Research M ethodology III Sem M CA

Research Methodology
Introduction:
Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also
define research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on
a specific topic. In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation. The Advanced
Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays down the meaning of research as “a
careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any
branch of knowledge. It is actually a voyage of discovery. This inquisitiveness is
the mother of all knowledge and the method, which man employs for obtaining the
knowledge of whatever the unknown, can be termed as research. Research is an
academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense.
According to Clifford W oody research comprises defining and redefining
problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising
and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last
carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating
hypothesis.
Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of
knowledge making for its advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the help of
study, observation, comparison and experiment.

Definition:
“The search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of
finding solution to a problem is research.”

Objectives of Research:
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the
application of scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth
which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research
study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into
a number of following broad groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies
with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research
studies);

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2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or

a group (studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research
studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as
diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies
are known as hypothesis-testing research studies).

TYPES OF RESEARCH
The basic types of research are as follows:
I. Descriptive vs. Analytical:
Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of
different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of
the state of affairs as it exists at present. Example; Ex post facto
research for descriptive research studies. The main characteristic of this
method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can
only report what has happened or what is happening.
In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts
or information already available, and analyse these to make a critical
evaluation of the material.
II. Applied vs. Fundamental:
Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem
facing a society or an industrial/business organisation, Fundamental
research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with the
formulation of a theory. Research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a
solution) facing a concrete social or business problem is an example of
applied research. Research concerning some natural phenomenon or
relating to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research.
III. Quantitative vs. Qualitative:
Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or
amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of
quantity. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with
qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality

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or kind. For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons

for human behaviour.
IV. Conceptual vs. Empirical:
Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It
is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts
or to reinterpret existing ones. On the other hand, empirical research relies
on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for system
and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which
are capable of being verified by observation or experiment.

Various Steps in Research process:

I. Formulating the research problem:

There are two types of research problems are, understanding the problem
thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical
point of view. The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with
one’s own colleagues or with those having some expertise in the matter. The
researcher must at the same time examine all available literature to get himself
acquainted with the selected problem. The problem to be investigated must be
defined unambiguously for that will help discriminating relevant data from
irrelevant ones. Care must, however, be taken to verify the objectivity and validity
of the background facts concerning the problem.

II. Extensive literature survey:

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Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down. It

is compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D. degree to write a
synopsis of the topic and submit it to the necessary Committee or the Research
Board for approval. At this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive
literature survey connected with the problem. In this process, it should be
remembered that one source will lead to another. The earlier studies, if any, which
are similar to the study in hand should be carefully studied. A good library will be
a great help to the researcher at this stage.
III. Development of working hypotheses:
After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the
working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative assumption
made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences.
How does one go about developing working hypotheses? The answer is by using
the following approach:
a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and
the objectives in seeking a solution;
b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for
possible trends, peculiarities and other clues;
c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems;
d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews
on a limited scale with interested parties and individuals with a view to
secure greater insight into the practical aspects of the problem.
IV. Preparing the research design:
The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible
yielding maximal information. In other words, the function of research design is
to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of
effort, time and money. But how all these can be achieved depends mainly on the
research purpose. Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz.,
(i) Exploration, (ii) Description, (iii) Diagnosis, and (iv) Experimentation.
The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research
problem, involves usually the consideration of the following:
a. The means of obtaining the information;
b. The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);
c. Explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will
be organised and the reasoning leading to the selection;
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d. The time available for research;

e. The cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.
V. Determining sample design:
All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or
‘population’. A complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as
a census inquiry. The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what
is popularly known as the sample design. In other words, a sample design is a definite
plan determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a
given population. Thus, the plan to select 12 of a city’s 200 drugstores in a certain
way constitutes a sample design. Samples can be either probability samples or non-
probability samples. A brief mention of the important sample designs is as follows:
Deliberate sampling: Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or non-
probability sampling. This sampling method involves purposive or deliberate
selection of particular units of the universe for constituting a sample which
represents the universe.
1. Convenience sampling: When population elements are selected for inclusion
in the sample based on the ease of access.
2. Judgement sampling: It is the researcher’s judgement is used for selecting
items which he considers as representative of the population.
3. Simple random sampling: This type of sampling is also known as chance
sampling or probability sampling where each and every item in the population
has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample and each one of the possible
samples, in case of finite universe, has the same probability of being selected.
4. Systematic sampling: In some instances, the most practical way of sampling
is to select every 15th name on a list, every 10th house on one side of a
street and so on. Sampling of this type is known as systematic sampling.
5. Stratified sampling: If the population from which a sample is to be drawn
does not constitute a homogeneous group. In this technique, the population is
stratified into a number of non-overlapping subpopulations or strata and
sample items are selected from each stratum.
6. Quota sampling: In stratified sampling the cost of taking random samples
from individual strata is often so expensive that interviewers are simply given
quota to be filled from different strata, the actual selection of items for
sample being left to the interviewer’s judgement.

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7. Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling involves grouping the population and

then selecting the groups or the clusters rather than individual elements for
inclusion in the sample.
8. Area sampling: is quite close to cluster sampling and is often talked about
when the total geographical area of interest happens to be big one. Under
area sampling we first divide the total area into a number of smaller non -
overlapping areas, generally called geographical clusters.
9. Multi-stage sampling: This is a further development of the idea of cluster
sampling. This technique is meant for big inquiries extending to a
considerably large geographical area like an entire country.
10. Sequential sampling: This is somewhat a complex sample design where the
ultimate size of the sample is not fixed in advance but is determined
according to mathematical decisions on the basis of information yielded as
survey progresses.

VI. Collecting the data

In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are
inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate.
Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the
researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative
measurements, or the data, with the help of which he examines the truth
contained in his hypothesis. But in the case of a survey, data can be collected by
any one or more of the following ways:
1) By observation: This method implies the collection of information by way
of investigator’s own observation, without interviewing the respondents.
This method is no doubt an expensive method and the information
provided by this method is also very limited.
2) Through personal interview: This method of collecting data is usually
carried out in a structured way where output depends upon the ability of
the interviewer to a large extent.
3) Through telephone interviews: This method of collecting information
involves contacting the respondents on telephone itself. This is not a very
widely used method but it plays an important role in industrial surveys in
developed regions.

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4) By mailing of questionnaires: The researcher and the respondents do

come in contact with each other if this method of survey is adopted.
Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents with a request to return
after completing the same.
5) Through schedules: Under this method the enumerators are appointed
and given training. They are provided with schedules containing relevant
questions. These enumerators go to respondents with these schedules.
Data are collected by filling up the schedules by enumerators on the basis
of replies given by respondents.
VII.Execution of the project:
The researcher should see that the project is executed in a systematic manner
and in time. If the survey is to be conducted by means of structured questionnaires,
data can be readily machine-processed. If the data are to be collected through
interviewers, arrangements should be made for proper selection and training of the
interviewers. This, in other words, means that steps should be taken to ensure that
the survey is under statistical control so that the collected information is in
accordance with the pre-defined standard of accuracy.
VIII. Analysis of data:
The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as
establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through
coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. Coding operation is
usually done at this stage through which the categories of data are transformed into
symbols that may be tabulated and counted. Editing is the procedure that improves
the quality of the data for coding. With coding the stage is ready for tabulation.
Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put
in the form of tables.
Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various
percentages, coefficients, etc., by applying various well defined statistical formulae.
In the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with
original or new hypotheses should be subjected to tests of significance to determine
with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusion(s).

IX. Hypothesis-testing:
Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary? This is the
usual question which should be answered while testing hypotheses. Various tests,
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such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by statisticians for
the purpose. The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more of such
tests, depending upon the nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis-testing
will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it.
X. Generalisations and interpretation:
If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the
researcher to arrive at generalisation, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the
real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalisations. If the
researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on
the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation.
XI. Preparation of the report or the thesis:
1) The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the
main text, and (iii) the end matter.
Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him.
The main text of the report should have the following parts:
1) Introduction:
2) Summary of findings:
3) Main report:
4) Conclusion:
2) Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language
avoiding vague expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.
3) Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present
the information more clearly and forcibly.
4) Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints
experienced in conducting research operations may as well be stated.
Mathematical tools for analysis in Research Methodology
In research methodology, mathematical tools play a crucial role in analysing
data, making predictions, and drawing conclusions. Researchers often choose the
appropriate mathematical tools based on the nature of their data, research
questions, and assumptions underlying their analyses. It's important to have a
good understanding of these tools and their applications to conduct meaningful and
rigorous research.
Here are some commonly used mathematical tools in research analysis:
1. Descriptive Statistics:

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a) Mean, Median, Mode: Measures of central tendency help describe the

average or central value of a dataset.
b) Standard Deviation, Variance Measures of dispersion indicate how
spread out the values are from the mean.
2. Inferential Statistics:
a) Hypothesis Testing: Statistical tests such as t-tests, chi-square tests,
ANOVA, etc., are used to test hypotheses and draw inferences about
populations.
3. Regression Analysis: Analysing the relationship between variables, often
used for prediction and modelling.
4. Probability Distributions:
a) Normal Distribution: Often assumed in statistical analyses; many tests
rely on the assumption that the data follow a normal distribution.
b) Binomial Distribution: Used in situations with two possible outcomes.
c) Poisson Distribution: Used for count data and rare events.
5. Correlation and Covariance:
a. Correlation Coefficient: Measures the strength and direction of a linear
relationship between two variables.
b. Covariance: Measures the joint variability of two random variables.
6. Time Series Analysis:
a) Autocorrelation and Cross-correlation: Used to analyse patterns and
relationships in time series data.
b) Moving Averages and Exponential Smoothing: Techniques to smooth out
fluctuations in time series data.
7. M ultivariate Analysis:
a) Factor Analysis: Identifies underlying factors that explain patterns of
correlations within a set of observed variables.
b) Principal Component Analysis (PCA): Reduces the dimensionality of data
while retaining most of its variability.
8. Optimization Techniques:
a. Linear Programming: Used for optimization of a linear objective function,
subject to linear equality and inequality constraints.
b. Nonlinear Optimization: Addresses optimization problems with
nonlinear objective functions or constraints.

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9. Statistical Software:
a) Tools like R, Python (with libraries like NumPy, SciPy, Statsmodels), SAS,
SPSS, and Excel are often used for statistical analysis and data
manipulation.
10. Graph Theory:
a) Applied in network analysis, social network analysis, and modelling
relationships between entities.
11. Bayesian M ethods:
a) Bayesian Inference: A statistical method that applies probability theory
to statistical problems. It involves updating probability estimates based
on new evidence.
Examples of Mathematical tools for analysis
Certainly! Let's delve into specific examples of how mathematical tools are applied in
research methodology:
1. Descriptive Statistics:
Example: A study examines the average income of a population using the
mean and median to understand the central tendency. Standard deviation
may be used to assess the variability in income.
2. Hypothesis Testing:
Example: A pharmaceutical company tests the hypothesis that a new drug is
more effective than the current standard treatment using a t-test to compare
means.
3. Regression Analysis:
Example: An economist analyses the relationship between household income
and expenditure using linear regression to model and predict spending
patterns.
4. Probability Distributions:
Example: A quality control engineer uses the binomial distribution to model
the probability of defects in a production process.
5. Correlation and Covariance:
Example: A social scientist examines the correlation between hours of study
and exam scores among students using the correlation coefficient.
6. Time Series Analysis:
Example: An environmental researcher analyses monthly temperature data
over several years using autocorrelation to identify seasonal patterns.
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7. M ultivariate Analysis:
Example: A marketing researcher employs factor analysis to identify underlying
factors influencing consumer preferences for a set of products.
8. Optimization Techniques:
Example: An operations manager uses linear programming to optimize the
allocation of resources in a manufacturing process to maximize output or
minimize costs.
9. Statistical Software:
Example: A data scientist uses Python with libraries like NumPy and pandas to
clean and analyse large datasets, applying statistical methods for insights.
10. Graph Theory:
Example: A sociologist uses graph theory to analyse social networks,
identifying central nodes and patterns of connections within a community.
11. Bayesian M ethods:
Example: A researcher updates prior beliefs about the effectiveness of a medical
treatment based on new evidence using Bayesian inference.

These examples illustrate how mathematical tools are integrated into various
research contexts, spanning disciplines from medicine to econ omics and social
sciences. The choice of tools depends on the nature of the research questions and the
characteristics of the data being analysed.

Developing a research question

Developing a research question is a crucial step in the research process, as it
guides the entire study and helps define its scope and purpose. Here are some steps
and considerations to help you develop a strong research question in research
methodology:
1. Identify a Broad Topic:
a. Start by selecting a general area of interest that you want to explore.
It could be a subject you find intriguing or a problem you want to address.
2. Review the Literature:
a. Conduct a literature review to understand what research has already
been done in your chosen area. This helps you identify gaps in the
existing knowledge.
3. Narrow Down Your Focus:

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a. Based on your literature review, narrow down your topic to a specific

aspect or issue that hasn't been extensively studied or needs further
exploration.
4. Consider the Type of Research:
a. Determine whether your research will be exploratory, explanatory,
descriptive, or analytical. The type of research you choose will influence
the formulation of your research question.
5. Define Variables:
a. Identify the key variables or concepts in your research. Clearly define
them to avoid ambiguity.
6. Ask Clear and Specific Questions:
a. Ensure that your research question is clear, specific, and concise.
Avoid vague or overly broad questions that are difficult to address in a
single study.
7. Consider Feasibility:
a. Assess the feasibility of your research question. M ake sure it's realistic
given your available resources, time, and expertise.
8. Address the "So W hat?" Factor:
a. Ensure that your research question has significance and relevance.
Ask yourself why your research is important and how it contributes to
existing knowledge or addresses a practical problem.
9. Check for Bias:
a. Be aware of any potential bias in your research question. Ensure that it
is neutral and unbiased to maintain the integrity of your study.
10. M ake It Researchable:
a. Ensure that your research question is answerable through empirical
research. It should be something you can investigate and analyse.
11. Seek Feedback:
a. Share your research question with colleagues, mentors, or peers to
get feedback. They can provide valuable insights and suggestions for
improvement.

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Example of a Well-Formulated Research Question:

"What is the impact of mindfulness meditation on reducing symptoms of anxiety in
adults aged 25-45, and how does this compare to traditional cognitive-behavioural
therapy?"

Remember that the formulation of a research question may evolve as you progress in
your research, and it's okay to refine it based on new insights and findings.

Choice of a problem in Research Methodology:

Choosing a research problem is a critical step in the research methodology process,
and it sets the stage for the entire study. The process involves selecting a specific
issue or topic that warrants investigation. Here are some considerations and
explanations regarding the choice of a research problem in research methodology:
1. Interest and Relevance:
a. Choose a problem that genuinely interests you. Your passion for the
topic can fuel your motivation throughout the research process.
Additionally, ensure that the problem is relevant to the field of study
and has significance in terms of addressing existing gaps in knowledge
or contributing to practical solutions.
2. Literature Review:
a. Conduct a thorough literature review to understand what research has
already been done in the chosen area. Identify gaps, unresolved
questions, or areas where further exploration is needed. Your research
problem should be situated within the context of existing knowledge.
3. Feasibility:
a. Consider the feasibility of the research problem. Assess whether it is
realistic given the available resources, time constraints, and your
research capabilities. A feasible problem is one that can be adequately
addressed within the scope of your study.
4. Originality and Contribution:
a. Aim for a research problem that allows you to make an original
contribution to the field. Choose a problem that hasn't been extensively
studied or one that you can approach from a unique perspective. Your
research should add new insights or perspectives to the existing body of
knowledge.

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5. Clarity and Specificity:

a. Clearly define and articulate the research problem. It should be specific
and well-defined to guide your research efforts. Avoid vague or overly
broad problems that may lead to difficulties in formulating research
questions and hypotheses.
6. Practical Significance:
a. Assess the practical significance of the research problem. Consider
whether solving the problem has real-world implications or can
contribute to improvements in a particular field, industry, or
community.
7. Alignment with Research Goals:
a. Ensure that the chosen problem aligns with the overall goals and
objectives of your research. It should fit within the larger context of
your study and contribute to answering your research questions or
testing hypotheses.
8. Ethical Considerations:
a. Take into account ethical considerations when selecting a research
problem. Ensure that your research respects the rights and well-being of
participants, and that the study is conducted with integrity and
transparency.
9. Stakeholder Input:
a. Consider the perspectives of relevant stakeholders, such as
practitioners, policymakers, or individuals directly affected by the
issue. Involving stakeholders in the problem identification process can
lead to more relevant and impactful research.
10. Researchable and M easurable:
a. Confirm that the research problem is researchable and can be
investigated using appropriate research methods. It should also be
measurable, allowing for the collection of data to address the research
questions.

By carefully considering these factors, researchers can select a well-defined and

meaningful problem that aligns with their interests, contributes to the academic
community, and has practical implications.

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Process/Steps of literature review in Research Methodology

A literature review is a critical component of the research methodology that involve s
reviewing, summarizing, and synthesizing existing literature on a specific topic. It
helps researchers understand the current state of knowledge, identify gaps, and
establish a foundation for their own research. Here are the steps involved in
conducting a literature review in research methodology:
1. Define the Scope and Purpose:
a. Clearly define the scope and purpose of your literature review. Identify
the specific research question or problem you aim to address and
determine the boundaries of your review.
2. Search for Relevant Literature:
a. Conduct systematic searches using academic databases, libraries, and
other sources to identify relevant literature. Use keywords, phrases, and
controlled vocabulary related to your topic to ensure comprehensive
coverage.
3. Select Appropriate Sources:
a. Include a variety of sources such as peer-reviewed journal articles, books,
conference proceedings, theses, and reputable websites. Ensure that the
sources are reputable and published by experts in the field.
4. Organize the Literature:
a. Organize the selected literature based on themes, concepts, theories, or
methodologies. Create categories or subtopics to help structure your
review and identify common threads or patterns in the literature.
5. Evaluate and Analyze the Literature:
a. Critically evaluate each source for its methodology, reliability, validity,
and relevance to your research question. Analyze the findings,
arguments, and key concepts presented in each source.
6. Identify Trends and Patterns:
a. Look for trends, patterns, or inconsistencies across the literature.
Identify areas of agreement and disagreement among different authors
and sources. This process helps in understanding the current state of
knowledge on the topic.
7. Summarize and Synthesize:

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a. Summarize the key findings, arguments, and concepts from each source.
Synthesize the information by integrating common themes and
highlighting variations or gaps in the existing literature.

8. Create a Conceptual Framework:

a. Develop a conceptual framework or theoretical framework based on the
synthesis of literature. This framework will guide your research design
and methodology, helping you understand the relationships between
variables and concepts.
9. Identify Gaps and Research Questions:
a. Highlight gaps or limitations in the existing literature. Identify areas
where further research is needed and formulate research questions that
your study aims to address.
10. W rite the Literature Review:
a. Write a coherent and well-organized literature review that follows a logical
structure. Include an introduction, main body, and conclusion. Use
proper citation and referencing styles.
11. Revise and Update:
a. Review and revise your literature review periodically as your research
progresses. Stay updated on new publications and incorporate relevant
literature to maintain the currency of your review.
12. Cite Sources Properly:
- Ensure proper citation of all sources used in your literature review. Follow the
citation style specified by your academic institution or the guidelines of the journal
you intend to submit your research to.

By following these steps, researchers can conduct a thorough and well-organized

literature review that informs their research, establishes the context for their study,
and contributes to the existing body of knowledge in the chosen field.

Surveying
Surveying in research methodology refers to the systematic collection,
analysis, and interpretation of data gathered from a sample of individuals or
entities to gain insights into various aspects of a research problem or topic. Surveys

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are a common and widely used research method, particularly in social sciences,
marketing, and other fields where researchers aim to understand and describe the
characteristics, opinions, behaviours, or attitudes of a population.

Key features of survey research methodology include:

1. Sampling: The goal is to ensure that the chosen sample is representative of
the entire population, allowing researchers to make inferences about the
broader group.
2. Questionnaire Design: Surveys use questionnaires as the primary tool for
data collection. Designing effective and unbiased questions is crucial to
obtaining accurate and reliable responses.
3. Data Collection: Surveys can be administered through various methods,
including face-to-face interviews, telephone interviews, mail-in questionnaires,
online surveys, and more. The choice of method depends on factors such as the
nature of the research, the characteristics of the population, and budget
constraints.
4. Data Analysis: Once the survey data is collected, researchers use statistical
techniques to analyse the information. This may involve summarizing
responses, identifying patterns, and drawing conclusions about the
relationships between variables.
5. Validity and Reliability: Researchers strive to ensure the validity and
reliability of survey instruments. Validity refers to the accuracy of the
measurements, while reliability refers to the consistency of results. Both are
crucial for the credibility of the findings.
6. Ethical Considerations: Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines when
conducting surveys. This includes obtaining informed consent from
participants, ensuring confidentiality, and avoiding harm or discomfort to
respondents.

Surveys can be used for descriptive research (providing a snapshot of a particular

situation) or explanatory research (examining relationships between variables). They
are versatile and can be adapted to various research questions and contexts.
However, careful planning and execution are essential to mitigate potential biases
and limitations in survey research.
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Synthesizing
In research methodology, synthesizing refers to the process of combining and
integrating information from multiple sources to develop a cohesive and
comprehensive understanding of a particular topic or research question. Synthesis
involves analysing, organizing, and interpreting data or findings from various studies
or data sources to generate new insights, draw conclusions, or identify patterns and
trends. The aim is to create a more holistic and nuanced perspective that goes beyond
individual studies.

Here are key aspects of synthesizing in research methodology:

1. Literature Review: Synthesizing often begins with a literature review, where
researchers survey existing studies and literature related to their research
question. The goal is to identify relevant theories, methodologies, and findings
from various sources.
2. Identifying Patterns and Themes: Researchers analyze the collected
information to identify common patterns, themes, or trends across different
studies. This involves comparing and contrasting findings, looking for
similarities and differences, and noting any recurring themes or concepts.
3. Integration of Findings: The synthesis process involves integrating the
findings from different studies into a coherent whole. This can include
combining data, comparing results, and identifying overarching themes or
patterns that emerge across studies.
4. Building a Framework: Researchers may develop a conceptual framework or
model that captures the synthesized information and provides a structured
representation of the relationships between different concepts or variables. This
framework can guide further research or serve as a basis for theoretical
development.
5. Generating New Insights: The ultimate goal of synthesizing is to go beyond a
simple summary of existing studies and generate new insights or knowledge.
By combining information from diverse sources, researchers can uncover
hidden connections, identify gaps in existing literature, or propose novel
perspectives on a given topic.
6. Meta-Analysis: In some cases, researchers may use statistical techniques such
as meta-analysis to quantitatively synthesize data from multiple studies. Meta-

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analysis involves pooling data from different studies to derive a combined effect
size, providing a more robust estimate of the overall effect.
7. Critical Evaluation: Throughout the synthesis process, researchers critically
evaluate the quality, relevance, and reliability of the sources included. This
helps ensure that the synthesized information is credible and trustworthy.

Synthesizing is particularly important in fields where research questions are comple x,

and a comprehensive understanding requires integrating knowledge from diverse
sources. It enhances the credibility and validity of research findings by providing a
more nuanced and holistic perspective on the subject of inquiry.

Critical Analysis
Critical analysis in research methodology refers to the process of
systematically evaluating and interpreting information to make informed
judgments and draw meaningful conclusions. It involves a thorough examination
of research materials, data, and methodologies to assess their validity,
reliability, and relevance. Critical analysis is an essential component of the research
process, helping researchers to refine their understanding, identify limitations, and
contribute to the advancement of knowledge.
Critical analysis is a continuous and iterative process throughout the
research journey. Researchers engage in critical thinking to refine their approach,
enhance the quality of their work, and contribute meaningfully to the advancement
of knowledge in their respective fields.

Here are key aspects of critical analysis in research methodology:

1) Evaluation of Research Design:
a. Assess the overall design of the research, including the choice of
methodology, sampling methods, and data collection techniques.
b. Examine the appropriateness of the research design for addressing the
research questions or objectives.
2) Examination of Data Quality:
a. Scrutinize the quality and reliability of the data collected. This includes
assessing the accuracy of measurements, the appropriateness of
instruments, and the reliability of data sources.

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b. Identify any potential biases in the data collection process and how they
might impact the results.
3) Literature Review:
a. Analyse the literature review to evaluate the depth and breadth of the
research context.
b. Assess the relevance of cited sources, the currency of information,
and the comprehensiveness of the review.
4) Identification of Limitations:
a. Identify and acknowledge the limitations of the research, such as sample
size, data collection constraints, or any methodological
shortcomings.
b. Discuss how these limitations might affect the generalizability and
reliability of the study.
5) Critical Appraisal of Findings:
a. Evaluate the interpretation of the research findings in light of the
research questions and objectives.
b. Consider alternative explanations for the results and assess the
robustness of the conclusions drawn.
6) Ethical Considerations:
a. Examine the ethical aspects of the research, including the treatment of
human subjects, confidentiality, and transparency in reporting.
b. Assess whether the study adheres to ethical guidelines and standards.
7) Relevance and Contribution:
a. Evaluate the overall significance and contribution of the research to
the existing body of knowledge.
b. Consider whether the findings have practical implications and how
they might be applied in real-world situations.
8) Critical Reflection:
a. Encourage researchers to reflect on their own biases, assumptions,
and preconceptions that may have influenced the study.
b. Consider the implications of personal perspectives on the research
process and outcomes.

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Reading materials in Research Methodology

In the context of research methodology, "reading materials" refers to the various
written sources and texts that researchers consult to gather information,
deepen their understanding of a topic, and support their research endeavours.
These materials play a crucial role in shaping the theoretical framework, informing
the research design, and providing the necessary background for a study. Here are
the key aspects of reading materials in research methodology:

1) Primary Sources:
a. Primary sources are original materials or data created or collected
directly by researchers for the purpose of their study. Examples
include research articles, reports, surveys, and raw data.
b. Researchers often read primary sources to gather first hand
information and evidence relevant to their research questions.
2) Secondary Sources:
a. Secondary sources involve the interpretation or analysis of primary
sources by other researchers. These can include review articles,
textbooks, and literature reviews.
b. Secondary sources provide a synthesized understanding of existing
knowledge on a topic, helping researchers identify gaps and build on
previous work.
3) Literature Review:
a. Reading materials are extensively used in the literature review, a critical
component of research methodology. The literature review involve s
reviewing and synthesizing existing research and scholarship on a
particular topic.
b. Researchers read a wide range of academic articles, books,
conference papers, and other scholarly works to establish the
theoretical framework, identify key concepts, and highlight relevant
findings.
4) Theoretical Framework:
a. Reading materials contribute to the development of the theoretical
framework that underpins a research study. Theoretical frameworks
are built on existing theories and concepts relevant to the research
topic.
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b. Researchers read theoretical works and academic literature to identify

and integrate theories that provide a conceptual basis for their study.
5) Research Design and M ethodology:
a. Reading materials guide the selection of research designs and
methodologies. Researchers consult texts on research methods to
understand different approaches, sampling techniques, data
collection methods, and statistical analyses.
b. M ethodological texts help researchers make informed decisions
about the most suitable methods for their specific research questions and
objectives.
6) Data Analysis and Interpretation:
a. Researchers refer to reading materials during the data analysis phase.
Statistical methods, qualitative analysis techniques, and
interpretation frameworks are often drawn from established literature
in the field.
b. Reading materials contribute to the development of a robust data
analysis plan and aid in the interpretation of research findings.
7) Staying Current:
a. Researchers continuously read current literature to stay informed
about recent developments, emerging trends, and new
methodologies in their field.
b. Staying current ensures that researchers incorporate the latest
knowledge into their work and engage with the most relevant and up-
to-date information.
8) Citation and Academic Integrity:
a. Proper citation of reading materials is essential for academic integrity.
Researchers must accurately reference the sources they consult to give
credit to the original authors and provide a basis for readers to explore
further.

In summary, reading materials are fundamental to every stage of the research

process. They shape the foundation of a study, guide the research design, and inform
the interpretation of results. Researchers engage with a diverse range of materials to
build a comprehensive understanding of their chosen topic and con tribute to the
scholarly conversation in their field.
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Example of reading materials

Reading materials in research methodology encompass a wide range of sources,
including books, journal articles, reports, and other scholarly publications. The
specific reading materials selected by researchers depend on the nature of their study,
research questions, and the methodologies they plan to employ. Here are examples of
reading materials that researchers might consult at different stages of the research
process:
1) Research M ethods Books:
a. Example: "Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed
Methods Approaches" by John W. Creswell.
b. Purpose: Researchers may read methodological textbooks to gain a
comprehensive understanding of various research designs and
methodologies.
2) Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles:
a. Example: A research article in the "Journal of Marketing Research" on
consumer behaviour.
b. Purpose: Reading peer-reviewed articles provides researchers with
current and relevant insights into existing research on their topic,
helping them identify gaps and understand methodological approaches.
3) Literature Review Articles:
a. Example: A review article in "Annual Review of Psychology" summarizing
current research on a specific psychological phenomenon.
b. Purpose: Literature reviews help researchers synthesize existing
knowledge, identify key concepts, and understand the theoretical
landscape of their research area.
4) Statistical M ethods Books:
a. Example: "Statistical Methods for the Social Sciences" by Alan Agresti
and Barbara Finlay.
b. Purpose: Researchers may consult books on statistical methods to
understand and choose appropriate statistical techniques for data
analysis.
5) Ethics Guidelines:
a. Example: Ethical guidelines from institutions such as the American
Psychological Association (APA) or the World Medical Association (WMA).

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b. Purpose: Researchers read ethical guidelines to ensure their research

conforms to ethical standards, especially when dealing with human
subjects or sensitive data.
6) Research Instrument M anuals:
a. Example: User manuals for survey tools, interview guides, or
experimental protocols.
b. Purpose: Researchers refer to manuals to ensure they are using research
instruments correctly and consistently during data collection.
7) Case Studies:
a. Example: A case study in a business journal analysing the
implementation of a particular strategy.
b. Purpose: Case studies offer real-world examples that can be valuable for
researchers using qualitative methodologies, providing insights into
context, processes, and outcomes.
8) Policy Reports:
a. Example: A government report on education policies.
b. Purpose: Researchers studying the impact of policies may read reports
to understand the broader context and implications of policy
decisions.
9) M eta-Analyses:
a. Example: A meta-analysis in a medical journal aggregating findings from
multiple clinical trials.
b. Purpose: Meta-analyses provide researchers with a systematic overview
of existing research, helping to quantify the overall effect of an
intervention or phenomenon.
10) Thematic Books or Theoretical W orks:
a. Example: "The Theory of Planned Behavior" by Icek Ajzen.
b. Purpose: Researchers interested in theoretical frameworks may read
books that delve into specific theories relevant to their research
topic.

These examples highlight the diverse range of reading materials researchers may
engage with to develop a solid foundation for their research methodology and design.
The key is to select materials that align with the specific goals and requirements of
the research project.
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Reviewing & Rethinking In Research Methodology

Reviewing and Rethinking are critical processes within the research methodology
that involve a systematic examination of various aspects of the research. These
activities help researchers ensure the quality, validity, and relevance of their work.
Key aspects:
I. Reviewing:
a. Literature Review: The literature review is a crucial component of the
research process. Researchers review existing literature to identify
relevant theories, concepts, and findings related to their research
topic. This helps in establishing the theoretical framework and
understanding the current state of knowledge in the field.
b. Research Design and Methodology: Before implementing a study,
researchers review and critically assess their chosen research design and
methodology. This includes evaluating the appropriateness of the
selected methods, sampling techniques, and data collection
instruments. The goal is to ensure that the chosen approach aligns
with the research questions and objectives.
c. Data Quality and Analysis Plan: Once data is collected, researchers
review its quality, checking for accuracy and consistency .
Additionally, they review and refine the data analysis plan, ensuring that
it aligns with the research questions and is appropriate for the type
of data collected.
d. Ethical Review: Researchers review their research protocols to ensure
ethical considerations are met. This involves evaluating the treatment of
human subjects, ensuring informed consent, and addressing any
potential ethical concerns.

II. Rethinking:
a. Revisiting Research Questions: Researchers may rethink and refine their
research questions based on the insights gained during the literature
review or preliminary data analysis. This ensures that the questions
are focused, clear, and aligned w ith the research objectives.
b. Methodological Adjustments: If initial data collection or analysis reveals
challenges or limitations, researchers may rethink their methodology.
This could involve adjusting the research design, sampling strategy,
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or data collection methods to address issues and enhance the

study's validity.
c. Data Interpretation: During the analysis phase, researchers may rethink
their interpretation of findings. They critically assess whether the
results support or challenge existing theories, and they consider
alternative explanations for observed patterns.
d. Theory Modification: Rethinking may extend to the theoretical framework.
If new insights emerge during the study, researchers may modify or
refine the theoretical framework to better explain the observed
phenomena.
e. Reflection on Assumptions: Researchers should constantly reflect on their
assumptions and biases. Rethinking involves acknowledging and, if
necessary, adjusting any preconceptions that might influence the
research process or interpretation of results.
f. Piloting and Iterative Processes: In some cases, researchers may rethink
aspects of their study based on the outcomes of pilot studies or early
data collection. This iterative process allows for adjustments before full-
scale implementation.

Reviewing and rethinking are ongoing and iterative processes in research. They
ensure that researchers remain flexible, responsive to emerging insights, and
committed to producing rigorous and valid results. By actively engaging in these
processes, researchers enhance the overall quality and impact of their research.

Ethics in research
Ethics in research is a fundamental aspect that ensures the integrity, reliability, and
well-being of both researchers and participants involved in the research process.
Ethical considerations are critical at every stage of research, from the design and
implementation to the reporting and publication of results. Here are some key
principles and considerations related to ethics in research:
1. Informed Consent:
a. Researchers must obtain voluntary and informed consent from
participants before involving them in a study.
b. Participants should be provided with clear information about the purpose
of the study, potential risks and benefits, and their right to withdraw at
any time without facing negative consequences.

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2. Privacy and Confidentiality:

a. Researchers must take steps to protect the privacy and confidentiality of
participants. This includes using anonymised data whenever possible
and ensuring that individuals cannot be identified in research reports or
publications.
3. Beneficence and Non-M aleficence:
a. Researchers should aim to maximize benefits and minimize harm to
participants. The potential benefits of the research should justify any
potential risks or discomfort experienced by participants.
4. Justice:
a. Researchers should ensure that the benefits and burdens of research are
distributed fairly among different groups in society. This includes
avoiding exploitation and ensuring that vulnerable populations are not
disproportionately burdened.
5. Integrity and Honesty:
a. Researchers must conduct their work with integrity and honesty,
accurately representing their methods, results, and conclusions. This
includes avoiding plagiarism, fabrication, and falsification of data.
6. Respect for Participants:
a. Researchers should treat participants with respect, acknowledging their
autonomy and dignity. They should be sensitive to cultural differences
and avoid any form of discrimination.
7. Social Responsibility:
a. Researchers have a responsibility to consider the broader impact of their
research on society. This includes considering the potential applications
and implications of their work and conducting research that contributes
positively to the well-being of individuals and communities.
8. Animal W elfare:
a. When research involves animals, researchers must adhere to ethical
guidelines that prioritize the welfare of the animals. This includes
minimizing harm, using alternatives when possible, and obtaining
necessary approvals from ethical review boards.

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9. Transparent Reporting:
a. Researchers should provide clear and transparent reporting of their
methods, results, and conclusions. This allows for the replication of
studies and contributes to the cumulative knowledge in the field.
10. Ethical Review:
a. Research involving human participants must undergo ethical review by
an institutional review board (IRB) or ethics committee. This ensures that
the research meets ethical standards and guidelines.

Adherence to these ethical principles helps maintain the trust and credibility of the
research community and ensures that the benefits of research are achieved without
causing undue harm to individuals or communities. Researchers are often required
to follow ethical guidelines set by institutions, professional organizations, and funding
agencies.

APA Ethics code.

The American Psychological Association (APA) has established a comprehensive set
of ethical guidelines known as the "Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of
Conduct" (APA Ethics Code). These guidelines are designed to ensure the ethical
conduct of psychologists in various professional settings, including research. The APA
Ethics Code provides a framework for responsible behavior, protecting participants,
promoting integrity, and maintaining the public's trust in psychological research.
Here are some key principles from the APA Ethics Code relevant to research
methodology:
1. Informed Consent (Standard 3.10):
a. Psychologists are required to obtain informed consent from research
participants. Participants must be provided with information about the
purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits of the research, and they should
have the opportunity to ask questions and withdraw from the study at
any time.
2. Voluntary Participation (Standard 3.11):
a. Psychologists must ensure that participation in research is voluntary and
that participants are not coerced or unduly influenced to participate.

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3. Deception in Research (Standard 8.07):

a. Psychologists are expected to use deception in research only when it is
justified and when alternative procedures are not feasible. When
deception is used, psychologists must provide a debriefing to participants
as soon as possible.
4. Confidentiality (Standard 4.01):
a. Psychologists must maintain the confidentiality of information obtained
from research participants. Researchers should take steps to protect
participants' privacy, and any disclosure of confidential information
should be done with the participant's explicit consent or as required by
law.
5. Protection of Participants from Harm (Standards 8.02 and 8.08):
a. Psychologists must take steps to minimize harm and avoid causing
unnecessary discomfort to research participants. If harm is
anticipated, psychologists are obligated to discuss this with participants
during the informed consent process.
6. Use of Animals in Research (Standard 8.09):
a. When conducting research involving animals, psychologists must follow
ethical guidelines for the humane treatment of animals. They are
required to ensure proper housing, care, and use of animals, and to
consider alternative procedures that do not involve animals whenever
possible.
7. Reporting of Research Results (Standard 8.10):
a. Psychologists are obligated to accurately and honestly report their
research results. They should not fabricate, falsify, or selectively
report data.
8. Responsibility to Society (Standard 3.04):
a. Psychologists have a responsibility to contribute to the well-being of
society through their research. This includes conducting research that is
beneficial and avoiding actions that could harm individuals or
communities.
9. Professional Competence (Standard 2.01):
a. Psychologists must conduct research within the boundaries of their
competence. If researchers lack the necessary expertise in a

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particular area, they should seek supervision or collaborate with

experts.
10. Ethical Review (Standard 8.01):
a. Psychologists are encouraged to seek ethical advice and review from
institutional review boards (IRBs) or ethics committees. IRB approval is
often required before conducting research involving human
participants.

Researchers are expected to be familiar with the APA Ethics Code and
incorporate its principles into their research practices. Adherence to these ethical
guidelines helps maintain the integrity of psychological research and promotes the
well-being of participants and the broader society.

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