STRESS AND STRAIN

RELATIONSHIP

Stress
● One of the most basic test is Tension test in which specimen is subjected to an axial
load P and its deflection δ is noted.
● Stress - Depends on axial force and Cross sectional area of the specimen.
● σ =P/ A
Where σ is the engineering stress and A is the initial area.
● We did this to make it independent of the Cross Sectional Area.

Strain
● Hooke’s Law:
P=kδ
Where k is the stiffness of the material.
● ε =δ / L
Where ε is the engineering strain and L is the initial length.
● We did this to make it independent of the length of the specimen..
● So by Hooke’s Law, we get:
σ =Eε
 Where E is the Young’s Modulus.
E=kL/ A
Poisson Effect
● A positive Strain in one direction will induce a negative Strain in other
directions.
● So the Poisson’s ratio is defined as :
Poisson’s Ratio,
⋎ =−ε lateral /ε longitudanal

● Since Strain is a linear quantity it follows Principle of Superposition.

● Compressibility of the material,
K=−p /(△ V /V )
Where p is the hydrostatic pressure and V is the volume and ΔV is the decrease in
volume.
● Compressibility of the material is also related to Poisson’s ratio as
K=E /3(1−2 ⋎ )
For isotropic materials.

Shearing Stress and Strain

● Shear Stress,
T =P/ A

● Txy indicates stress in x plane in y direction.

● To maintain equilibrium there must be 4 shear stresses :Txy in +x and -x
plane and Tyx in +y and -y plane with T x y =T yx
❑

● Shear strain accompanying the Shear stress is defined as :

 δ / L=tan γ ≃γ
for small angle deflections.
● And similarly,
T =Gγ
Where G is Shear Modulus.
For isotropic materials,
G=E /2(1+γ )

True Stress
● Although we see that the engineering stress achieves a maximum but in
case of true stress it keeps on increasing as engineering stress is
Load/Initial Area while true stress is Load/Actual Area.
● The Area which we assumed to be constant for smaller loads becomes
significantly smaller which can not be ignored. So while we decrease the
load only engineering stress decreases while true stress keeps on
increasing thus increasing the value of strain.
● Due to some defects in the specimen the true stress have higher value at
some places on body than the other which causes the decreasing area of
that part more vigorously than the other part causing Necking.

Enthalpic Response
● Assuming, the changes we brought doesn’t contribute to the entropic
changes, we get
dU =dW =fdx
● We know that there are two types of forces at intramolecular level :
attractive and repulsive. So
2
U attractive =−AC e /r
and
n
U repulsive =B /r
● We can get value of ro, bond length by solving dU /dr=0
● On further simplification we get the value of Elastic Modulus varies as 1/ro4.
● On addition of heat the system oscillates increasing the average
separation, to some approximation the relative thermal expansion is
linearly related to △T.

Entropic Response
● There are a lot of conformational structure possibles for a molecule such
that the internal energy of all the conformers is same. So, more the no. of
conformers more will be the Entropy.
● dW =−TdS or Δ W V =△ S V
● We use “random walk” Gaussian distribution function which helps us to
tells us the probability that the other end of the chain is at a distance r as
Ω(r)=¿

Where
β=√ ❑
Where n is the number of bonds in the segment and a is the bond length.
● Let Ω1 be the probability function at the initial stage and Ω2 be the probability function
at the final stage and λX, λY and λZ be the stretches in the corresponding direction then
2 2 2
△ S=k ln (Ω2 /Ω1)=−k ( λ X + λY + λ Z −3)/2
So, we get
2 2 2
W V =NkT ( λ X + λY + λ Z −3)/2
● Now for ΔV=0 we get
 ❑ ❑ ❑
λ X λ Y λ Z =1
❑ ❑ ❑ ❑
So taking λ X = λ❑we get λ Y =λ Z =1/ √ ❑
And
❑ ❑2
F=dW / dL= A 0 NkT (2 λ❑ −2/ λ❑ )/ 2
❑

Or
2❑
σ =NkT ( λ−1 /λ ❑ )

AXIAL IMPACT ON FLEXIBLE

BODIES
● It generates Longitudinal waves.
● The wave is reflected from the boundary at some distance from Impact Point.
● Reflected wave is a coherent stress pulse undiminished in Amplitude.
● Time of Impact : It is the transit time between Impact and distal surface.
● If the outgoing stress wave encounters boundaries that are not normal to the
direction of propagation, the wave will be reflected not towards Impact point.

LONGITUDINAL WAVE IN UNIFORM ELASTIC BAR

Cross Section area - A Axial Stress - u(x , t)
Elastic Modulus - E
Density - ρ

Hooke’s Law

Co - Bar Velocity

f , g are arbitrary functions η=x−c t , ε=x +ct

No force is required to maintain the waveform

INITIAL CONDITIONS
Prescribed displacement u(x , 0)=h(x )

Zero velocity - =0

So we get - f (x)=g (x)−h(x )

f (η)=h (η)
g(ε)=h(ε)

ZERO DISPLACEMENT AND PRESCRIBED VELOCITY

u(x , 0)=0As the displacement is zero, So we get

FORCE F0 SUDDENLY APPLIED TO END OF FINITE

LENGTH BAR

Since disturbance from outgoing source g(ε)=0

for x < COt

This gives

Also
[ ] represents discontinuities
The above equation is or wavefront propagating in the positive x direction.

REFLECTION OF STRESS WAVE FROM FREE END

Constant FO is suddenly applied to one end of a free elastic bar.

σ =ρ/ A moves away from loaded end with speed CO; behind the wavefront.

An arbitrary stress wave distribution f (x−C t )emanating from x=0 has following general
solution

If the stress pulse is reflected from free end, then the solution will be

The strain at x=L and at any time t must be zero gives

So finally,

DEFORMATION AND STRESSES

OF CYLINDERS
Elastic Deformation
It is reversible , once the forces are no longer applied object returns to its original shape
σ (stress)=Eε (strain)
Plastic Deformation
1 Strain hardening - material becomes stronger through movement of items .
2 Necking - reduction in cross sectional area after UTS is reached after this strain
decreases rapidly.

Axial Stress
If we split the cylinder along the
length there is force along its walls .
 r 2
ρπ D
F=∫ 2 ρπrdr =
0 4
A=πDt
(Area approx rectangle , thickness t )

F ρD
(Axial stress ) σ b= =
A 4t

Buckling
A process by which structure cannot withstand loads with original shape,
so it changes shape in order to find new equilibrium .

If a cylindrical shell simply supported at the ends is uniformly compressed in axial

direction as shown .
The general solution for very small displacement
mxn
u=Asin (nθ)cos ( )
H
A - constant
H - height of the cylindrical shell
m,n - buckling no. of half waves

VISCOELASTICITY
Some materials exhibit a combination of enthalpic and entropic mechanical
response.This kind of behaviour is called viscoelasticity.As not all polymers are
viscoelastic to any practical extent,the linear theory provides a suitable approximation
for many applications in polymer and composites engineering.
Rate of Conformational Change
● When stress is applied to polymers may deform by both entropic and enthalpic
response
● The lengths and angles may deform to higher internal energy very quickly
● Depending on the mobility, a polymer molecule can extend itself in the direction
of the applied stress, which decreases its entropy.
● The conformational are processes whose rates are sensitive to the local
molecular mobility.

These rates of conformational change be described by

 rate α exp(−E /RT )
where E is an apparent activation energy of the process. At temperatures much above
the Tg , the rates are so fast as the polymer acts in a rubbery manner in which it exhibits
large, instantaneous, and fully reversible strains in response to an applied stress.

In the range near Tg, the material is midway between the glassy and rubbery regimes.
Its response is a combination of viscous fluidity and elastic solidity.

The Boltzmann Superposition Integral

The stress-strain relations for viscoelastic materials can be written as either di fferential
or integral equations. if the strain due to a stress is and that due to a
different stress is , then the strain due to both stresses is
.

Consider the strain at time t due to the application of a small stress ∆σ1 applied at a time
ξ previous to t .

Similarly for second strain

As the number of applied strain increments increases so as to approach a continuous

distribution total strain becomes