1.

INTRODUCTION

Electric power quality can be characterized as a gauge of how effectively

customers can use their electric power service. A power quality issue is when there is
an abnormality in the voltage, current, or frequency that causes the end user's
equipment to malfunction or fail. For a certain number of harmonics, typical passive
filters are utilized to compensate. Active Power Filters are used to reduce the total
harmonic content. FACTS, also known as Custom Power Devices, are introduced for
all types of power quality solutions at the distribution system voltage level to enhance
power quality.
In the modern era, power quality is undoubtedly a significant issue; it becomes
even more crucial with the development of complex devices, whose performance is
extremely sensitive to the quality of the power supply. PLCs and variable speed drives
are only two examples of the numerous electronic components that make up modern
industrial operations. Due to the high sensitivity of electronic devices to disturbances,
industrial loads are less tolerable to poor power quality issues.
Since numerous loads at various distribution ends, including computers,
microprocessor-based equipment, printers, residential utilities, and adjustable speed
drives, have grown intolerant to voltage variations, harmonic content, and
interruptions, power quality (PQ) has become a significant issue.
Suppressing excessive supply neutral current. Issues with electricity quality
have become more important recently for a number of reasons. First and foremost, the
makeup of electrical loads has changed. Due to the increased use of power electronics
equipment, load characteristics have gotten more sophisticated, which causes voltage
and current to deviate from sinusoidal waveform behavior. On the other hand, because
of their electronic nature, equipment has become increasingly sensitive to power
quality. A second element that has raised the significance of power quality is the
deregulation of the electrical power market. What was once a single utility has now
been split into three: supplier, transmitter, and distributor. In order to assign blame for
poor power quality, it is crucial to assess the degree of power quality and locate the
defects that cause electrical disturbances in electrical power systems. Power quality
monitoring is a technology that utilities and consumers use to assess and pinpoint
disruptions as well as their source.

1
 A power quality issue is when there is an abnormality in the voltage, current,
or frequency that causes end-user equipment to malfunction or fail. Numerous sorts of
outages and service interruptions occur in utility distribution networks, sensitive
industrial loads, and crucial commercial operations, which can result in severe
financial losses. The problem of power quality is expected to take on additional
dimensions as a result of the restructuring of power networks and the changing trend
toward distributed and scattered generation. It is crucial to make progress in this
approach, especially in developing nations like India where the volatility in power
frequency and many other factors affecting power quality are important issues in and
of themselves.
Inverters serve as an interface to transfer electrical energy into the electrical
system in a power plant that uses renewable energy sources in addition to converting
DC to AC voltage. The requirement for an inverter to perform this role is high
generating power quality and efficiency, namely voltage and current. Similar
requirements apply to inverters used in photovoltaic generation (PV-inverter).
Numerous studies have been conducted to increase output power quality and
efficiency. For this purpose, a few PV-inverter topologies have been created through
the development of an inverter base topology and the optimization of their operational
model.
The ideal inverter output voltage has a sinusoidal wave and is stable. The
voltage, however, is frequently not a pure sine wave, indicating the presence of
harmonics. The performance of the supplied electrical load as well as the electrical
power distribution components will be subpar due to large harmonics. The
components will be harmed the longer it continues.

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 2. LITERATURE SURVEY

The cost-effective topology of the highly efficient and reliable inverter

concept (HERIC) inverter has low leakage currents and a moderately high efficiency.
Therefore, photovoltaic systems without transformers are perfect for it. However,
utilizing the disclosed modulation techniques, Maintaining the HERIC inverter's high
efficiency, superb power quality, and reactive power injection all at once is
challenging. Zhongting Tang et al[1] The cost-effective topology of the highly
efficient and reliable inverter concept (HERIC) inverter features low leakage currents
and a reasonably high efficiency. Therefore, photovoltaic systems without
transformers are perfect for it. However, utilising the disclosed modulation
techniques, Maintaining the HERIC inverter's high efficiency, superb power quality,
and reactive power injection all at once is challenging. To confirm the effectiveness of
the suggested approach, simulations and tests are performed on a 4-kW HERIC
inverter system with a 20-kHz switching frequency. The results show that the
suggested hybrid UP-PWM approach outperforms the traditional UP-PWM scheme in
terms of reactive power injection and outperforms UP-PWM with deadtime in terms
of efficiency. Additionally, a greater power quality is made possible by the suggested
UPPWM scheme.

An examination of solar module single-phase grid-connected inverters by

Kjaer et al [2] focuses on the inverter technologies that are used to link solar panel
modules to a single-phase grid. The four different types of inverters are classified
according to the following factors: 1) The quantity of cascading power processing
stages, 2) The kind of power decoupling between the PV module(s) and the single-
phase grid, 3) The use of a transformer (either line or high frequency), and 4) The
kind of power stage connected to the grid. In terms of needs, lifetime, component
ratings, and cost, we present, contrast, and evaluate various inverter topologies. In the
final part, the best topologies for applications using either a single PV module or
many PV modules are emphasized.

For solar ac-module use, step-up transformerless topologies are compared by

Meneses et al [3]. A benchmark is established in order to compare the most practical
solutions among the topologies examined. This benchmark is based on an average ac-

3
module application that takes into account solar panel and grid requirements. In order
to conduct a size and cost comparison, the selected solutions are constructed and
simulated in accordance with the benchmark, obtaining ratings for passive and
semiconductor components. The examined topologies are discussed in relation to the
measured ratings and ground currents. Topological solutions that meet the application
benchmark are suggested in the recommendations.

Renewable energy sources like wind, sun, and water are thought to be
unreliable alternatives for conventional energy sources like oil, natural gas, or coal.
Germany, Denmark, Japan, and the United States are in the forefront of the
development of systems for distributed power generation (DPGSs) that use renewable
energy. As stated by Blaabjerg et al [4] new and stronger criteria for power quality,
safe operation, and islanding protection are provided as a result of the growing
number of DPGSs linked to the utility network. In order to achieve the criteria for grid
connectivity, distributed generation system control should be enhanced. The paper
provides a summary of the fuel cell, photovoltaic, and wind turbine-based DPGS
structures. Additionally, grid-side converter control mechanisms are provided, and the
prospect of compensating for low-order harmonics is also covered. Additionally, the
treatment of control strategies when operating with grid faults. An overview of
synchronization techniques and a discussion of their significance in the control are
included at the conclusion of this study.

Transformer-less photovoltaic (PV) grid-connected inverters have gained

popularity in the use of solar power generation systems in the home market due to
their qualities of low cost and high efficiency. Unfortunately, the stray capacitor
leakage current between the PV array and the ground is dangerous. Xiao[5] have
focused on the leakage current suppressing method, in which all common-mode paths
are considered. The guidelines for removing switching frequency common-mode
sources are compiled based on the common-mode analytical model at switching
frequency that is first constructed. Using the created model and principles, the current
full-bridge and half-bridge type converters have been analysed. Finally, a new full-
bridge type converter structure and a compensating method for half-bridge type
inverter have been provided.

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 Wang et al [6] derived rules summarized from existing high-performance
inverters with H6-type configuration, which makes new topologies possible.
Additionally, a brand-new, highly efficient, single-phase photovoltaic inverter without
a transformer is also suggested and assessed as an example. In a non-isolated system
with a H6-type configuration, input split capacitors are not required, which eliminates
common-mode voltage and leakage current problems. Additionally, the feature of a
three-level output voltage in the middle of the inverter bridge aids inductors and
improves power quality. With a hybrid modulation method and unipolar and bipolar
pulse width modulation schemes, the detailed operating principles are described. A
2200VA prototype's experimental findings validate the suggested topology with
hybrid modulation.

Fuel cells are probably going to be employed in a lot of applications in the

future, hence special power converters need to be created and tuned. Power
electronics engineers must therefore have a good understanding of fuel cell operation.
Fontes et al [7] proposed a theoretical and experimental investigation of how a fuel
cell stack behaves when exposed to current harmonics is proposed. The internal
double layer capacitor's essential function is illustrated.

The increasing adoption of new photovoltaic (PV) systems encourages the

Distribution System Operators (DSOs) to increase the transmission/distributed lines
due to the urgent need for clean and dependable energy generation in some nations.
However, further challenges are brought about by the possible costs associated with
such extensions and higher maintenance. In response to this worry, DSOs start to
scale back PV installations to prevent the expansion of the electrical grid.
Additionally, limiting the maximum feed-in power of the current PV systems to a
specific level is another viable method. It may help to lessen the need for grid
expansion while simultaneously increasing penetration. Consequently, in order to
satisfy the need for this new ancillary service offered by future PV systems, a
Constant Power proposed by Verband der Elektrotechnik [8]. Accordingly, it is
important to look into two key issues: a) analysing the decrease in energy production
caused by CPG control to determine its economic viability; and b) designing reliable
CPG control methods, as doing otherwise could cause instabilities. As a result, his
paper also discusses the implementation options for PV systems in CPG operation
mode. Additionally, the energy loss is computed to demonstrate the effectiveness of

5
the suggested CPG control mechanism. PV system operation examples are provided
to demonstrate the viability of the CPG control method for unloading the distributed
grid.

Transformer-less inverters for grid-connected photovoltaic (PV) systems are

becoming more popular due to their low cost, high efficiency, and lightweight design,
among other advantages. As a result, numerous transformer-less topologies have been
presented and only real power injection has been used for verification. Recently,
practically all international regulations mandated that the grid-tied PV inverter handle
a specific level of reactive power. Grid-tied PV inverters with power ratings lower
than 3.68 KVA are required by the specification VDE-AR-N 4105 to achieve power
factors (PF) ranging from 0.95 leading to 0.95 lagging. Islam et al [9] proposed a new
high efficiency transformer less topology for grid-tied PV system with reactive power
control. Reactive power flow is described along with the new topological structure
and detailed operation principle. Analyses are done on the proposed topology's
control and the high frequency common-mode (CM) model. Even when reactive
power is added, the suggested topology's inherent circuit layout prevents problems
with reverse recovery, allowing MOSFET switches to be used to increase overall
efficiency. Low leakage current is produced as a result of maintaining the CM voltage
at the middle of the dc input voltage. Finally, a 1 kW lab prototype is constructed and
put to the test in order to confirm the suggested topology. According to the
experimental findings, the suggested design can increase reactive power to the utility
grid without introducing any additional current distortion or leakage current. The
proposed topology's maximum efficiency and European efficiency are calculated and
determined to be 98.54% and 98.29%, respectively.

Due to their high efficiency, low cost, and light weight, among other advantages,
transformer-less photovoltaic (PV) inverters are more extensively used. Numerous
innovative topologies have been developed, tested, and used, with a particular focus
on active power injection only without a leakage current problem. PV inverters must,
nevertheless, be able to inject reactive power into the utility for grid support under
some new grid rules. An enhanced hybrid modulation technique is presented and
tested for one non-isolated H6 topology in order to map the challenge by J. Wang et al
[10] as an example. Variable reactive power generation capability and 0% crossing
distortion are obtained with only straightforward switching pattern modifications and

6
a phase shift for current reference, and the common mode voltage issue is also
resolved. The revised hybrid modulation approach's operation modes are also
discussed in detail. There are also some design factors offered. The SMPLIS
simulation and extensive findings from a 4000VA prototype both support the
suggested hybrid modulation technique.

The full-bridge inverter, which is frequently used for grid-connected single-

phase solar applications, has a leakage current problem. Therefore, an AC bypass
branch is introduced by Deng et al [11] to overcome this challenge. Nevertheless,
existing modulation strategies entail drawbacks that should be addressed. One is the
AC current's zero-crossing distortion (ZCD), which results from disregarding the
inductor voltage of the AC filter. Another is that the AC bypass branch switches at the
power frequency prevent the system from delivering reactive power. This paper
suggests an improved hybrid modulation technique to overcome these issues. By
making up for the ignored leading angle, the phase angle of the inverter output
voltage reference is changed to decrease ZCD. The interval of the negative power
output is computed using the power factor to produce the reactive power. The
freewheeling switch is also kept on when electricity is entering the grid and
commutates quickly when electricity is being supplied back to the DC side. One is the
zero-crossing distortion (ZCD) of the AC current, which happens when the inductor
voltage of the AC filter is ignored. Another is that the system cannot produce reactive
power because of the AC bypass branch switches at the power frequency. To address
these problems, this research presents an enhanced hybrid modulation method. The
inverter output voltage reference's phase angle is modified to compensate for the
ignored leading angle, lowering ZCD. Utilizing the power factor, the interval of the
negative power output is calculated to create reactive power. When electricity is fed
back into the grid or supplied to the DC side, the freewheeling switch is also
maintained on and commutates quickly.

Energy produced via renewable resources is becoming more and more

significant. The photovoltaic (PV) systems show the highest and most consistent
relative increase of all of these sources. Although there is a great effort being made to
improve efficiency and lower cost, the PV system is still too pricey. This resulted in
the low frequency (LF) transformer that was previously present being removed from
PV inverters. The LF transformer isolates from the grid, but at the expense of the PV

7
inverter's efficiency, size, and cost. But the elimination of the transformer can lead to
substantial ground currents, which are now a key design element for PV inverters.
The system's errant parts have an impact on the ground currents. There is no simple
model or method for studying the common mode behaviour of a PV system, which is
required to analyse the ground currents. This paper provides a more thorough
explanation of the common mode problem in single-phase transformer-free PV
systems using a simple model. Additionally, Gubia [12] created a process to evaluate
a PV inverter's overall performance, efficiency, grid current quality, and common
mode behaviour as a consequence of its unique structure and modulation method.

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 3. HYBRID UNIPOLAR-PWM TECHNIQUE

Photovoltaic (PV) energy is one of the most well-liked renewable sources due to its
environmental friendliness and the fact that module prices are still declining. Huge
power electronic converters are used as the interface to connect PV systems with the
utility grid. Power converter performance has been improved in a number of ways,
including topologies, modulation schemes, control methods, and other elements.

The efficiency, dependability, power quality, and reactive power

controllability issues with grid-connected PV systems must be addressed. Due to their
higher efficiency, smaller size, and lower cost than their equivalents, transformer-less
inverters have recently drawn a lot more attention (i.e., transformer-based systems).
Leakage currents in transformer-less grid-connected systems must be muted to some
extent to safeguard the equipment and personnel's safety.

To solve this issue, numerous changed topologies or modulation strategies

have been discussed in literature. The H5 topology, the HERIC topology, the H6
inverter with hybrid modulation, and others are examples of efficient transformer-less
inverters.

The HERIC is a good choice among the numerous transformer-less topologies

because of its straightforward design and great efficiency. Additionally, using either
the traditional bipolar pulse width modulation (BP-PWM) or the UP-PWM method,
the HERIC may decrease leakage currents.

The inverter may deliver reactive power on demand with the traditional BP-
PWM scheme, but efficiency and power quality are sacrificed. The typical UP-PWM
approach, in contrast, can improve power quality and system efficiency by reducing
switching losses, inductor ripple currents, but it is unable to provide reactive power.

The power factor in power generation systems or units must instead be

adjustable within a range of 0.9 leading to 0.9 lagging, as stated in international
standards (for example, VDE-AR-N4105).

9
 Numerous hybrid modulation techniques or innovative transformer-less
topologies have been suggested to accomplish this. For example, a new transformer-
free inverter with a simple modulation mechanism has been presented, and the
efficiency has been risen. The additional six diodes, however, result in a higher
hardware cost and complexity compared to the HERIC inverter. The H5 inverter's
reactive power capacity was proposed in by combining the UP-PWM, BP-PWM
systems.

However, as indicated before, the BP-PWM also produces significant current

ripples and additional switching losses. For the H5 and HERIC topologies, a
modulation mechanism enabling a bidirectional path during freewheeling periods was
created in order to increase the controllability of reactive power.

Additionally, by phase-changing the current reference, the same modulation

technique has been used to the H6 inverter to enable reactive power injection with
simple alterations to switching patterns. Notably, in order to prevent short-circuiting,
this method demands a sizable period of dead time between the phase-leg switches
and AC bypass switches. Dead time produces irregularities in the converter's output
current even though it has little impact on power losses.

Additionally, ZCD, which impairs power quality, was not addressed by the
aforementioned strategies. Typically, the grid-connected application has two ZCD
situations. One is at the zero-crossing output voltage point (ZCP). This will result in
ZCD in the injected currents because of the minimum pulse width restriction that
assures the proper operation of power switches.

A worldwide sliding mode control system that can somewhat lower the ZCD
was proposed as a solution to this problem. The literature has not yet adequately
addressed the ZCD, which is created by the limiting of modulation. The grid-
connected current ZCP hosts a second instance of the ZCD. Generally speaking,
modulation methods heavily rely on current polarity detection.

Furthermore, these approaches do not address the zero-crossing distortion

(ZCD), which degrades the quality of the power. In the grid-connected application,
there are often two ZCD scenarios. One is at the zero-crossing point of the output

10
voltage (ZCP). The minimum pulse width restriction that guarantees ZCD in the
injected currents as a result of the proper operation of power switches in this scenario.

To address this issue, the global sliding mode control mechanism was
developed, and it has the ability to somewhat reduce ZCD. The literature has not yet
given the ZCD, which is truly caused by the limiting of modulation, enough
consideration. A second ZCD case is present on the grid-connected current ZCP.

In contrast, this problem was fixed by modifying the phase angle of the grid-
connected current reference. However, the entire region of the ambiguous polarity
cannot be contained within the changing area of either. To be considered for
transformer-free PV systems, it is important to take into account a converter's high
efficiency, high power quality, and changeable reactive power.

However, as was said above, the current plans cannot accomplish this
simultaneously. For HERIC inverter, the research suggests a hybrid UP-PWM design.
This paper's primary contribution can be broken down into two sections. A normal
UP-PWM, a UP-PWM with modified dead time, and a modulation that simply
requires the activation of AC bypass power switches are the three modulation
methods combined in the suggested approach.

As a result, the suggested hybrid UP-PWM approach can outperform the

traditional UP-PWM according to injecting reactive power. The efficiency it obtains
is also higher than the UP-PWM with dead time. Second, the suggested UP-PWM
technique can lower the current ZCD in the vicinity of the grid voltage and current
ZCPs thanks to the modified dead time approach, ensuring improved power quality.

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3.1. PRIOR-ART MODULATION SCHEMES

Fig.3.1 the grid-connected single-phase, single-stage hardware schematic

Where I-leak is the leakage current in the HERIC inverter system.

The HERIC inverter's schematic is depicted in Fig. 3.1. Kirchhoff's Voltage

Law (KVL) states that you may find the dynamic equation for grid current as

(3.1)

L = L1 + L2, where L1 and L2 represent the grid filter, ig(t) denotes the grid-
connected current, vg(t) denotes the grid voltage, and VAB(t) is the differential-mode
voltage. The DC-link voltage U dc is taken to be constant since only the modulation
mechanism of the single-phase single-stage grid-connected HERIC inverter is
detailed. Additionally, in Fig. 3.1, the direction of ig is the definition of the forward
current.

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3.1.1. Typical Modulation Schemes

Fig. 3.2 The classic UP-PWM and the UP-PWM with dead time are two modulation approaches
for the HERIC inverter, where lim and ina are ZCD regions near the voltage ZCP and the
current ZCP, respectively.

Examples of prevalent modulation methods for HERIC inverter are shown in

Figures 2(a) and (b), including the conventional UP-PWM and UP-PWM with dead
time, where Vref is the output voltage reference. In Fig. 2(a), the fundamental
operation of the typical UP-PWM is shown, with the power switches S1-4 operating
at a high frequency and the AC bypass power devices S5,6 switching at the grid
fundamental frequency. The operation of the power devices S1-4 and the AC bypass
switches S5,6 in line with the UP-PWM with dead time concept is shown in Figure
2(b). Due to the undesirable switching states during dead time, the modulation
technique will unavoidably result in an increase in overall power losses. Additionally,
the added dead time will cause significant ripple currents, which will worsen the
power quality.

3.1.2. Reactive power Controllability

A better integration of renewable generation technologies into low-voltage networks

is made possible by the flexible reactive power control. Current grid requirements
should make it possible to regulate reactive power produced by PV installations in a
flexible manner (e.g., for dynamic fault ride-through and also static voltage support).

13
The idea in Fig. 2(a) states that S6 is ON and S1,4 operate at a high frequency when
Vref 0 is present. To reach zero voltage, the forward current passes through S6 and
D5. The reverse current, however, has no path. Similar to this, S5 is ON and S2,3
function at a high frequency when Vref 0. Reverse current is sent to S5 and D6,
resulting in zero voltages. The forward current, however, is also unable to locate a
path for flow. As a result, the traditional UP-PWM is incapable of handling reactive
power. When Vref 0, S5,6, and S1,4 in Fig. 2(b) operate with a high frequency. S5,6,
and S2,3 operate with a high frequency when Vref 0. To prevent short-circuiting, the
dead time is incorporated into the commutation process. There is a bidirectional
channel for the current because S5, S6, and S7 are all ON at zero volts. The UP-PWM
with dead time can therefore supply reactive power.

3.1.3 Zero Crossing Distortion Analysis

The ZCD is an additional problem for the HERIC inverter. Thus, this section looks at
the causes of the ZCD in the HERIC inverter.

3.1.3.1 To protect power switches from damage when the output voltage is ZCD ZCP,
the minimum pulse width must be kept to a tolerable value. Assuming that the
power factor angle is, the grid voltage is, and the grid current is, respectively (t-). If
(1) is accurate,

(3.2)

To protect power switches from damage, the minimum pulse width must be kept to a
manageable level. Considering that the grid current is equal to Im sin and the grid
voltage is vg(t) = Vm sin(t), and the power factor angle is (t-).If (1) is true, then

(3.3)

in which vAB = -dd Udc. assuming that dlim is the minimum pulse width restriction.
Then

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 (3.4)

The resultant distortion region can be represented as by solving for (4).

(3.5)

As a result, the minimum pulse width restriction occurs around the grid voltage ZCP.
When the condition (5) is met, there are two approaches to handle the minimum pulse
width limitation. The first method sets dd = 0, while the second one sets dd = dlim.

1) The real grid current's derivative is expressed as in the first way (when dd = 0).

(3.6)

The intended grid current, however, can be specified as

(3.7)

In light of this, the present distortion I can be calculated as

(3.8)

2) In the second technique (i.e., dd = dlim), the derivative of the real grid current is
stated as follows:

The current distortion I can then be obtained using a process similar to that described

in. (3.9)

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 (3.10)

No matter which of the two approaches is used, it is obvious that the grid current will
be distorted at the ZCP of the grid voltage.

3.1.3.2. ZCD at the current ZCP connected to the grid:

Fig. 3.3 The effect of the inaccurate polarity is:

(a) the ideal modulation scheme, (b) the current flowing paths,

For the application of modulation methods, the grid current's polarity is

typically significant. However, measurement disturbances make it challenging to
precisely establish the grid current's polarity is close to the ZCP. Around the ZCP,
where the current is very weak, the current polarity is misjudged. The ZCD under the
current ZCP connected to the grid is shown in the following.

Figure 3.3 displays an optimal modulation for the reactive power injection (a).
The operating principle for producing positive power is the same as that of traditional
UP-PWM.

Only the AC bypass switches are used to generate negative power, and they do
it at a high frequency. To produce positive or negative VAB, the current travels via the
four diodes, and to reach zero voltages, the current flows through S5 (D5) and D6
(S6). Theoretically, the modulation technique shown in Fig. 3.3(a) can inject reactive
power while achieving small ripple currents and good efficiency, just as the

16
traditional UP-PWM. The actual current I g will be constrained to zero crossing for a
considerable amount of time, but, if the current polarity is wrongly identified at the
ZCP, as shown in Fig. 3.3(b), with VAB 0, the measured current is positive while the
actual current is negative. The scenario is shown in Fig. 3.3. (c).

Fig. 3.3(b) depicts the actual current, however the actual current is

(3.11)

Although it is written as, the required grid current is

(3.12)

In light of this, the present distortion I can be calculated as

(3.13)

The distortion may, in the worst situation, also activate the inverter protection,
which would shut the system down. In Fig. 3, this occurrence is represented by the
first cycle (c). For an extended duration, the current is restricted to zero crossing. The
difference in inaccuracy between the reference current and the actual current increases
as a result. The overshoot is consequently seen in the grid current in Fig. 3.3. (c). The
overshoot value exceeded 1.5 times the rated current, which is the maximum
overcurrent capacity permitted by most standards, according to the simulation results
(notably, this can be changed according to the specific application). In practical use,
this situation can lead to the over current protection turning on.

As was previously indicated, signal noises are mostly responsible for the
inaccuracy. Current ripples, transmission noise, and sampling noise are common
examples of signal noise. The majority of the errors are caused by the current waves.
The hardware design should take special care to regulate the current ripple rate r. In
the majority of engineering systems, the present ripple rate r should be intended to be
smaller than 0.2.

17
 To avoid this, the current polarity's inaccuracy must have a maximum quantity
of noise, which can be a fixed value. Since the inverter's rated output current's root
mean square (RMS) is measured in ierms, the accuracy must be between -0.1ierms
and 0.1ierms. (note, this can be adjusted depending on the specific design). The
accuracy range might therefore be written as

(3.14)

where ina is the border and Igrms is the real-time grid current's RMS. In order
to counteract this influence caused by the incorrect estimate of the current polarity,
the target voltage must be arbitrarily built up around the grid current ZCP.

Overall, the modulation techniques for the HERIC inverter that were
previously addressed have ZCD problems. The ZCD regions lim and ina match the
UP-PWM as-is while running at unity power factor. However, only the ZCD at the
voltage ZCP is audible when using a UP-PWM with additional dead time. Both ZCD
zones will materialise as described earlier when the HERIC inverter employs the
modulation approach in Fig. 3(a) with non-unity power factor operation. To lessen the
ensuing distortions, the modulation algorithms must be modified.

3.2. HYBRID UNIPOLAR-PWM TECHNIQUE

In this section, a hybrid UP-PWM technique for the HERIC inverter is advised
in order to attain a high efficiency, good power quality, and appropriate reactive
power capabilities. Fig. 3.4 provides an illustration of the operating principles. During
an inverter

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 Fig.3.4 To improve power quality and efficiency, hybrid UP-PWM is advised for the HERIC
inverter, both while operating (a) at unity power factor and when operating at (b) non-unity
power factor.

When operating with a non-uniform power factor, the operation can be

separated into eight zones, as indicated in Fig. 3. (b). The second, fourth, sixth, and
eighth regions need special consideration. Due to the very low output voltage or
current of the inverter, the operation of power switches is restricted, and it is difficult
to determine the polarities of these devices.

The management of Regions 1, 3, and 5 is considerably simpler, however. In

this context, the suggested hybrid UP-PWM technique makes use of several
modulation schemes based on the operational regions. Three different types of
modulation exist:

(1) Regions 3 and 7 employ traditional UP-PWM. Using the standard UP-
PWM technique, low switching power losses and low ripple currents can be
accomplished.

(2) Dead time in UP-PWM regions 2, 4, 6, and 8. Due to the polarity

unpredictability of the grid current, the UP-PWM with dead time is employed to
guarantee a stable operation of the inverter system. The negative impacts of the
minimum pulse width limitation can also be mitigated by altering the dead time.

(3) UP-PWM for the creation of negative power in regions 1 and 5. The
modulation is applied to the HERIC inverter, necessitating just the operation of AC
bypass switches like Fig. 3(a), in order to provide reactive power and decrease
switching power losses.

19
 It should be noted that in the case of the unity power factor operation, Regions
1 and 5 are absent. Thus, as shown in Fig. 3, the proposed method simply employs the
conventional UP-PWM and UP-PWM with dead time working modes (a).

The following is a detailed explanation of the proposed hybrid UP-PWM

method for the HERIC inverter's operating principle in Fig. 5:

Region 1: As shown in Fig. 3(a) and (b), both four-leg power switches are in the off-
state while the additional two power switches are operating at a high frequency. The
grid-connected current ig running between diodes D1 and D4 produces a positive
voltage VAB, whereas diodes S5 and D6 provide a negative voltage.

Region 2: At the current ZCP, the leg power switches S1, S4, as well as the other two
power switches S5, S6, all function at a high frequency. There are currently two
options available.

i) The current ig continues to flow through D1 and D4 to maintain a positive

voltage VAB and also via S5 and D6 to produce a zero voltage, as illustrated in Fig.
5(c) and (d).

ii) According to Fig. 5(e) and (f), a grid-connected current that passes through
S1 and S4 produces a positive voltage VAB, whereas a current that passes via S6 and
D5 produces a zero voltage VAB. The dead time between changes in operation mode
must be taken into account.

Region 3: As seen in Figs. 5(g) and 5(h), S6 is always in the on-state whereas S1 and
S4 are swapped at a high frequency (h). After passing through S1 and S4 to create a
positive voltage VAB and S6 and D5 to create a zero voltage, the grid-connected
current ig continues on its path.

Region 4: At the voltage ZCP, there are two transitioning modes. 1) S1 and S4 are in
an on-state to produce a positive voltage VAB, and current g flows through S1 and S4
as shown in Fig. 5(e) and (f). Following the activation of S5 and S6 to reach zero
voltage, the current ig passes through S6 and D5. 2) S2 and S3 are in an on-state, as
indicated in Fig. 5(i) and (j), resulting

20
 Fig. 5 modes of operation for the HERIC inverter's hybrid UP-PWM.

to a negative voltage VAB, and the current ig flows through D2 and D3. The grid-
connected current ig then passes through S6 and D5 while S5 and S6 are in an on-state

21
for a zero voltage. To prevent short-circuiting the DC side during mode transitions,
the dead time should be used.

Region 5: As seen in Fig. 5(k) and (l), the four leg power devices are all off, and S5
and S6 operate at a high frequency. The remaining grid-connected current (ig) then
travels through D2 and D3 to generate a negative voltage (VAB), then S6 and D5 to
generate a zero voltage.

Region 6: The extra switches S5, S6, as well as switches S2, S3, operate at a high
frequency close to the current ZCP. Right now, there are two possibilities. 1) Fig. 5(i)
and (j) show how the current ig first flows through S6 and D5 to produce zero
voltage, then passes through D2 and D3 to produce a negative voltage (VAB). 2) As
indicated in Fig. 5(m) and Figure 6, the grid-connected current ig passes through S2
and S3 to ensure a negative voltage VAB and then through S5 and D6 to achieve a
zero voltage (n). Dead time in between mode changes must be accounted for.

Region 7 S2 and S3 are swapped frequently, while S5 is always ON, as shown in

Figs. 5(o) and (p). Grid-connected current (ig) travels through S2 and S3 to create a
negative voltage (VAB), while S5 and D6 create a zero voltage.

Region 8: At the ZCP voltage, there are two modes. 1) The grid-connected current ig
travels via S2 and S3 as shown in Figures 5(m) and (n), where S2 and S3 are in an on-
state to maintain a negative voltage VAB. The grid-connected current ig goes through
S5 and D6 after switching S5 and S6 to obtain zero voltage. 2) As shown in Figures
5(c) and (d), at a positive voltage VAB, S1 and S4 are in an on-state, and the grid-
connected current ig flows through D1 and D4. When S5 and S6 are in the on state,
the grid-connected current ig flows through S5 and D6 in order to reach zero voltage.
The dead time is required when changing operating modes.

3.2.1. ZCD elimination at the Voltage ZCP

When UP-PWM is used at voltage ZCP with additional dead time, the reference
output voltage is impacted by the dead time. As previously mentioned, the minimum
pulse width constraint should be considered in close proximity to the voltage ZCP.
When the duty cycle dd is lower than the minimum pulse width ratio dlim, it is driven
to zero or dlim. Thus, the current cannot perfectly follow the reference. To overcome
those issues, dead time compensation and minimum pulse width limiting are

22
necessary. Therefore, the duty cycle of the enhanced compensation method can also

be represented as
(3.15)

where dplu is the additional duty cycle of dead time applied to account for the
minimum pulse width limitation and is the duty cycle of the dead time. Dplu should
be twice as large as Dlim in order to assure a successful switching process. Notably,
dlim is consistently determined.

Fig. 6. Principle of compensation for the dead period and minimum pulse width
restriction

Fig. 7 Current direction of the suggested modulation strategy.

by the switching speed of the power devices. Generally, dlim is equal to 2(ton+toff),
where ton and toff are the turn-on time and the turn-off time of switches, respectively.
Dplu is then equal to 4 (ton + toff). The device datasheet contains the turn-on and
turn-off times of the power devices.

23
(1) Fig. 6 illustrates the dead time compensation principle when dd > dlim (a). One
switching period, Ts, as observed, consists of two dead periods intervals. Due to the
negative voltage in the dead time, the duty cycle is then changed to D = dd+3 (15). In
this case, the inverter output voltage is as follows:

(3.16)

(2) The compensatory strategy for the minimum pulse width limitation is depicted in
Fig. 6 when dd dlim (b). It is necessary for the duty cycle to be higher than the
necessary dlim minimum pulse width ratio. 10 can be used to calculate the inverter's
output voltage, and

(3.17)

3.2.2 Elimination of the ZCD at the Current ZCP

As opposed to the modulation in Fig. 3, the proposed method employs the UP-
PWM with dead time in the region [-ina, ina] at the grid current ZCP (a). This allows
for the guarantee of the desired output voltage even if the polarity of the feedback
current is overestimated. For instance, region 6 in Figure 4 and the grid current ZCP
in Figure 3(a) are similar (b). High frequency operation is used by the power switches
S2,3 and the extra switches S5,6. The red dotted line in Fig. 7 represents the required
inverter voltage - VAB, which is obtained when the current is positive and runs via D2
and D3. The current flow via S2 and S3, which is seen as the blue line, allows for the
achievement of the desired voltage - VAB when the current is negative.

24
 Fig. 3.8 Switching losses using two alternative UP-PWM techniques: (a) the traditional method
and (b) the dead time method.

Solid line in Fig. 7 Overall, the suggested modulation technique adopts the
UP-PWM with dead time in the region at the grid-connected current ZCP to offer a
bidirectional way for the current commutation. In this way, the ZCD brought on by
the incorrect current polarity can be reduced.

3.3.3 Switching Losses

Conduction losses and switching losses are the two types of power
semiconductor losses. Conduction losses typically depend less on the modulation
techniques than they do on the system load. The profile of switching losses is
however impacted by modulation techniques. Calculations for the switching losses of
an IGBT with an anti-parallel diode include,

The turn-on energy losses (EonM), turn-off energy losses (EoffM), and diode reverse-
recovery energy losses (EonD) under certain test conditions are all included in the
datasheet. where fs denotes the switching frequency, PM denotes the IGBT losses, PD
denotes the diode losses, and PSW denotes the overall switching losses. The datasheet
has these numbers. The reference commutation voltage and current, respectively, are
the test voltage VCC and current ICC. Thus, according to equation, the instantaneous
collector-emitter voltage Vce and the collector current ic during the switching period
would have an impact on the overall power losses associated to the modulation (18)

(3.18)

25
 Figure 8 shows Vce and ic for the traditional UP-PWM (a). Due to the grid's
fundamental frequency of operation, only diode losses—not the switching losses of
S5, 6—are included. The overall switching losses can be calculated as follows:

(3.19)

However, as shown in Fig. 8(b), the switching losses of the UP-PWM with
inserted dead time are given as

(3.20)

The switching losses of the UP-PWM with dead time are more than twice as
great as those of the standard UP-PWM, presuming that toff and ton are equal. With
added dead time, the differential-mode voltage VAB equals 0. Additionally, VAB in the
standard UP-PWM shifts from Udc to 0, whereas it shifts from Udc to -Udc in the UP-
PWM with dead time. As a result, the traditional UP-ripple PWM's currents are
minimal. The modulation of the suggested method, which only calls for the activation
of AC bypass switches, has the same switching losses and ripple currents as the
traditional UP-PWM. It should be noted that both the standard modulation technique
and the modulation that just requires the activation of AC bypass switches frequently
function with the recommended hybrid UP-PWM approach. Only the areas 2, 4, 6,
and 8 of the compensation range in Fig. 4(b) should use the UP-PWM with dead time.

As a result, the suggested hybrid UP-PWM scheme's efficiency and ripple

currents are comparable to those of the traditional UP-PWM method. By combining
the best aspects of the three modulation approaches, the hybrid UP-PWM method
achieves low switching power losses, good power quality, and the capacity to handle
reactive power. In the part that follows, the performances of the suggested method are
verified.

26
3.3. CLOSED LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM

In order to accomplish desired goals, a control system can manage, command,

guide, or regulate the behavior of other devices or systems. It is also possible to
rewrite "control system" as A system that controls other systems is known as a control
system. As human society develops, automation is required more and more
frequently. Automation requires control of the machinery. Control systems are
becoming more and more crucial to the advancement of modern technology and
civilization. A control system affects practically every aspect of daily life, to some
extent or another. Toilet tanks, refrigerators, air conditioners, geysers, automated
irons, and cars all have control systems. These systems are frequently utilised in
industrial processes to increase output. Robots, space technologies, power systems,
transportation systems, and weapons systems are just a few examples of the various
sectors where control systems are used. The fundamental ideas of control theory can
be useful in both engineering and non-engineering domains.

The input and output of a control system must have a clear mathematical
relationship in order for it to function. A system is considered to be a linear control
system when its input and output can be explained by a linear proportionality. Once
more, a system is referred to as a non-linear control system when the relationship
between input and output cannot be expressed by a single linear proportionality and
must instead be related by some non-linear connection.

3.3.1. Requirement of Good Control System

• Accuracy: The accuracy of the instrument establishes the upper and lower
bounds of any inaccuracies that may occur when it is used under normal
operating conditions. Utilizing feedback components improves precision. Any
control system that wants to boost accuracy needs to have an error detector.
• Sensitivity: The parameters of the control system are constantly changing as a
result of environmental changes, internal disturbances, or other parameters.
This alteration can be characterised as sensitive. Any control system should be
immune to these influences and only sensitive to incoming signals.
• Noise: An unwanted input signal is noise. A good control system should be
able to reduce the noise effect for improved performance.

27
 • Stability: It's an essential component of a control system. The control system
is considered to be stable if the input signal is bounded, the output must
likewise be bounded, and if the input signal is zero, the output signal must also
be zero.
• Bandwidth: The operational frequency band determines the control system's
bandwidth. The band width should be as wide as possible for the frequency
response of a successful control system.
• Speed: It is the amount of time the control system needs to provide a stable
output. A good control system moves quickly. For such a system, the
transitory duration is quite brief.
• Oscillation: A few oscillations or oscillations that are constant in the output
usually indicate that the system is stable.
• 3.3.2. Feedback Loop of Control System
A feedback is a common and useful element when creating a control system.
By taking into consideration the system output, the feedback loop is a mechanism that
enables the system to modify its performance in order to attain the intended system
result. The output of any control system will be affected by any disturbance or
environmental change. One signal from the output is therefore sent back into the
input. An error signal is produced as a result of comparing this signal to the reference
input. This error signal is received by the controller, and the output is then corrected..
A system like this is known as a feedback system. The feedback system's block
diagram is shown in Figure 5.3 below.

Fig 3.4.1 block diagram of feedback system

28
 Positive feedback systems are those that receive positive feedback. The error
signal in a positive feedback system is created by adding the reference input signal
and the feedback signal. Negative feedback systems are those that receive negative
feedback signals. The error signal for a system with negative feedback is determined
by the difference between the reference input signal and the feedback signal.

29
 4. SIMULINK RESULTS

SIMULATION RESULTS:

Fig 4.1 Simulink diagram of proposed system with lagging power factor

Fig.4.2 Simulation power factor wave form of proposed system with lagging power factor

30
Fig.4.3 Simulation Grid Voltage wave form of proposed system with lagging power factor

Fig. 4.4 Simulation Grid Current wave form of proposed system with lagging power factor

31
 Fig.4.5 Simulink diagram of proposed system with leading power factor

Fig.4.6 Simulation power factor wave form of proposed system with leading power factor

32
Fig.4.7 Simulation Grid Voltage wave form of proposed system with leading power factor

33
Fig.4.8 Simulation Grid Current wave form of proposed system with leading power factor

Fig.4.9 Simulink diagram of proposed system with Unity power factor

Fig.4.10 Simulation power factor wave form of proposed system with Unity power factor

34
Fig.4.11 Simulation Grid Voltage wave form of proposed system with Unity power factor

Fig.4.12 Simulation Grid Current wave form of proposed system with Unity power factor

35
 Fig.4.13 Simulink diagram of proposed system with lekage current condition

Fig.4.14 Simulation Grid Voltage, Grid current, and Leakage Current Wave form of proposed
system with Closed loop Controller

36
 Fig. 4.15 Simulink diagram of proposed system with Closed loop Controller

Fig.6.14 Simulation input voltage wave form of proposed system with Closed loop Controller

37
 Fig.6.15 Simulation output voltage wave form of proposed system with Closed loop Controller

Fig.6.15 Simulation output voltage without filter wave form of proposed system with Closed loop
Controller

38
 5. CONCLUSION

For the HERIC inverter, a hybrid UP-PWM method was put forth in this
study. The suggested approach combines the benefits of reactive power capability
modulation, conventional UP-PWM, and UP-PWM with dead time. The suggested
method uses the traditional UP-PWM as its operational manner of producing positive
power. Furthermore, when the negative power generation is activated, just two extra
power switches are functioning at a high frequency. In that situation, the suggested
PWM method can produce currents with less ripple and low switching power losses.

Additionally, the voltage and current ZCPs employ UP-PWM with dead time
to provide steady inverter operation and to reduce distortions. The hybrid UP-PWM
technique was used to compensate for the effects of the dead time and minimum pulse
width limitation in order to further improve power quality. The simulation and
experimental findings have confirmed the hybrid UP-PWM scheme's efficacy in
terms of better efficiency, improved power quality, and—most importantly—flexible
reactive power controllability.

39
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