THE HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM 1

NEURONS: THE BASIC ELEMENTS OF BEHAVIOR

The nervous system is the pathway for the instructions that permit our bodies to carry out such precise
activities. To understand how it is able to exert such exacting control, we begin by examining NEURONS (or
NERVE CELLS), the basic parts of the nervous system, and considering how nerve impulses are transmitted
throughout the brain and body.

1. Dendrites (comes from a Greek root word meaning “tree”) are branching fibers that get narrower
near their ends. The dendrite’s surface is lined with specialized synaptic receptors, at which the
dendrite receives information from other neurons. The greater the surface area of a dendrite, the
more information it can receive. Many dendrites contain dendritic spines, short outgrowths that
increase the surface area available for synapses.
2. Cell Body or Soma contains the nucleus, ribosomes, and mitochondria. Like the dendrites, the cell
body is covered with synapses on its surface in many neurons.
3. Nucleus of a neuron is an oval shaped membrane-bound structure found in the soma or body of the
neuron. It contains the nucleolus and chromosomes, necessary for the coded production of proteins
within the cell.
4. Axon (comes from a Greek word meaning “axis”) is a thin fiber of constant diameter. The axon
conveys an impulse toward other neurons, an organ, or a muscle.
5. Myelin Sheath is an insulating layer that forms around the nerves. It is made up of protein and fatty
substances. It allows electrical impulses to transmit quickly and efficiently along the nerve cells. If
myelin is damaged, these impulses slow down.
6. Nodes of Ranvier periodic gap in the insulating sheath (myelin) on the axon of certain neurons that
serves to facilitate the rapid conduction of nerve impulses. These interruptions in the myelin covering
were first discovered in 1878 by French histologist and pathologist Louis-Antoine Ranvier, who
described the nodes as constrictions.
7. Schwann Cells also called neurilemma cells, are any of the cells in the peripheral nervous system that
produce the myelin sheath around neuronal axons. A myelinating Schwann cell wraps around a single
axon.
8. Axon Terminal is the very end of a branch of a nerve's axon, a long slender nerve fiber that conducts
electrical signals to a nerve synapse (the gap between nerve cells). The signal then moves across the
synapse to another axon by means of a neurotransmitter (an electrochemical substance).

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TYPES OF NEURONS
A. According to Number of Processes
1. Unipolar. Typically sensory neurons with receptors located within the skin, joints, muscles, and
internal organs In addition to pain and touch, they also carry information about temperature,
taste, proprioception (body position) and visceral organ activity.
2. Pseudo-unipolar is a kind of sensory neuron in the peripheral nervous system. This neuron contains
an axon that has split into two branches; one branch runs to the periphery and the other to the
spinal cord.
3. Bipolar. Has two extensions (one axon and one dendrite). This are specialized sensory neurons for
the transmission of special senses. As such, they are part of the sensory pathways for smell, sight,
taste, hearing and vestibular functions.
4. Multipolar is a type of neuron that possesses a single axon and many dendrites, allowing for the
integration of a great deal of information from other neurons. These processes are projections from
the nerve cell body.

B. According to Function
1. Sensory (or Afferent) Neurons are nerve cells within the nervous system responsible for converting
external stimuli from the organism's environment into internal electrical impulses.
2. Interneuron (or Association) Neurons are found exclusively in the central nervous system. It passes
signals between neurons.
3. Motor (or Efferent) Neurons whose cell body is located in the motor cortex, brainstem or the spinal
cord, and whose axon (fiber) projects to the spinal cord or outside of the spinal cord to directly or
indirectly control effector organs, mainly muscles and glands.

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SYNAPSE
 Junctions between the neurons
 Functional connection

TYPES OF SYNAPSE
1. Axosomatic synapse. One between the axon of one neuron and the body of another.
2. Axodendritic synapse. One between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites of another.
3. Axoaxonic synapse. One between the axon of one neuron and the axon of another neuron.

NEUROGLIA (or GLIAL CELLS)

 Cells in the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system

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 Play the role of supportive cells to neurons, which are responsible for all nervous system
functions
 Form a support network for the brain
 More glial cells than nerve cells in the brain cells

TYPES OF NEUROGLIA
A. Found in CNS
1. Astrocytes/Astroglia. They provide protection and support to neurons, exchanging nutrients and
other important chemicals. Astro is the Greek root word for “star.” They have many cell
extensions called processes, used for chemical exchanges that branch out like the points of stars.
These processes connect with neurons, other types of tissue such as blood vessels in the
brain or spine, or importantly, the blood brain barrier. The blood brain barrier is a protective
membrane surrounding the spine and brain. The blood brain barrier allows small molecules such
as respiratory gases to pass through, while blocking anything larger.

2. Oligodendrocytes/Oligodendroglia. They wrap around the axons of CNS neurons to provide

electrical insulation called myelin sheaths. This allows the signal to move quickly enough for
proper functioning. In many neurodegenerative diseases, the myelin sheaths are damaged.
For example, multiple sclerosis is a chronic autoimmune disease in which the immune
system mistakenly attacks and scars the myelin sheaths. These scars slow the signals of the
affected neurons. Depending on where in the CNS the neurons are, symptoms can include
problems with movement, sensation and speech, among others.

3. Ependymal cells. Partitioned by the blood brain barrier, the brain and spine need their own kind of
circulatory fluid. This clear fluid is called cerebrospinal fluid, or CSF for short.
These cells line the empty cavities called ventricles in the brain and have access to nearby
blood vessels. They filter some of the materials out of the vessels to manufacture CSF and then use
their cilia to circulate it through the empty ventricles and into the rest of the CNS.

4. Microglia/Mesoglia . The final type of glial cell are small ones. Like macrophages in the blood,
they surround and digest damaged or invading cells. They are considered the immune cells of the
CNS.

B. Found in PNS
1. Satellite cells function to provide nutrients and protection to neurons in the PNS. A satellite glial
cell wraps itself around the neuron’s cell body. The cell body is a rounded section that contains the
nucleus and other key organelles common to most somatic cells.
2. Schwann cells wrap themselves around the axons of neurons in the PNS. The axon is the long, thin
part of the neuron, along which the electrical signal passes. The Schwann cell forms a protective
layer called the myelin sheath – this operates like the insulated coating on electrical wiring.
Without it, the electrical signal can be disrupted, slowed or stopped altogether.

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