Missouri University of Science and Technology

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International Specialty Conference on Cold- (1988) - 9th International Specialty Conference on
Formed Steel Structures Cold-Formed Steel Structures

Nov 8th

Some Studies on Cold-formed Steel Sections with

Web Openings
K. S. Sivakumaran

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 Ninth International Specialty Conference on Cold-Formed Steel Structures
St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.A., November 8-9, 1988

SOME STUDIES ON COLD-FORMED STEEL SECTIONS WITH WEB OPENINGS

KoS_ Sivakumaran*

ABSTRACT

This paper concerns with the influence of a web opening on the (a) strength of
compressive elements and (b) web crippling strength of cold-formed steel sections. The first
part of the paper summarizes the relevent provisions as given in the corresponding Canadian
design standard. Then the problem has been examined through experimental research on C-
shaped lipped channel section. 48 stub column tests were carried out on sections with a web
opening of various sizes and shapes and the load-deflection relationships and ultimate loads
were established. 103 web crippling tests on specimens with web openings subjected to
interior one flange loading condition also were undertaken. This paper briefly describes the
above tests procedures and presents the observed ultimate strengths. The parameter,
covered in this study include opening size, opening shape and web slenderness. Based on
these results prediction equations for the influence of a web opening have been derived using
non-linear least square curve fitting technique. The author's observations and conclusions
based on these investigations have been included at the end of the paper.

1. INTRODUCTION

The use of cold-formed thin-walled steel members in civil engineering applications

has been increasing in recent years primarily due to its high strength· to-weight ratio and
high stiffness-to-weight ratio compared to other traditional civil engineering materials such
as concrete, masonry, timber, etc. However, a major design consideration with such thin-
walled members is the resistance against the local instability of plate elements when
subjected to compressive, shearing, bending and bearing loads. Unlike, the design of hot-
rolled steel members where buckling constitutes a failure, the design of cold-formed steel
members includes the post-local buckling strength. In fact, the actual strength (including
post-buckling strength) of cold-formed steel members can be many times larger than the
actual buckling loads. Thus, in order to achieve maximum benefit it is necessary to include
the post-buckling strength in design. However, in developing such a design guidelines, a
theoretical analysis of cold-formed steel members, including post-buckling strength, is rather
complicated because it may include the following factors: (a) non-uniform stress distribution
under the applied loads, (b) possibility of elastic and inelastic instability, (c) initial
imperfections, and (d) various edge restraints provided by elements (flanges, web, lips, etc.)
and the interaction between them. Primarily for this reason, the present day design
provisions [1,4,51, which involve post-buckling strength, are based on experimental
investigations. Two such provisions, which are relevant to the subject matter discussed in
this paper, are the ones dealing with the design of compressive elements and the other in
regards to the design of unreinforced web of member against web crippling. In Canada, the
design of buildings using cold-formed steel members is governed by "Cold Formed Steel
Structural Members, CAN3-S136-M84" published by Canadian Standards Association [5].

* Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering and Engineering Mechanics,

McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, CANADA L8S 4L7

513
 514

For the benefit of the reader, the aforementioned two provisions as given in the Canadian
standard have been summarized below

1.1 Strength of Compressive Elements

The strength (including post-buckling strength) of individual compressive thin plate

element can be efficiently calculated using the effective width concept first proposed by Von
Karman et al. [10]. However, the effective width postulated by Von Karman et al. [10] was
later found to be unsafe for plates which exhibit inelastic buckling mode offailure. Hence, the
Von Karman's effective width formulation was modified by many investigators based
primarily upon the results of experimental studies. Excellent reviews of various theoretical
and experimental studies on the effective width of plates can be found in a report by Roorda
and Venkataramiah [8] and in a book byYu [9]. The CAN3-S13S-M84 [5] effective width
formulae for compressive elements grew out of essentially the experimental work of Winter
[11]. Accordingly, in CAN3-S13S-M84 [5] the compressive elements are considered fully
effective up to a limiting value of flat width Wjim given by

(1)
W j1m
./t=0.S44v'kE/f

For compressive elements with flat width W larger than Wlim, the flat width W shall be
replaced by an effecti ve width B gi ven by

(2)
kE [
BIt = 0.950 v' -
0.208 kE
1 - - - v' -
1- R
f (WIt) f

In equations (1) and (2), f is the maximum stress in the compressive element computed on the
basis of the effective width and not exceeding F y. The value of k reflects the edge conditions
and taken as k = 4.0 for stiffened compressive elements and k = 0.5 for unstiffened
compressive elements. The value of R, which reflects the flexibility of unusually wide
compression elements (W/t:2: SO) that are not stiffened at each edges by means of either a web
or flange, shall be taken as R = 0.1 (W/t)-S. When more than one element of a section is
subjected to compressive load, the strength of the section may be obtained by summing the
strength of individual compressive thin elements.

1.2 Web Crippling Strength

The safe design load to avoid web crippling may be calculated using the clause S.4.7 of
the Code CAN3-S13S-M84 [5]. The code [5] provides separate equations for the web crippling
resistances of unreinforced sections such as built up sections (I-beams sections made of two
channels back-to-back or similar sections), shapes having single web (channel and Z-sections)
and multiple web sections (hat or deck sections). In addition, equations have been provided
for both one- and two-flange loading and for both end and interior load locations.
Incidentally, for the case of shapes having single web and subjected to end one-flange loading
or reaction, the code [5] gives two equations, one for sections having stiffened flanges and the
other for sections having unstiffened flanges. So, in general, there are altogether 13
equations. For instance, the factored web crippling strength of unreinforced C-shaped
channel section subjected to interior one-flange loading may be calculated as
 515

Pr = <1>5 16t2 Fy (1.22 - 0.22 k) (1.06 - 0.06 R) (1 + 0.007 N)t (1 - 0.0014 Hl (3)
The equation (3) for web crippling resistance grew out of essentially the experimental work by
Hetrakul and Yu [7]. Hence, limits have been placed on the various parameters to reflect the
experimental limitations. Thus, the equation (3) applies only when RS;4, NS;200, and nlhs;l

1.3 Objective and Scope of the Investigation

The code [5] provisions for the compressive element resistance and web crippling
resistance are strictly applicable to cold-formed steel sections without any web opening.
However, often in practice, openings are either pre-punched or punched on-site on the web
and/or flange of the cold-formed steel sections in order to pass through conduits, duct work,
etc. When such openings are provided the resistances of such members can only be obtained
by conducting performance tests in accordance with the procedures described in CAN3-S136-
M84 [5], which obviously results in an increase in cost. Thus, the objective of this
investigation is to gather experimental data on the strength of cold-formed steel sections with
opening, with a view to developing prediction equations for the resistances of such sections.
The experimental investigation consisted of two parts. One dealt with the influence of an
opening on the strength of compressive elements and the other dealt with the influence of an
opening on the web crippling strength of channel sections subjected to interior one flange
loading. The former consisted of a total of 48 stub column tests and the latter consisted of 103
web crippling tests. The study addressed the important parameters such as (a) opening size
(b) opening shape (c) web slenderness. The next two sections briefly describe the test
procedures and the test results while the last two sections document the author's observations
and conclusions. Further details on the investigation discussed in this paper can be found in
Ref. [3, 12].

2. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
2.1 Test Specimens

All specimens were cut to length from C-shaped lipped channel cold-formed steel
members supplied by a local manufacturer. Figure 1 shows such a cross- section along with
the geometric notations that have been used in the paper. The geometric dimensions and the
mechanical properties of the sections described in this paper are listed in Table 1. The
sections which are termed as A through E were chosen such that to have a wide range of web
slenderness (web height/thickness ratio). The corresponding values have also been shown in
Table 1. Ww , Wrand We in Table 1 and in Figure 1 are the flat widths, which means the width
of an element exclusive of rounded corners. As shown in Figure I, the internal radius of the
corners of these sections is roughly 2 times the base metal thickness. Table 1 also shows the
base metal thicknesses which have been obtained in accordance with ASTM test procedures
[2]. Specimens of series A and B were used in stub column tests, thus the lengths of the
specimens were chosen such as to satisfy the stub column test procedures described in Ref. [6].
Specimen series C, D and E were used in web cripping tests. The lengths of these specimens
were such that they satisfy the code CAN3-Sl36-M84 [5] requirements for one flange interior
loading conditions. The remaining column in Table 1 gives the yield strength F y of the flat
walls of the sections. These values are the weighted average of the strengths of standard
tensile coupons taken longitudinally from each flat portion (web and two flanges) of the
section. As expected, the steel exhibited gradual yielding and 0.2% offset method was used to

When N>60 the factor (1 + 0.007 N) may be increased to (0.75 + 0.011 N)

 516

TABLEt

Properties of the Specimens*

Specimen Ww Wr We t Ww/t L Fy
Series (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (MPa)

A 83 32 8 1.60 52 200 341

B 145 34 9 1.29 112 265 262

C 197 32 8 1.52 130 770 337

D 148 29 7 0.91 163 620 270

E 88 34 9 1.22 72 432 260

*-lmm = 0.039 inch; 1 MPa = 0.145 ksi

t
+ +

I_ Wf .. I
FIGURE 1. Typical Cross Section of a C-shaped lipped channel section.
 517

define the yield stress. The specimens under consideration contained various sizes and shapes
of web openings. The dimensions of the cut-outs are shown in Tables 2 and 3 along with the
test results. The type of openings under discussion can also be seen in Figures 2 and 3 which
show the permanent deformation shapes of the specimens of the stub column tests and of the
web crippling tests respectively. The manufacturer ofthese sections usually pre-punches oval
shaped openings and the test program included these openings as well. In order to obtain
reliable results the tests were repeated on three identical specimens.

2.2 Test Procedure and Results

2.2.1 Strength of Compressive Elements

In this part of the test program stub column tests were performed as a means of
studying the strength of compressive elements with opening. The tests were conducted on the
channel sections described before in accordance with the stub column test procedures
described in Ref. [6]. A total of 48 (16 groups X three identical specimens) stub columns were
tested accordingly. The specimens were well aligned (see Ref. [6] for necessary conditions for
alignment) so that the specimens may be subjected to concentric loading. The alignment was
facilitated by the use of strain gauges. The strain gauges were helpful in detecting buckling
loads as well. The results of which are not given here but may be found in Ref. [3]. In order to
document the extent of the local deformations, including out-of-plane and axial, the
displacements were measured at strategic points. Typically, the stub column tests consisted
of the following steps. The well prepared specimen was placed on the testing machine and
was centered. The necessary dial gauges and displacement transducers were placed at the
appropriate locations. Small increments of loads were applied and the readings were
recorded, until the peak load was reached. Beyond the peak load, though the readings may
not be accurate, displacements were recorded as the load dropped off. Tests were terminated
once the specimen exhibited the exaggerated buckled shape (see Figure 2).

Table 2 shows the experimental ultimate loads of the specimens under consideration.
The table also shows the opening shape and the size. The failure load as shown in Table 2 is
the average of the maximum loads recorded during the tests on three identical specimens.
The results on three identical specimens showed excellent consistency As a matter of fact,
the maximum deviation of any individual test result from the mean value of three identical
specimens is less than 3%. A study of the results given in Table 2, indicates that the ultimate
load capacity decreases with increasing opening sizes. Comparison of the results of specimens
having comparable size of circular and square hole indicates that the shape of the cut-out does
not influence the strength significantly. Table 2 also shows the ultimate strengths of the
specimens (without opening) calculated using CAN3-S136-M84 [5] provisions (equations (1)
and (2)). The calculated values are in general more than the experimental ultimate loads.
The load versus out-of-plane deflections and load versus axial shortening relationships were
also plotted for all the specimens (which are not shown here but may be found in Ref. [3] and
on the average, the out-of-plane deflections at the ultimate load levels were about 1.5 times
the thickness of the member.

2.2.2 Web Crippling Strength

In this part of the test program simple beam tests were performed as a means of
studying the web crippling strength of interior one flange loaded members with web opening.
A special test rig was constructed for this study and Figure 4 shows the test arrangement. By
this arrangement two equal loads were applied at the ends of the sample while the entire
sample was supported at the mid span. This particular arrangement was necessitated in
 518

TABLE 2

Stub Column Test Results*

Specimen Opening Dimensions Experimental Failure Load

Series (CAN3-S136-M84 Ultimate Load)
(opening shape) a (mm) b(mm) [kN]

A 0 0 85.3 (89.6)

A 17 17 85.8
(Circular)
A 17 17 84.7
(Square)
A 33 33 81.7
(Circular)
A 33 33 816
(Square)
A 50 50 78.1
(Circular)
A 50 50 77.6
(Square)
A 38 102 72.6
(oval)t
B 0 0 54.0 (56.3)

B 29 29 54.0
(Circular)
B 29 29 53.2
(Square)
B 58 58 53.4
(Circular)
B 58 58 51.0
(Square)
B 87 87 47.1
(Circular)
B 87 87 47.0
(Square)
B 38 102 51.6
(oval)t

*- Imm = 0.039 inch; 1 kN = 0.225 kips;

t - manufacturer's pre-punched opening
 519

FIGURE 2. Stub Column Test Specimens Afer Failure

FIGURE 3. Web Crippling Test Specimens After Failure

 LOAD
~
, REACTION FRAME , SAMPLE
------JACK

~
o

WOODEN BLOCK
" REACTION BLOCK

FIGURE 4. The!Web Crippling Test Arrangement

 521

order to (a) fulfill the interior one flange condition as given in CAN3-S136-M84 [5J and to
assure failure at the interior support location (b) avoid the possibility of out-of-web plane
loads that may be caused by the rotation of loading blocks due to excessive flange curling (c)
reduce the overall rotational instability. Due ot the geometry of loading, shown in Figure 4, it
is impossible to produce a web crippling load test setup without at least some influence of
bending moment. However, the test moment ratio (maximum test moment/computed
ultimate moment capacity) was found to be less than 0.3, which is the maximum ratio below
which the interaction between web crippling and bending moment is negligible [7J. Typically,
the web crippling tests consisted of the following steps. Once the specimen has been placed on
the test rig it was levelled horizontally, prior to and after placing of a stiff steel beam through
which the test load was transmitted to the specimen via end loading blocks. A nominal
confining horizontal axial force was also applied using a hydraulic jack, which further
stabilized the specimen. Now, the test load was applied in small increments using a fixed
head Tinius-Olson universal testing machine. By virtue of the loading arrangement, the
whole specimen would move downwards, which was facilitated by the use of·rollers at the
ends. Out-of-plane deflections of the web and the vertical deflections of flanges were
monitored using displacement transducers (LVDT). Generally, the test was terminated once
the peak load is reached, but occasionally the test was continued until the specimen exhibited
permanent deformed shapes, as shown in Figure 3. A total of 103 (24 groups X three identical
specimens and 31 single specimens) web crippling tests were performed accordingly, under
this test program.

Table 3 shows the experimental interior one flange web crippling ultimate loads of the
channel section specimens under consideration. The table also shows the opening sizes, which
were primarily rectangular in shape. Failure loads as shown in Table 3 are the average of the
failure loads ofthree identical specimens. The cases where only one specimen was tested ha ve
been clearly identified in the table. The results on three identical specimens showed excellent
consistency. In fact, the spread of any individual test result from the average value was found
to be less than 3%. Thus, the results based on a signal specimen can also be treated with
confidence. As expected, the results in Table 3 show that the ultimate load capacity decreases
with increasing opening sizes. Table 3 also shows the calculated ultimate strengths. These
values are the unfactored web crippling resistances (Pr/<Ps) and have been calculated for
specimens without opening, using equation (3) of this paper. The code [5J values are in
general 15% less than the experimental ultimate loads. The load verses out-of-plane
deflection relationships were also obtained, but for brevity they have not been included in this
paper but may be found in Ref. [12J.

3. OBSERVATIONS

In evaluating the experimental results, first of all they have been compared with the
ultimate loads calculated using the CAN3-S136-M84 [5J provisions. Then, a prediction
equation has been developed based on non-linear least square best fit of the current
experimental data.

3.1 Strength of Compression Elements

In the case of sections without any openings, Table 2 shows both the experimental
ultimate loads and the CAN3-S136-M84 [5J calculated ultimate loads. It can be noticed that
the calculated strengths are larger than the corresponding experimental failure loads. This
implies that the effective design width equations as given in the design code CAN3-S136-M84
[5J may overestimate the strength of compressive elements. As indicated earlier, the present
 522

TABLE 3

Web Crippling Test Results*

Opening Size
Experimental Failure Load
Specimen
(CAN3-S136-M84 Ultimate Load)
Series
a(mm) b(mm) [N]

C 0 0 12375 (10550)
Cl 6 51 11750
Cl 6 102 11125
Cl 6 152 10875
Cl 51 6 11850
Cl 51 51 11500
C 51 152 10850
Cl 102 6 11750
Cl 102 51 11050
Cl 102 114 10450
C 102 152 10375
Cl 152 6 10625
C 152 25 10158
C 152 51 9758
C 152 102 9800
C 152 152 7500
ct 64 114 11508
0 0 0 4075 (3445)
01 6 51 3750
01 6 102 3500
01 6 152 3250
0 19 114 3950
01 38 6 4000
01 38 51 3900
0 38 114 3875
01 38 152 3775
01 76 6 3850
 523

TABLE 3 (Cont'.d)

Opening Size Experimental Failure Load

Specimen (CAN3-S136-M84 Ultimate Load)
Series [N]
a (mm) b(mm)

01 76 51 3500
0 76 114 3750
01 76 152 3100
01 114 6 3700
0 114 25 3883
0 114 51 3575
0 114 114 3125
01 114 152 2300
ot 64 114 3875
E 0 0 7625 (6523)
El 3 51 7550
El 3 102 6750
El 3 152 6250
E 13 70 7350
El 23 3 7150
E 25 70 7000
El 23 101 6825
El 23 152 6650
El 45 3 6875
E 45 70 6950
El 46 152 5050
El 68 3 6500
E 70 25 7208
E 70 51 5842
E 70 70 5542
El 68 101 3250
El 68 152 2700
Et 38 102 6968

L Only one identical specimen was tested;

• - 1 mm = 0.039 inch; IN = 0.225 lbf;
t - Manufacturer's pre-punched opening
 524

code [5] provisions are not suitable for cold-formed steel sections with web openings.
However, a conservative estimation of the strength of compressive elements with openings
may be made by considering the flat portion of the web on each side of the hole as two
=
unstiffened elements. Thus, in equations (1) and (2) k 0.5 shaH be used. Such a calculation
(which is not shown in this paper) resulted, in general, a value less than the corresponding
experimental ultimate loads.

The influence of the web opening on the effective width of a compressive element may
be represented by a ratio given by B(with opening)lB(without opening). Where, B is the
effective web width which can be deduced from the experimental results by subtracting the
contributions due to flanges, lips and rounded corners. Now, the above ratio should be related
to the opening dimensions and the opening shape. It was indicated earlier that the influence
due to a circular and a square openings having the same dimension were quite comparable.
Thus, in this study the above ratio was related only to a non-dimensional parameter (aIW),
where, a is the width-wise dimension of an opening and W is web flat width. Based on a non
linear least square best fit of the experimental results, the prediction equation for thp
influence of an opening on the strength of a compressive element may be given as

B (with opening)
--'----'-------'~ = [1 - 0.895
( a
-
)1.87] (4)
B (without opening) W
Until further results become available, equation (4) may be used to establish the influence of
an opening on the effective width of a compressive element. However, the equation (4) is valid
for opening having aIW less than 0.6.

3.2 Web Crippling Strength

Similar to Table 2, Table 3 shows both experimental and CAN3-S136-M84 [5]

calculated ultimate web crippling loads for sections without any openings. It may be noticed
that although the Canadian cold-formed steel code [5] values are lower bound, they are about
15% lower than the corresponding experimental results. Once again the code provisions for
web crippling are inapplicable when the web contains an opening. The influence of the web
opening on the web crippling strength may be represented by a ratio given by Pr(with
opening)lPr(without opening), where, P r is the experimental failure load. The above influence
is also dependent on (a/W) and (bIn), where, a and b are the width-wise and length-wise
dimensions of the opening respectively, W is the web width and n is the bearing length. Based
on this assumption and a non-linear least square best fit of the experimental results, the
prediction equation for the influence of an opening on the web crippling strength of interior
one flange loaded single web may be given as

P r (with opening) = [1 _ 0.45 (~)3.5] [1 _ 0.0145 (~)2.25] (5)

P r (without opening) W n

The limits for the use of equation (5) are a/W S 0.75 and bIn S 3.0.

4. CONCLUSIONS

A series of tests on cold-formed channel shaped steel sections with web opening has
been described. The study consisted of two parts (a) the effect of web opening on the strength
of compressive element and (b) the effect of web opening on the web crippling strength of
 525

sections when subjected to interior one flange loading. Although the experimental
observations included the loads and deflections, only the ultimate strengths were presented in
this paper. Based on non-linear least square best fit of the experimental results prediction
equation for the influence of an opening has been established. Based on the limited
experimental results and the associated analysis presented in this paper, the following
remarks can be made.

4.1 Strength of Compression Elements

The effective design width equation as given in the Canadian design code [51 may
overestimate the strength. The web opening reduces the strength and the influence should be
considered in the design. However, the shape of an opening does not appear to be a governing
parameter. The effect of an opening (preferably circular or square) on the strength of a
compressive element may be established using the prediction equation (4), provided
a/W:5 0.6.

4.2 Web Crippling Strength

The web crippling strength calculated in accordance with the Canadian code [5] is as
expected a lower bound solution (15% lower than the experimental results). The web opening
certainly reduces the web crippling capacity. The effect of such an opening on the web
crippling strength of interior one flange loaded section having single web may be estimated
using the prediction equation (5), provided a/W :5 0.75 and (bin) :5 3.0. It may be also worth
reminding that during the web crippling tests the loads were applied right over the opening.
Therefore, the results represent the worst possible scenario. Nevertheless, the prediction
equation indicates that the width-wise openings (larger a values) effect significantly more
than the length-wise (larger b values) openings.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The investigation on the strength of compressive elements reported in this paper also
forms a part of Mr. A.S. Bainwait's M.Eng. thesis. The investigation on the web crippling
strength reported in this paper also forms a part of Mr. K.M. Zielonka's M.Eng. thesis. The
cold-formed steel members used in this study were kindly provided by Bailey Metal Products
Ltd., Toronto, Ontario, Canada. The financial support provided by the Natural Sciences and
Engineering Research Council of Canada is gratefully acknowledged.
 526

REFERENCES

[1] American Iron and Steel Institute, Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel
Structural Members, American Iron and Steel Institute, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.,
1986.

[2] American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM Standard Test Method for Weight
of Coating on Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Iron or Steel Artices, A90-81, Annual book of
ASTM Standards, Philadelphia, PA, U.S.A., 1986.

[31 Banwait, A.S., Axial Load Behaviour of Thin-Walled Steel Sections with Openings,
M.Eng Thesis, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, 1987.

[4] British Standards Institute, Structural Use of Steel Work in Buildings, Part 5. Code
of practice for design of cold formed sections, BS5950: Part 5: 1987, British Standards
Institution, London, 1987.

[51 Canadian Standards Association, Cold-Formed Steel Structual Members, CAN3-

SI36-M84, Canadian Standards Association, Rexdale, Ontario, Canada, 1984.

[6] Column Research Council, Guide to Stability Criteria for Metal Structures. Edited by
T.V. Galambos, Wiley-Interscience, New York, NY, 1988.

[71 Hetrakul, N. and Yu, W.W., Structural Behaviour of Beam Webs Subjected to Web
Crippling and Combination of Web Crippling and Bending, Final Report, Civil
Engineering Study 78-4, University of Missouri-Rolla, Rolla, Missouri, U.S.A., 1978.

[8] Roorda, J., and Venkataramaiah, K.R., Effective Width of Stiffened Steel Plate
Components. Solid Mechanics Division, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario,
Paper No. 148, 1978.

[9] Yu, W.W., Cold-Formed Steel Design, John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York, 1985.

[10] Von Karman, T., Sechler, E. and Donnell, L.H., The Strength of Thin Plates in
Compression. Transactions ofthe American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 54 (2),
pp. 53-57, 1932.

[11] Winter, G., Strength of Thin Steel Compression Flanges. Transactions of the
American Society of Civil Engineers, 112:, pp. 527-554, 1947.
 527

NOTATIONS

a Width-wise dimension of an opening

B Effective width of a compressive element (equation 2)

b Length-wise dimension of an opening

E Modulus of elasticity of steel

Fy Yield strength of steel

f Maximum stress

h Clear distance between flats of flanges

H Web slenderness ratio (= hit)

k Buckling coefficient (equations 1 and 2)

K Coefficient in equation 3 (= 883 F ylE)

n Bearing length

N Ratio of bearing length to thickness (= nit)

Factored web crippling resistance

r Inside bend radius

R Ratio of inside bend radius to thickness (= r/t)

R Coefficient in equation 2 (= 0.1 (Wit) - 6 when Wit;;, 60)

Base metal thickness

W Flat width of elements

Wlim Limiting flat width for fully effective compressive elements

<1>8 Resistance factor for web crippling (= 0.8)