusive from each other; keeping the
context intact, for example, can be seen in both a high-fidelity translation and a high-transparency
translation.

3.4 Equivalence

Equivalence is one of the core concepts of translation, and often one of the best places to start when
explaining the process of language translation. Equivalence will always be an important part of human
translation as long as the latter exists. To be more specific, equivalence is one of the most important
considerations of professional translation agents and freelance translation service experts alike when it
comes to localizing a website or straightforwardly translating textual material.

The Importance of Equivalence

The factors that affect human translation the most are mostly the ones that are cultural or linguistic in
nature. If these so-called parameters are as effective and accurate as expected, they will help streamline
the translation process in a convincing and correct manner.

3.5 Understanding Jargon

Jargon is a literary term that is defined as the use of specific phrases and words in a particular situation,
profession, or trade. These specialized terms are used to convey hidden meanings accepted and
understood in that field. Jargon examples are found in literary and non-literary pieces of writing.

• The language, esp. the vocabulary, peculiar to a particular trade, profession, or group: medical
jargon.
• Unintelligible or meaningless talk or writing; gibberish.
• Specialized language concerned with a particular subject, culture, or profession
• The terminology or idiom of a particular activity or group Jargon is the collective name for words
that only make sense to certain people.
Examples

“Dow Jones Industrial Average” This phrase will be understandable by people who trade on the stock
Market“H2O” Most people understand this to mean “water” but it is science Jargon “Integer” To a
mathematician (someone who uses numbers every day), this means “a number” The use of jargon
becomes essential in prose or verse or some technical pieces of writing, when the writer intends to convey
something only to the readers who are aware of these terms. Therefore, jargon was taken in early times
as a trade language, or as a language of a specific profession, as it is somewhat unintelligible for other
people who do not belong to that particular profession. In fact, specific terms were developed to meet
the needs of the group of people working within the same field or occupation.

Jargon, on the other hand, is broadly associated with a subject, occupation, or business that makes use
of standard words or phrases, and frequently comprised of abbreviations, such as LOC (loss of
consciousness), or TRO (temporary restraining order).

PART IV – Transliteration

Transliteration is a type of conversion of a text from one script to another that involves swapping letters
(thus trans- + liter-) in predictable ways, such as Greek ⟨α⟩ →⟨a⟩, Cyrillic ⟨д⟩ → ⟨d⟩, Greek ⟨χ⟩ → the
digraph ⟨ch⟩, Armenian ⟨ն⟩ → ⟨n⟩ or Latin ⟨æ⟩ → ⟨ae⟩.

Transliteration is not primarily concerned with representing the sounds of the original but rather with
representing the characters, ideally accurately and unambiguously Transliteration is opposed to
transcription, which maps the sounds of one language into a writing system. Still, most systems of
transliteration map the letters of the source script to letters pronounced similarly in the target script, for
some specific pair of source and target language. If the relations between letters and sounds are similar
in both languages, a transliteration may be very close to a transcription. In practice, there are some mixed
transliteration/transcription systems that transliterate a part of the original script and transcribe the rest.
For many script pairs, there is one or more standard transliteration systems. However, unsystematic
transliteration is common.

PART V – Translators

5.1 Computer-Assisted

Computer-assisted instruction (CAI), a program of instructional material presented by means of a

computer or computer systems.

Students using computers in a classroom

The use of computers in education started in the 1960s. With the advent of convenient microcomputers
in the 1970s, computer use in schools has become widespread from primary education through the
university level and even in some preschool programs .Instructional computers are basically used in one
of two ways: either they provide a straightforward presentation of data or they fill a tutorial role in which
the student is tested on comprehension. If the computer has a tutorial program, the student is asked a
question by the computer; the student types in an answer and then gets an immediate response to the
answer. If the answer is correct, the student is routed to more challenging problems; if the answer is
incorrect, various computer messages will indicate the flaw in procedure, and the program will bypass
more complicated questions until the student shows mastery in that area. There are many advantages to
using computers in educational instruction. They provide one-to-one interaction with a student, as well
as an instantaneous response to the answers elicited, and allow students to proceed at their own pace.
Computers are particularly useful in subjects that require drill, freeing teacher time from some classroom
tasks so that a teacher can devote more time to individual students. A computer program can be used
diagnostically, and, once a student’s problem has been identified, it can then focus on the problem area.
5.2 Machine Translation

Machine translation (MT) is an automatic translation from one language to another. The benefit of
machine translation is that it is possible to translate large swathes of text in a very short time.

Machine translation, sometimes referred to by the abbreviation MT (not to be confused with computer-
aided translation, machine-aided human translation or interactive translation), is a sub-field of
computational linguistics that investigates the use of software to translate text or speech from one
language to another.

How does machine translation work?

Up until late 2016, all of the machine translation products on the market were based on algorithms that
use statistical methods to try to ascertain the best possible translation for a given word. This technology
is known as Statistical Machine Translation (SMT). SMT involves advanced statistical analysis to estimate
the best possible translations for a word given the context of a few surrounding words. On the other hand,
Neural Machine Translation, or NMT as it is abbreviated, performs the process by attempting to model
high level abstractions into data, much closer to how it is undertaken by a human than the traditional
statistical approach. Neural networks better capture the context of full sentences before translating them,
which entails higher quality and a more human-sounding output.

5.3 Subtitling

Subtitles are text derived from either a transcript or screenplay of the dialogue or commentary in films,
television programs, video games, and the like, usually displayed at the bottom of the screen, but can also
be at the top of the screen if there is already text at the bottom of the screen.

There are two types of Subtitling, hard and soft subtitles.

Hard subtitles are encoded into the source material while soft subtitles are mixed to the video from
another data file, enabling the display of subtitles to be switched by the viewer, or the data file to be
altered.

5.4 Editing/Post Editing

Post-editing is the process whereby humans amend machine-generated translation to achieve an

acceptable final product. A person who post-edits is called a post-editor. The concept of post-editing is
linked to that of pre-editing. The concept of post-editing is linked to that of pre-editing. In the process of
translating a text via machine translation, best results may be gained by pre-editing the source text.

For example: By applying the principles of controlled language – and then post-editing the machine
output. It is distinct from editing, which refers to the process of improving human generated text (a
process which is often known as revision in the field of translation).

Post-editing involves the correction of machine translation output to ensure that it meets a level of quality
negotiated in advance between the client and the post-editor.

5.5 Internet

The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the Internet protocol
suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices. It is a network of networks that consists
of private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad
array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries a vast range of
information resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents and applications of the
World Wide Web (WWW), electronic mail, telephony, and file sharing.

PART VI – Press Freedom and Limitations

6.1 Constitutional Guarantee Press Freedom as a Constitutionally-Protected Right

The freedom of the press is a constitutionally-guaranteed right and is enshrined in Section4 Article III
which explicitly provides that “No law shall be passed abridging the freedom of speech, of expression, or
of the press, or the right of the people peaceably to assemble and petition the government for redress of
grievances.” This constitutional right is essentially a carry-over of similar provisions in earlier constitutions
as the Constitutional Commission of 1987 deemed it necessary to preserve extant Philippine and American
jurisprudence on this bill of right. A significant change though is the expansion of this right to include the
phrase “of expression”. The constitutional right of free speech or expression was a novel concept when it
was first introduced in the Philippines by the Second Philippine Commission (also known as the Taft
Commission) in 1900. Bernas? In recognizing the importance and sacredness of this right, Justice Malcolm
duly commented in the case of United States v. Bustos as follows:

“Turning to the pages of history, we state nothing new when we set down that freedom of speech as
cherished in democratic countries was unknown in the Philippine Islands before1900. A prime cause for
revolt was consequently readymade. Jose Rizal in “Filipinas Despues de Cien Años” (The Philippines a
Century Hence, pages 62 et seq.) describing “there forms sine quibus non,” which the Filipinos insist upon,
said:” The minister, who wants his reforms to be reforms, must begin by declaring the press in the
Philippines free and by instituting Filipinos delegates. The Filipino patriots in Spain, through the columns
of “La Solidaridad” and by other means invariably in exposing the wants of the Filipino people demanded
“liberty of the press, of cults, and associations.” (See Mabini, La Revolucion Filipina.) The Malolos
Constitution, the work of the Revolutionary Congress, in its Bill of Rights, zealously guarded freedom of
speech and press and assembly and petition. Mention is made of the foregoing data only to deduce the
proposition that a reform so sacred to the people of these Islands and won at so dear a cost, should now
be protected and carried forward as one would protect and preserve the covenant of liberty itself. In
general it can be said that the constitutional freedom of speech and expression, and of the press allows
one to freely utter, say or publish one’s ideas or opinions without prior restraint, and to be protected
against any subsequent responsibility for so doing as long as it does not violate the law, or injure
someone’s character, reputation or business. From a literal reading of the text it shows that the protection
is a guarantee against government intervention. It has been said that the terms speech and expression
are all forms of utterances whether oral or written. Additionally, the term “expression” can be interpreted
to cover expressions of opinion not made publicly. On the other hand, the term “press” covers all kinds of
publications and also television and radio as a form of mass media. It is important to note that the freedom
of expression is one of the preferred rights enshrined in the Bill of Rights. In a 1973 case , Justice Felix
Makasiar said:“(1) In a democracy, the preservation and enhancement of the dignity and worth of the
human personality is the central core as well as the cardinal article of faith of our civilization. The inviolable
character of man as an individual must be “protected to the largest possible extent in his thoughts and in
his beliefs as the citadel of his person.”(2) The Bill of Rights is designed to preserve the ideals of liberty,
equality and security “against the assaults of opportunism, the expediency of the passing hour, the
erosion of small encroachments, and the scorn and derision of those who have no patience with general
principles.”

In the pithy language of Mr. Justice Robert Jackson, the purpose of the Bill of Rights is to withdraw “certain
subjects from the vicissitudes of political controversy, to place them beyond the reach of majorities and
officials, and to establish them as legal principles to be applied by the courts. One’s rights to life, liberty
and property, to free speech, or free press, freedom of worship and assembly, and other fundamental
rights may not be submitted to a vote; they depend on the outcome of no elections.” Laski proclaimed
that “the happiness of the individual, not the well-being of the State, was the criterion by which its
behavior was to be judged. His interests, not its power, set the limits to the authority it was entitled to
exercise.”(3) The freedoms of expression and of assembly as well as the right to petition are included
among the immunities reserved by the sovereign people, in the rhetorical aphorism of Justice Holmes, to
protect the ideas that we abhor or hate more than the ideas we cherish; or as Socrates insinuated, not
only to protect the minority who want to talk, but also to benefit the majority who refuse to listen. And
as Justice Douglas cogently stresses it, the liberties of one are the liberties of all; and the liberties of one
are not safe unless the liberties of all are protected.(4) The rights of free expression, free assembly and
petition, are not only civil rights but also political rights essential to man’s enjoyment of his life, to his
happiness and to his full and complete fulfillment. Thru these freedoms the citizens can participate not
merely in the periodic establishment of the government through their suffrage but also in the
administration of public affairs as well as in the discipline of abusive public officers. The citizen is accorded
these rights so that he can appeal to the appropriate government offices or agencies for redress and
protection as well as for the imposition of the lawful sanctions on erring public officers and employees.(5)
While the Bill of Rights also protects property rights, the primacy of human rights over property rights is
recognized. Because these freedoms are “delicate and vulnerable, as well as supremely precious in our
society” and the “threat of sanctions may deter their exercise almost as potently as the actual application
of sanctions,” they “need breathing space to survive,” permitting government regulation only “with
narrow specificity. “Property and property rights can be lost thru prescription; but human rights are
imprescriptible. If human rights are extinguished by the passage of time, then the Bill of Rights is a useless
attempt to limit the power of government and ceases to be an efficacious shield against the tyranny of
officials, of majorities, of the influential and powerful, and of oligarchs — political, economic or otherwise.

In the hierarchy of civil liberties, the rights of free expression and of assembly occupy a preferred position
as they are essential to the preservation and vitality of our civil and political institutions; and such priority
“gives these liberties the sanctity and the sanction permitting dubious intrusions.” The superiority of these
freedoms over property rights is underscored by the fact that a mere reasonable or rational relation
between the means employed by the law and its objector purpose that the law is neither arbitrary nor
discriminatory nor oppressive would suffice to validate a law which restricts or impairs property rights.
On the other hand, a constitutional or valid infringement of human rights requires a more stringent
criterion, namely existence of a grave and immediate danger of a substantive evil which the State has the
right to prevent. So it has been stressed in the main opinion of Mr. Justice Fernando in Gonzales vs.
Comelec and reiterated by the writer of the opinion in Imbong vs. Ferrer. It should be added that Mr.
Justice Barredo in Gonzales vs. Comelec, supra, like Justices Douglas, Black and Goldberg in N.Y. Times Co.
vs. Sullivan, believes that the freedoms of speech and of the press as well as of peaceful assembly and of
petition for redress of grievances are absolute when directed against public officials or “when exercised
in relation to our right to choose the men and women by whom we shall be governed,” even as Mr. Justice
Castro relies on the balancing-of-interests test. Chief Justice Vinson is partial to the improbable danger
rule formulated by Chief Judge Learned Hand, viz. whether the gravity of the evil, discounted by its
improbability, justifies such invasion of free expression as is necessary to avoid the danger. “Nonetheless,
it must be noted that the exercise of this right is not absolute. As one author said “it does not confer
unbridled license to speak or publish without responsibility for every possible use of language. There are
other societal values that press for protection” , it means that it may be regulated by a valid exercise of
police power.

6.2 Delimitations

Delimitations are boundaries that are set by the researcher in order to control the range of a study. They
are created before any investigations are carried out in order to reduce the amount of time or effort spent
in certain unnecessary, and perhaps even unrelated, areas to the overall study. Delimitations are choices
made by the researcher which should be mentioned. They describe the boundaries that you have set for
the study.

This is the place to explain:

• the things that you are not doing (and why you have chosen not to do them).
• the literature you will not review (and why not).
• the population you are not studying (and why not).
 • the methodological procedures you will not use (and why you will not use them).

Limit your delimitations to the things that a reader might reasonably expect you to do but that you,
for clearly explained reasons, have decided not to do.

6.3 Anti-Obscenity Laws

Anti-Obscenity Laws

This anti-obscenity and pornography act of 2008 violates the Philippine constitution whose basic tenets
are freedom and democracy. Pornography in the bill are any objects or subjects from film, tv shows to
photographs, music, paintings, advertisements, literature and others found in every form of medium from
digital to video to film, tv shows, electronic media, print, outdoor advertising and broadcast media that
“… excite, stimulate or arouse impure thoughts and prurient interest.” The bill defines obscenity as
anything indecent or offensive to good customs, religious beliefs, principles or doctrine, that will “deprave
the human being,” “…excite impure thoughts, or violate the proprieties of language and human behavior.”
Specific examples include the showing, depicting, or describing sexual acts, sexual organs, the female
breasts, and nude human bodies. Introduced by Senator Manny Villar on July 24, 2008 as ammendation
for the article 201 of the revised penal code.

AN ACT PROHIBITING AND PENALIZING THE PRODUCTION, PRINTING, PUBLICATION, IMPORTATION, SALE,
DISTRIBUTION AND EXHIBITION OF OBSCENE AND PORNOGRAPHICMATERIALS AND THE EXHIBITION OF
LIVE SEXUAL ACTS, AMENDING FOR THE PURPOSEARTICLE 201 OF THE REVISED PENAL CODE, AS
AMENDED

6.4 Libel

Libel. It’s the publication of false statements of fact that damage someone’s reputation. You’ll also see it
referred to as defamation. Libel arises when one makes a false statement about another person or entity
that causes harm to that person's or entity's reputation. In order to be treated as libel, there must be
publication of the statement; in other words, the statement must be made to another person. Publication
of the libelous statement can be made by a written format, such as a newspaper article or internet posting,
or by an oral statement, such as in conversation orby radio or television. In addition, the statement can
be made to one person or many people, such as in a speech. Furthermore, cartoons, signs, and artistic
depictions can be treated as libel if they include false statements and are communicated to another
person. The libelous statement must also be expressed as a factual statement. Thus, the statement is not
just another person's opinion about a person or entity.

For example: If one says 'The actress looked disheveled,' this would be an opinion and not a statement,
and as such, does not constitute libel. On the other hand, if the statement was 'The actress was drunk and
looked disheveled', this would constitute libel if the actress was not drunk. Consequently, if one is
critiquing a person or entity, it does not constitute libel if the critique expresses an opinion.

Moreover, libel differs from slander because slander refers solely to spoken words. However, even though
radio or television broadcasts involve spoken words, the fact that the words are made via a transfixed
method results in the radio and television broadcasts conveying libel.

6.5 Copyright Law (E-book)

Under Philippine law, copyright infringement is punishable by the following: Imprisonment of between 1
to 3 years and a fine of between 50,000 to 150,000 pesos for the first offense. Imprisonment of 3 years
and 1 day to six years plus a fine of between 150,000 to 500,000pesos for the second offense. The basic
laws of copyright for e-books are the same as for any creative work. The authors copyright protection
from the time he creates the book. The ease of copying and distributing e-books, however, and the
increased threat of distributing pirated versions brings in other copyright issues which continue to evolve
and be the subject of debate.
Copyright Protection

Copyright protection is automatic for any creative work the moment it is created and set down in a
“tangible form of expression,” including a work that can only be read with the aid of a device such as an
e-book reader. The copyright owner has the exclusive right to reproduce and distribute the e-book for
public sale, rental or lending, or to make the book available for free. Without express permission, others
cannot reproduce and distribute copies of the e-book.

6.6 Right of Privacy

The Philippine Constitution Our right to privacy is a basic fundamental human right. It has been cited by
several court cases and it is well enshrined under the supreme law of the land – The Philippine
Constitution. As a matter of fact the right to privacy was even present during the 1935 and
1973constitutions respectively. Under the most recent 1987 Philippine Constitution, the Right to
Information and Communications Privacy is recognized under Article III, Sec. 3(1), which states: The
privacy of communication and correspondence shall be inviolable except upon lawful order of the court,
or when public safety or order requires otherwise, as prescribed by law. The same constitution also
guarantees the freedom of expression and speech under Article III, Sec. 4, which states: No law shall be
passed abridging the freedom of speech, of expression, or of the press, or the right of the people
peaceably to assemble and petition the government for redress of grievances.

Article III Sections 1 and 2 of the 1987 constitution also recognizes every person’s right to physical privacy,
this states the government’s limited ability to search and/or deprive one’s person, place and things of any
unwarranted intrusion to one’s private affairs for any reason unless legally allowed to do so.

Sec. 1. No person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law, nor shall any
person be denied the equal protection of the laws.

Sec. 2. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects against
unreasonable searches and seizures of whatever nature and for any purpose shall be inviolable, and no
search warrant or warrant of arrest shall issue except upon probable cause to be determined personally
by the judge after examination under oath or affirmation of the complainant and the witnesses he may
produce, and particularly describing the place to be searched and the persons or things to be seized. Other
facets of the right to privacy are protected in various provisions of the Article III of the1987 Constitution
are as follows:

Sec. 6. The liberty of abode and of changing the same within the limits prescribed by law shall not be
impaired except upon lawful order of the court. Neither shall the right to travel be impaired except in the
interest of national security, public safety, or public health as may be provided by law.

Sec. 8. The right of the people, including those employed in the public and private sectors, to form unions,
associations, or societies for purposes not contrary to law shall not be abridged.

Sec. 17. No person shall be compelled to be a witness against himself. Under the Civil Code of the
Philippines The Civil code, under Art. 26 provides punishment as actionable torts of several acts by a
person of meddling and prying into the privacy of another:

Art. 26. Every person shall respect the dignity, personality, privacy and peace of mind of his neighbors and
other persons. The following and similar acts, though they may not constitute a criminal offense, shall
produce a cause of action damages, prevention and other relief:

(1) Prying into the privacy of another’s residence;

(2) Meddling with or disturbing the private life or family relations of another;

(3) Intriguing to cause another to be alienated from his friends;

(4) Vexing or humiliating another on account of his religious beliefs, lowly station in life, place of birth,
physical defect, or other personal condition.

The right to privacy in communications and correspondence is also enforced under Art. 723of the Civil
Code of the Philippines, however courts may authorize their publication or dissemination for public good
and in the interest of justice.

Art. 723. Letters and other private communications in writing are owned by the person to whom they are
addressed and delivered, but they cannot be published or disseminated without the consent of the writer
or his heirs. However, the court may authorize their publication or dissemination if the public good or the
interest of justice so requires. Under the Revised Penal Code of the Philippines Art. 229 of the Revised
Penal Code provides for punishment for public officers who discloses private information held to him in
confidence due to his position. Art. 229. Revelation of secrets by an officer. Any public officer who shall
reveal any secret known to him by reason of his official capacity, or shall wrongfully deliver papers or
copies of papers of which he may have charge and which should not be published, shall suffer the
penalties of prison correctional in its medium and maximum periods, perpetual special disqualification
and a fine not exceeding 2,000 pesos if the revelation of such secrets or the delivery of such papers shall
have caused serious damage to the public interest; otherwise, the penalties of prison correctional in its
minimum period, temporary special disqualification and a fine not exceeding 50 pesos shall be imposed.

Art. 280 of the Revised Penal Code provides for the privacy in one’s home and punishes those who violates
one’s right to such privacy. Art. 280. Qualified trespass to dwelling. Any private person who shall enter
the dwelling of another against the latter’s will shall be punished by arresto mayor and a fine not
exceeding1,000 pesos. If the offense be committed by means of violence or intimidation, the penalty shall
be prison correctional in its medium and maximum periods and a fine not exceeding 1,000pesos. The
provisions of this article shall not be applicable to any person who shall enter another’s dwelling for the
purpose of preventing some serious harm to himself, the occupants of the dwelling or a third person, nor
shall it be applicable to any person who shall enter a dwelling for the purpose of rendering some service
to humanity or justice, nor to anyone who shall enter cafes, taverns, inn and other public houses, while
the same are open. Articles 290 until 292 of the Revised Penal Code also provides for punishment for
those who discloses or illegally obtains information in confidence of another such as a corporation or
private individual. Art. 290. Discovering secrets through seizure of correspondence. The penalty of prison
correccional in its minimum and medium periods and a fine not exceeding 500 pesos shall be imposed
upon any private individual who in order to discover the secrets of another, shall seize his papers or letters
and reveal the contents thereof. If the offender shall not reveal such secrets, the penalty shall be arresto
mayor and a fine not exceeding 500 pesos. The provision shall not be applicable to parents, guardians, or
persons entrusted with the custody of minors with respect to the papers or letters of the children or
minors placed under their care or study, nor to spouses with respect to the papers or letters of either of
them. Art. 291. Revealing secrets with abuse of office. — The penalty of arresto mayor and a fine not
exceeding 500 pesos shall be imposed upon any manager, employee, or servant who, in such capacity,
shall learn the secrets of his principal or master and shall reveal such secrets. Art. 292. Revelation of
industrial secrets. — The penalty of prision correccional in its minimum and medium periods and a fine
not exceeding 500 pesos shall be imposed upon the person in charge, employee or workman of any
manufacturing or industrial establishment who, to the prejudice of the owner thereof, shall reveal the
secrets of the industry of the latter. Under the Rules of Court Rule 130, Sections 24-25 also disqualifies
admissibility of evidence for matters containing privileged information. Section 24. Disqualification by
reason of privileged communication. — The following persons cannot testify as to matters learned in
confidence in the following cases:(a) The husband or the wife, during or after the marriage, cannot be
examined without the consent of the other as to any communication received in confidence by one from
the other during the marriage except in a civil case by one against the other, or in a criminal case fora
crime committed by one against the other or the latter’s direct descendants or ascendants;(b) An attorney
cannot, without the consent of his client, be examined as to any communication made by the client to
him, or his advice given thereon in the course of, or with a view to, professional employment, nor can an
attorney’s secretary, stenographer, or clerk be examined, without the consent of the client and his
employer, concerning any fact the knowledge of which has been acquired in such capacity;(c) A person
authorized to practice medicine, surgery or obstetrics cannot in a civil case, without the consent of the
patient, be examined as to any advice or treatment given by him any information which he may have
acquired in attending such patient in a professional capacity, which information was necessary to enable
him to act in capacity, and which would blacken the reputation of the patient;

(d) A minister or priest cannot, without the consent of the person making the confession, be examined as
to any confession made to or any advice given by him in his professional character in the course of
discipline enjoined by the church to which the minister or priest belongs;(e) A public officer cannot be
examined during his term of office or afterwards, as to communications made to him in official confidence,
when the court finds that the public interest would suffer by the disclosure. (21a)Section 25. Parental and
filial privilege. No person may be compelled to testify against his parents, other direct ascendants, children
or other direct descendants. (20a) The Right to Privacy under the United Nation’s Universal Declaration
of Human Rights. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights The United Nations (UN) is an
intergovernmental organization tasked to promote international cooperation and to create and maintain
international order. It was established on October 24, 1945 with 51 founding member states (including
the Philippines). The United Nation’s Universal Declaration of Human Rights (also known as UDHR or
‘Human Rights Declaration’) was adopted on December 10, 1948 by the United Nations General Assembly.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is generally agreed to be the foundation of international
human rights law. Adopted in 1948, the UDHR has inspired a rich body of legally binding international
human rights treaties. Right to Privacy under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights The UDHR
contains provisions with regard to the right to a private and family life and to the freedom of expression.
Article 12 of the UDHR enshrines the right to a private life and associated freedoms, it states: No one shall
be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks
upon his honor and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such
interference or attacks. The right to the freedom of expression is also enshrined in Article 19 of the UDHR,
which states: Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to
hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any
media and regardless of frontiers.

The Right to Privacy under the United Nation’s International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Since the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is not
legally binding on states parties, to codify the rights embodied in the UDHR, two treaties would be created:
the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (“ICCPR”) and the International Covenant on
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (“ICESCR”). These two documents would form the basis of the
International Bill of Human Rights. In 1950, the General Assembly declared “the enjoyment of civil and
political freedoms and of economic, social and cultural rights are interconnected and interdependent.”
The Human Rights Commission completed preparation of the draft of the ICCPR at its ninth and tenth
sessions, in 1953 and 1954.On December 16, 1966, the United Nations General Assembly unanimously
adopted thicker. The ICCPR took ten years to enter into force on March 23, 1976.Right to Privacy Under
the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Article 17 of the ICCPR also states the right to a
private life1. No one shall be subjected to arbitrary or unlawful interference with his privacy, family, home
or correspondence, nor to unlawful attacks on his honor and reputation.2. Everyone has the right to the
protection of the law against such interference or attacks. Article 19 of the ICCPR states an individual’s
right to the freedom of expression1. Everyone shall have the right to hold opinions without interference.2.
Everyone shall have the right to freedom of expression; this right shall include freedom to seek, receive
and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in
the form of art, or through any other media of his choice.3. The exercise of the rights provided for in
paragraph 2 of this article carries with it special duties and responsibilities. It may therefore be subject to
certain restrictions, but these shall only be such as are provided by law and are necessary:(a) For respect
of the rights or reputations of others;(b) For the protection of national security or of public order (order
public), or of public health or morals.
6.7 National Security

The National Security Policy (NSP) is a document which contains the statement of principles that sets the
strategic policy goals and objectives of the administration in order to attain the state or condition wherein
the national interests of the Philippines, the well-being of its people and institutions; and its sovereignty
and territorial integrity are protected and enhanced. The NSC's function is to advise the President with
respect to the integration of domestic, foreign, and military policies relating to the national security. It is
also said that it serves as the President's principal arm for coordinating these policies among various
government departments and agencies in matters involving the national security

PART VII – Editing in Translation

7.1 Contextual Abstraction

Through contextual abstraction, an abstract component specifies the implementation context from which
developers of compliant #-components derive their types, which publicize their implementation
assumptions. We motivate the concepts behind abstract components by using an example.

7.2 Light Editing and Full Editing

Light post-editing This involves taking the raw MT output and performing as few modifications as possible
to the text in order to make the translation understandable, factually accurate, and grammatically correct.
Light post-editing tasks include:

• correcting only the most obvious typos, word, and grammatical errors
• rewriting confusing sentences partially or completely
• fixing machine-induced mistakes
• deleting unnecessary or extra translation alternatives generated by the machine
• making key terminology consistent, but with no in-depth term checking The localized text needs
to convey the meaning of the source text concepts correctly.

It doesn’t matter if there is not a 1-to-1 correspondence between the source and target texts, as long
as the original concept is there in the translation. Only major errors (errors which impact the user’s
ability to perform the task, comprehend the text correctly, and impair productivity) and critical errors
(errors which may incur legal consequences, block the user’s ability to perform the task at all, or
comprehend the text at all) are covered. The resulting content might sound robotic or just a little bit
off in tone and style, yet it is fluid enough for a reader to understand the meaning. All stylistic polishing
is skipped.

This level of light editing is not easy to achieve: naturally detail-oriented linguists literally have to force
themselves to skip over ‘minor’ errors and limit their work; their job is to achieve the stated quality level
and no more. A light edit has a faster pace than a full edit, and if linguists do more than a light post-edit,
they may not be paid for that extra effort. The key phrases for light post-editing are ‘factual correctness’
and ‘good enough’.

Full post-editing Full post-editing, a slower and more in-depth pass, must produce absolutely accurate
translations that consistently use correct and approved terminology, have the appropriate tone and style,
have no stylistic inconsistencies and variations, and are free from any grammatical mistakes. After this
edit, the translation should read as if written in the target language. Full post-editing tasks include all of
the light post-editing tasks plus:

• checking terminology against approved terminological resources to make sure it is consistent and
appropriate
• cross-referencing translations against other resources
 • making syntactic modifications in accordance with practices for the target language
• producing stylistically consistent, fluent content
• adapting all cultural references, including idioms, examples, etc.
• ensuring perfect faithfulness — a 1-to-1 correspondence — between the source and target text
• applying correct formatting and tagging
• correcting ALL grammatical errors, typos, punctuation errors, and spelling mistakes.

The expectation is high: full post-edited content must be equal to human translation in all aspects.
Therefore, content must meet the quality criteria defined by the client for human translations.

7.3 Style Writing

In literature, writing style is the manner of expressing thought in language characteristic of an individual,
period, school, or nation.

There are four main types of writing:

• expository
• descriptive
• persuasive
• narrative.

Each of these writing styles is used for a specific purpose. A single text may include more than one writing
style.

EXPOSITORY

Expository writing is one of the most common types of writing. When an author writes in an expository
style, all they are trying to do is explain a concept, imparting information from themselves to a wider
audience. Expository writing does not include the author’s opinions, but focuses on accepted facts about
a topic, including statistics or other evidence.

Examples of Expository Writing

• Textbooks
• How-to articles
• Recipes
• News stories (not editorials or Op-Eds)
• Business, technical, or scientific writing

DESCRIPTIVE

Descriptive writing is often found in fiction, though it can make an appearance in non fiction as well (for
example, memoirs, first-hand accounts of events, or travel guides). When an author writes in a descriptive
style, they are painting a picture in words of a person, place, or thing for their audience. The author might
employ metaphor or other literary devices in order to describe the author’s impressions via their five
senses (what they hear, see, smell, taste, or touch). But the author is not trying to convince the audience
of anything or explain the scene – merely describe things as they are.

Examples of Descriptive Writing:

• Poetry
• Journal/diary writing
• Descriptions of Nature
• Fictional novels or plays

PERSUASIVE
Persuasive writing is the main style of writing you will use in academic papers. When an author writes in
a persuasive style, they are trying to convince the audience of a position or belief. Persuasive writing
contains the author’s opinions and biases, as well as justifications and reasons given by the author as
evidence of the correctness of their position. Any “argumentative” essay you write in school should be in
the persuasive style of writing.

Examples of Persuasive Writing

• Cover letters
• Op-Eds and Editorial newspaper articles
• Reviews of items
• Letters of complaint
• Advertisements
• Letters of recommendation

NARRATIVE

Narrative writing is used in almost every longer piece of writing, whether fiction or nonfiction. When an
author writes in a narrative style, they are not just trying to impart information, they are trying to
construct and communicate a story, complete with characters, conflict, and settings.

Examples of Narrative Writing:

• Oral histories
• Novels/Novellas
• Poetry (especially epic sagas or poems)
• Short Stories
• Anecdotes

PART VIII – Literary Translation

8.1 History of Literary Translation

First notable translation of the west would be the Septuagint, Jewish sacred scriptures translated into
Koine Gk. (Jews needed Gok version of their scriptures)Middle age, 19th cent – Latin was the lingua franca;
there were struggles in translating religious and philosophical scriptures; text were then translated to
vernacular Latin. With the large-scale effort to spread Buddhism, Tangut Empire utilized block printing
translating centuries of calligraphically rendered scriptures – promoting understanding of Buddhism as
personally supported by the emperor and his mother After Arab conquered the Greek world, scientific
and philosophical accomplishments were translated to Arabic texts. These text were then converted to
Latin that later helped the advancement of Scholasticism of European world.13th century marked the
flourishing of English equivalents that gave rise to the name of Geoffrey Chauser whose literary work
entitled Knight’s Tale marked the standards intranslation.15th century dawned the translation of prose
literature opening the door to Arthurian literature to European writing. Renaissance in Italy flipped
another chapter in literature by introducing the works of Plato in straightforward language that also paved
the way for the works of other philosophers to be introduced in European Literature.

8.2 Purpose Literary translation

involves translating dramatic and creative poetry and prose into other languages, and it is a hugely
important task. It helps to shape a reader's understanding of the world, their history, philosophy, politics,
and more.

Literary translation There are four expansive translation categories, namely,

1. Business/commercial translation
2. Technical and scientific translation

3. Interpreting

4. Literary translation

Likewise, there are specific fields, which include legal translation. With the Copyright Act, the term literary
translation is not confined to classic literature alone; it encompasses all types of books, short stories,
poems, plays, scripts, opera libretto, travel guide, schoolbooks and other written works.

Qualifications

A degree in Modern Languages would be helpful for someone who wants to be a literary translator,
particularly if translation classes are included in the course. It is also helpful if the translator has other
academic qualifications, aside from a diploma in languages. Someone interested in this type of translation
work should possess some specific qualities, such as a fascination and feeling for language, a deep
knowledge of the source language, its regional literature and culture and a more than average knowledge
of the subject that the literary work discusses. Being familiar with the other works of the author is also
needed. Creativity and skill in the target language is a must (being a native speaker will greatly help). The
translator must also be able to quickly transition from one writing style to another, to convey the original
work’s meaning, and produce the text that reads and flows well without deviating from the theme and
style of the source.

Importance

Translating a book allows other people who will otherwise be isolated through language to learn more
about other cultures. A book reflects the values, ideas and thoughts of the author and possibly his
community. When you read a translated book, you get to understand the actions, principles, traditions
and thoughts of the people from another location. Without translation, people are deprived of other
cultures’ accumulated wisdom and ancient knowledge. Literary translation opens the door to a vast
arsenal of literature is traditionally unavailable to a far larger number of people.

8.3 Technique5 TECHNIQUES OF LITERARY TRANSLATION

1. ADAPTATION

Albir describes adaptation as a “technique whereby one cultural element is replaced by another which is
typical of the receiving culture. This technique is very useful when translating advertisements, slogans,
etc., which employ a number of different linguistic processes. In these cases, the most important thing is
the actual meaning of the message rather than the words making it up.”

2. LINGUISTIC AMPLIFICATION

According to Albir, “this translation technique adds new linguistic elements in the target text. It is the
opposite of the linguistic compression technique.” This is usually about using paraphrase to explain a word
that has no equivalent in the target language.

3. COMPENSATION

Compensation, on the other hand, is a “translation technique whereby a piece of information or stylistic
device is moved to another location in the text, because it does not have the same effect if maintained in
the same place as in the original text”. This process is intended to compensate for the losses that a text
suffers when it is translated. Technique is especially useful when it comes to wordplay: if the translator
cannot directly adapt a pun, for instance, which tends to happen quite often, then they will try to create
another play on words in another part of the text.

4. ELISION

The fourth technique of literary translation described by Albir is elision. Elision is a process that “involves
removing items of information in the original language text so that they do not appear in the target text.
As with the linguistic compression technique, elision is the opposite of the amplification process.” It is
certainly frequently the case that the literary translator is obliged to condense the information contained
in certain passages being translated. To do this, some items which are not considered essential must be
removed as their elision will improve the stylistic quality of the translated work.

5. BORROWING

Borrowing is a technique frequently used in literary translation, but which can also be applied in medical
and business translations, for instance. For Albir, this translation technique involves “using a word or an
expression in the original text and placing it as it is, with no modification, in the target text.” This can be
an expression taken from a third language (e.g., Latin), or a familiar expression by speakers of the target
language, or even an untranslatable expression which is not worth explaining.

PART IX – Basic Copyreading and Proofreading

9.1 The Manuscript

A manuscript (abbreviated MS for singular and MSS for plural) was, traditionally, any document that is
written by hand or, once practical typewriters became available, typewritten as opposed to being
mechanically printed or reproduced in some indirect or automated way

More recently, the term has come to be understood to further include any written, typed, or word-
processed copy of an author's work, as distinguished from its rendition as a printed version of the same.
Before the arrival of printing, all documents and books were manuscripts. Manuscripts are not defined by
their contents, which may combine writing with mathematical calculations, maps, music notation,
explanatory figures or illustrations.

9.2 Copy/Editing the Manuscript

Copyediting is the process of checking for mistakes, inconsistencies, and repetition. During this process,
your manuscript is polished for publication. Contrary to popular belief, the copyeditor is not a glorified
spell checker. The copyeditor is your partner in publication. He or she makes sure that your manuscripts
the best story possible. The copyeditor focuses on both the small details and the big picture. He or she
must be meticulous and highly technical, while still aware of the overarching themes at work within your
manuscript. Copyediting has become somewhat of a catch-all term for all editing. But copyediting typically
only addresses grammar and usage issues, spelling and punctuation errors, and word choice. Copywriting
addresses a manuscript’s correctness. Why is the character named Joseph in chapter one suddenly being
called John in chapter eight? Why does Lara have brown eyes in the prologue, but blue eyes in the final
scene? Copyediting is less focused on rhythm and flow and more on ensuring accuracy. It:• involves
making corrections at the sentence level• checks for consistency issues with timelines, plot, and
character• addresses adherence to the Chicago Manual of Style and the author’s “house” style• may
result in significant document markups• prepares the manuscript for proofreading and publication

After copyediting, the author receives a document with significant markups. The author is responsible for
either accepting or rejecting the editor’s changes and recommendations.

9.3 Proofreading

Proofreading is the reading of a galley proof or an electronic copy of a publication to find and correct
production errors of text or art. Proofreading is the final step in the editorial cycle before publication.
Proofreading means carefully checking for errors in a text before it is published or shared. Itis the very last
stage of the writing process, when you fix minor spelling and punctuation mistakes, typos, formatting
issues and inconsistencies. Proofreading is essential for any text that will be shared with an audience,
whether it’s an academic paper, a job application, an online article, or a print flyer. Depending on your
skills and budget, you can choose to proofread the text yourself or to hire a professional.
Proofreading example

In the publishing industry, proofreaders usually check a printed “proof copy” of the text and mark
corrections using specialized proofreading marks. In other fields, though, professional proofreaders often
work with digital texts and make corrections directly using the track changes feature in Microsoft Word
or Google Docs.

Proofreading

means carefully checking for errors in a text before it is published or shared. It is the very last stage of the
writing process, when you fix minor spelling and punctuation mistakes, typos, formatting issues and
inconsistencies.

PART X – Modern Translation

10.1 Poetry

Views on the possibility of satisfactorily translating poetry show a broad spectrum, depending largely on
the degree of latitude to be granted the translator in regard to a poem’s formal features (rhythm, rhyme,
verse form, etc.).Douglas Hofstadter, in his 1997book,

Le Ton beau de Marot

, argued that a good translation of a poem must convey as much as possible not only of its literal meaning
but also of its form and structure (meter, rhyme alliteration scheme, etc.). The Russian-born linguist and
semiotician Roman Jakobson, however, had in his 1959paper "On Linguistic Aspects of Translation",
declared that "poetry by definition [is]untranslatable”. Vladimir Nabokov, another Russian-born author,
took a view similar to Jakobson's. He considered rhymed, metrical, versed poetry to be in principle
untranslatable and therefore rendered his 1964 English translation of Alexander Pushkin's Eugene Onegin
in prose. Hofstadter, in Le Ton beau de Marot , criticized Nabokov's attitude toward verse translation. In
1999 Hofstadter published his own translation of Eugene Onegin, in verse form. However, a host of more
contemporary literary translators of poetry lean toward Alexander von Humboldt's notion of language as
a "third universe" existing "midway between the phenomenal reality of the 'empirical world' and the
internalized structures of consciousness." Perhaps this is what poet Sholeh Wolpé, translator of the 12th-
century Iranian epic poem “The Conference of the Birds”, means when she writes: Twelfth-century Persian
and contemporary English are as different as sky and sea. The best I can do as a poet is to reflect one into
the other. The sea can reflect the sky with its moving stars, shifting clouds, gestations of the moon, and
migrating birds—but ultimately the sea is not the sky. By nature, it is liquid. It ripples. There are waves. If
you are a fish living in the sea, you can only understand the sky if its reflection becomes part of the water.
Therefore, this translation of

The Conference of the Birds

, while faithful to the original text, aims at its re-creation into a still living and breathing work of literature.
Poet Sherod Santos writes: "The task is not to reproduce the content, but with the flint and the steel of
one's own language to spark what Robert Lowell has called 'the fire and finish of the original. According
to Walter Benjamin: While a poet's words endure in his own language, even the greatest translation is
destined to become part of the growth of its own language and eventually to perish with its renewal.
Translation is so far removed from being the sterile equation of two dead languages that of all literary
forms it is the one charged with the special mission of watching over the maturing process of the original
language and the birth pangs of its own. Gregory Hays, in the course of discussing Roman adapted
translations of ancient Greek literature, makes approving reference to some views on the translating of
poetry expressed by David Bellos, an accomplished French-to-English translator. Hays writes: Among the
ideas reçues [received ideas] skewered by David Bellos is the old saw that “poetry is what gets lost in
translation." The saying is often attributed to Robert Frost, but as Bellos notes, the attribution is as
dubious as the idea itself. A translation is an assemblage of words, and as such it can contain as much or
as little poetry as any other such assemblage. The Japanese even have a word (chōyaku, roughly "hyper
translation") to designate a version that deliberately improves on the original.
10.2 Sung Texts

Sungs Text Translation of a text that is sung in vocal music for the purpose of singing in another language—
sometimes called "singing translation"—is closely linked to translation of poetry because most vocal
music, at least in the Western tradition, is set to verse, especially verse in regular patterns with rhyme.
(Since the late 19th century, musical setting of prose and free verse has also been practiced in some art
music, though popular music tends to remain conservative in its retention of stanzaic forms with or
without refrains.) Rudimentary example of translating poetry for singing is church hymns, such as the
German chorales translated into English by Catherine Winkworth. Translation of sung texts is generally
much more restrictive than translation of poetry, because in the former there is little or no freedom to
choose between a versified translation and a translation that dispenses with verse structure. One might
modify or omit rhyme in singing translation, but the assignment of syllables to specific notes in the original
musical setting places great challenges on the translator. There is the option in prose sung texts, less so
in verse, of adding or deleting a syllable here and there by subdividing or combining notes, respectively,
but even with prose the process is almost like strict verse translation because of the need to stick as closely
as possible to the original prosody of the sung melodic line. Other considerations in writing a singing
translation include repetition of words and phrases, the placement of rests and/or punctuation, the
quality of vowels sung on high notes, and rhythmic features of the vocal line that may be more natural to
the original language than to the target language. A sung translation may be considerably or completely
different from the original, thus resulting in a contrafactum. Translations of sung texts—whether of the
above type meant to be sung or of a more or less literal type meant to be read—are also used as aids to
audiences, singers and conductors, when a work is being sung in a language not known to them. The most
familiar types are translations presented as subtitles or surtitles projected during opera performances,
those inserted into concert programs, and those that accompany commercial audio CDs of vocal music. In
addition, professional and amateur singers often sing works in languages they don’t know (or do not know
well), and translations are then used to enable them to understand the meaning of the words they are
singing.

10.3 Religious Texts

Religious texts. An important role in history has been played by translation of religious texts. Such
translations may be influenced by tension between the text and the religious values the translators wish
to convey. For example, Buddhist monks who translated the Indian sutras into Chinese occasionally
adjusted their translations to better reflect China’s distinct culture, emphasizing notions such as filial
piety. One of the first recorded instances of translation in the West was the 3rd century BCE rendering of
some books of the biblical Old Testament from Hebrew into Koine Greek. The translation is known as the
"Septuagint", a name that refers to the supposedly seventy translators (seventy-two, in some versions)
who were commissioned to translate the Bible at Alexandria, Egypt. According to legend, each translator
worked in solitary confinement in his own cell, and, according to legend, all seventy versions proved
identical. The Septuagint became the source text for later translations into many languages, including
Latin, Coptic, Armenian, and Georgian. Still considered one of the greatest translators in history, for having
rendered the Bible into Latin, is Jerome (347–420 CE), the patron saint of translators. For centuries the
Roman Catholic Church used his translation (known as the Vulgate), though even this translation stirred
controversy. By contrast with Jerome's contemporary, Augustine of Hippo (354–430CE), who endorsed
precise translation, Jerome believed in adaptation, and sometimes invention, in order to more effectively
bring across the meaning. Jerome's colorful Vulgate translation of the Bible includes some crucial
instances of "overdetermination”. For example, Isaiah’s prophecy announcing that the Savior will be born
of a virgin, uses the word 'almah, which is also used to describe the dancing girls at Solomon's court, and
simply means young and nubile. Jerome, writes Marina Warner, translates it as Virgo, “adding divine
authority to the virulent cult of sexual disgust that shaped Christian moral theology (the [Moslem] Quran,
free from this linguistic trap, does not connect Mariam/Mary's miraculous nature with moral horror of
sex)." The apple that Eve offered to Adam, according to Mark Polizzotti, could equally well have been an
apricot, orange, or banana; but Jerome liked the pun malus/malum (apple/evil).

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