STRESSES AND STRAINS

1.1 LOAD
Any external force acting on a body is called load. The unit of load are same as that of force.
Load is measure in Newton (N)
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF LOAD
1. According to the effect produced on the body:
i. Tensile load: the load whose effect is to increase the length of the body in the
direction of its application is known as tensile load.
ii. Compressive load: the load whose effect is to decrease the length of the body in the
direction of its application is known as compressive load.
iii. Shearing load: the load whose effect is to cause sliding of one face of the body
relative to the other is called shearing load.
iv. Bending load: the load whose effect is cause a certain degree of curvature or bending
in the body is called bending load.
v. Twisting load: the effect produced by two couples applied at opposite ends of the
body so as to cause one end to rotate about its longitudinal axis relative to the other
end are called twisting load.
2. According to the manner of application of load on the body:
i. Dead load: these load are also known as static load. Magnitude, direction and point
of application of these loads are fixed for a given member.
ii. Live load: these load are also known as fluctuating load. Magnitude, direction and
point of application of these load are not fixed for a given member.
1.3 STRENGTH
The strength of a material may be defined as the maximum resistance which a material can
offer to the externally applied load.
1.4 STRESS
Stress may be define as the internal resistance per unit area of cross-section offered by a body
against the deformation.

σ = stress induced in the body

P = load or force acting on a body
A = cross-sectional area of the body
1.5 TYPES OF STRESSES
1. Direct stress: when a force is applied perpendicular to the cross-section of the
member the stress induced is known as direct stress.
i. Tensile stress: when an axial pull is applied on the cross-section area of a body, the
stress induced is known as tensile stress.
 ii. Compressive stress: when an axial push is applied on the cross-sectional area of a
body, the stress induced is known as compressive stress.
2. Shear stress: when two equal and opposite forces are applied tangentially to the cross
section of a body, the stress induced is known as shear stress.

1.6 STRAIN
Strain may be defined as the ratio of change in dimension of the body to the original
dimension of the body. Strain is denoted by Epsilon

1.7 types of strains

1. Tensile strain: the ratio of increased in length to the original length of the member is
termed as tensile strain.
2. Compressive strain: the ratio of decrease in length to the original length of the
member is termed as compressive strain.
3. Shear strain: the ratio of angular deformation to original length along the force is
termed as shear strain.
4. Volumetric strain: the ratio between the change in volume and the original volume
of a member is known as volumetric strain or bulk strain.
1.8 ELASTICITY AND ELASTIC LIMIT
i. Elasticity: the deformation produce by external force do not disappear after the
removal of external forces, such material are called plastic material
ii. Elastic limit: the value of stress corresponding to this limiting force upto which the
material is perfectly elastic is known as elastic limit
1.9 HOOKE’S LAW
This law states that when a material is loaded within limit of proportionality, the strain is
directly proportional to stress produced by stress

1.10 LASTIC CONSTANTS

1. Modulus of elasticity : It may defined as the ratio of tensile stress and tensile strain
or ratio of compressive stress and compressive strain. It is denoted by E.
 2. Modulus of rigidity: the ratio of shear stress and shear strain is known as modulus of
rigidity or shear modulus. This is denoted by G
Modulus of rigidity = shear stress/shear strain
3. Bulk modulus: when a body is subjected to three mutually perpendicular normal
stresses of equal intensity, the ratio of normal stress to the corresponding volumetric
strain is known as bulk modulus. It is denoted by K.
K = Normal stress/volumetric strain

1.11 LONGITUDINAL STRAIN AND LATERAL STRAIN

Longitudinal strain: the strain along the direction of the applied force is known as
longitudinal strain.
Lateral strain: The strain at right angles to the direction of applied force is known as lateral
strain.
1.12 POISSON’S RATIO
The ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is known as poisson’s ratio. It is denoted
by 1/m
Poisson’s ratio = lateral strain /longitudinal strain
1.13 ENSILE TEST FOR DUCTILE METALS
1. Limit of proportionality: limit of proportionality may be defined as that stress at
which the stress-strain curve begins to deviate from the straight line.
2. Elastic limit: Elastic limit may be defined as the stress developed in the material
without any permanent deformation.
3. Yield point: the stress corresponding to yield point is known as yield point stress.
4. Ultimate stress: the stress attains its maximum value and is known as ultimate stress.
5. Breaking stress: the stress corresponding to point F is known as breaking stress.

1.14 PROOF STRESS

Proof stress is the stress necessary to cause a permanent extension equal to a defined
percentage of gauge length.
1.15 MAXIMUM OR ULTIMATE TENSILE STRESS
It is defined as the ratio of the maximum load to which a specimen is subjected in a tensile
test and the original cross-sectional area of the specimen.
Ultimate stress = maximum load/original cross-sectional area
1.16 WORKING STRESS
The material is not subjected upto ultimate stress, but only upto a fraction of ultimate stress.
This stress is known as working stress.
Working stress = ultimate stress/factor of safety
1.17 FACTOR OF SAFETY
The ratio of ultimate stress and working stress is known as factor of safety.
Factor of safety = ultimate stress/working stress
Factor of safety depend upon the following factors:
1. Types of load
2. Frequency of vibration of load
3. Degree of safety required
4. Degree of economy required
5. Dependability of the structure
6. Life span of the structure
1.18 BREAKING STYRESS
It may be defined as the ratio of load at the time of fracture and the original cross-sectional
area.
Breaking stress = load at breaking point/original cross sectional
area 1.19 YIELD STRESS
It is may be define as the lowest stress at which extension of the test specimen takes place
without increase in load.
Yield stress = load at yield point/original cross-sectional area

1.20 ECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

1. Elasticity/Stiffness

This is a measure of elastic deformation of a body under stress which is recovered when the
stress is released. The ratio of stress to strain in the elastic region is known as stiffness or
modulus of elasticity (Young’s Modulus). When the stress goes beyond the elastic limit the
material will no longer return completely to its original dimension.

2. Yield (or Proof Strength)

Stress needed to produce a specified amount of plastic or permanent deformation. (Usually a

0.2 % change in length)

3. Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)

The maximum stress a material can withstand before fracture.

4. Ductility

The amount of plastic deformation that a material can withstand without fracture.

5. Hardness

The resistance to abrasion, deformation, scratching or to indentation by another hard body.

This property is important for wear resistant applications.

6. Toughness

This is commonly associated with impact loading. It is defined as the energy required to
fracture a unit volume of material. Generally, the combination of a high UTS and a high
ductility results in a higher toughness.

7. Fatigue Strength and Endurance Limit

Fatigue failure results from a repeated cyclic application of stress which may be below the
yield strength of the material. This is known to be the most common form of mechanical
failure of all engineering components. The number of stress cycles needed to cause fatigue
failure depends on the magnitude of the stress. Below a certain stress level material does not
fail regardless to the number of cycles. This is known as endurance limit and is an important
parameter in many design applications.

8. Creep Resistance
The plastic deformation of a material which occurs as a function of time when the material is
subjected to constant stress below its yield strength. For metals this is associated with high
temperature applications but polymers may exhibit creep at low temperatures.

RESILIENCE
2.1 IMPORTANT TERMS
1. Strain energy: the work done in straining the body within the elastic limit is known
as strain energy
Strain energy = work done
2. Resilience: It is a common term used for the total strain energy stored in a body.
Sometimes, the resilience may be defined as the capacity of a strained body for
doing work on the removal of the straining force.
3. Proof resilience: The maximum strain energy which can be stored in a body upto
the elastic limit is called proof resilience.
4. Modulus of resilience: proof resilience per unit volume the body is known
as modulus of resilience.
Modulus of resilience = proof resilience/volume of the body
5. proof load: the maximum load which can be applied to a body without its permanent
deformation is called proof load.
2.2 TYPES OF LOADING
1. Gradually
2. Suddenly
3. With impact

2.3 STRAINED ENERGY STORED IN A BODY DUE TO GRADUALLY

APPLIED LOAD
A Gradually applied load is that which is applied gradually on the body i.e. loading
begins from zero and increase gradually till the body is fully loaded.

Let us consider a body which is subjected with tensile load which is increasing gradually up
to its elastic limit from value 0 to value P and therefore deformation or extension of the
body is also increasing from 0 to x and we can see it in following load extension diagram as
displayed here.
We have following information from above load extension diagram for body which is
subjected with tensile load up to its elastic limit.
σ= Stress developed in the body
E = Young’s Modulus of elasticity of the material of the
body A= Cross sectional area of the body
P = Gradually applied load which is increasing gradually up to its elastic limit from value 0
to value P
P=σ.A
x = Deformation or extension of the body which is also increasing from 0 to
x L = Length of the body
V= Volume of the body = L.A
U = Strain energy stored in the body
Let use the value of the extension or deformation “x” in strain energy equation and we
will have
U = (1/2) (σ. L/ E).σ. A
U = (1/2) (σ2/E) L.A
U = (σ2/2E) V
U = (σ2/2E) V
Therefore strain energy stored in a body, when load will be applied gradually, will be
given by following equation.

Modulus of resilience

Modulus of resilience = Proof resilience/Volume of the body

2.4 STRAIN ENERGY IN A BODY DUE TO SUDDENLY APPLIED

LOAD A Load applied suddenly on a body is called suddenly applied load.
Let us see the load extension diagram as displayed here for this case where body will be
subjected with sudden load and we will find out here the stress induced in the body due to
sudden applied load and simultaneously we will also secure the expression for strain energy
for this situation.
Let us go ahead step by step for easy understanding, however if there is any issue we
can discuss it in comment box which is provided below this post.

We have following information from above load extension diagram for body which
is subjected with sudden applied load.

σ = Stress developed in the body due to sudden applied load

E = Young’s Modulus of elasticity of the material of the
body A= Cross sectional area of the body
P = Sudden applied load which will be constant throughout the deformation process of
the body
x = Deformation or extension of the
body L = Length of the body
V= Volume of the body = L.A
U = Strain energy stored in the body
Strain energy stored in the body = Work done by the load in deforming the
body Strain energy stored in the body = Area of the load extension curve
Strain energy stored in the body = P.
x U = P. x

As we know that maximum strain energy stored in the body U will be provided by
the following expression as mentioned here.

Let use the value of the extension or deformation “x” in above equation and we will have

2.5 STRAIN ENERGY STORED IN A BODY DUE TO IMPACT

LOAD A Load applied with some velocity is called impact load.
Let us see the following figure, where we can see one vertical bar which is fixed at the upper
end and there is collar at the lower end of the bar. Let us think that one load is being dropped
over the collar of the vertical bar from a height of h as displayed in following figure.
SHEARING FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT

A beam is a structure which is to carry all types of loading coming over it and is
economically designed depending upon the type of loading, magnitude of loading and
nature of support over which the beam rests.

NATURE OF SUPPORT

1. Hinged Support: In hinged support position of member is fixed but its direction is not
fixed. It can offer resistance to the member horizontally and vertically

Hinged Support
2 Fixed Support: In fixed support, both position and direction of member are
fixed. Reaction from the support can be any direction.

3 Simply Supported: In this case member rests freely over the support. The
reaction will be normal to support. The position and direction are not fixed. Its
horizental component is assumed to be zero.

4. Roller Support: In this case reaction will always be normal to support and it
does not offer any horizental resistance, hence horizental component is always
zero.
 TYPES OF BEAMS

1. Cantilever: A beam whose one end is firmly fixed and other end is free, is known
as cantilever.

2. Simply Supported Beam: A beam whose both ends are simply resting on
wall,columns etc. is called simply supported beam.

3. Fixed Beam: A beam whose both ends are firmly fixed in walls or columns is
known as fixed beam.

4 Continuous Beam: A beam which has more than two support is known as
continuous beam.
5 Overhanging Beams: When the supports are not at the ends of the beam or one
or both the ends project beyond the support,then the beam is called overhanging
beams.
TYPES OF LOADING

1. Concentrated or point load: This type of load act on particular point of beam.

2. Uniformly Distributed Load (U.D.L.): This type of load is uniformly distributed

over whole span of beam on or part of it. It is given in Newton/meter length.
 3. Varying Load: If the intensity of load distribution increase from zero/unit length
to a particular value (say) w/unit length uniformly. It is called varying load.

MOMENT OF INERTIA

MOMENT OF INERTIA

Moment of inertia (M.I) for a very small area about any axis is given by the product
of area and square of distance between centroid of area and the given axis. This is also called
second moment of the area.
M.I. = Area* ( distance )2

THEOREM OF PERPENDICULAR AXIS

The moment of inertia of a plane of lamina about the perpendicular axis to its plane is
equal to the sum of moments of inertia of plane of lamina about any two perpendicular axes
intersecting each other at the point through which the perpendicular axis passes.
THEOREM OF PARALLEL AXIS
The moment of inertia (M.I.) of a plane of lamina about any axis is equal to its M.I.
about a parallel axis passing through its centroid plus the product of the area of lamina and
the square of the distance between tow axes.

RADIUS OF GYRATION
The radius of gyration of an area is the distance from the centroid of the area to the

giv en axis. It is denoted by K.

Consider a figure having area (A), moment of inertia (I) and centroid (G)

MOMENT OF INERTIA (M.I.) OF A CIRCULAR DISC

 Izz = D4/32.
If Ixx = M.I. of disc about X-X axis.
Iyy = M.I. of disc about Y-Y axis.
By the theorem of - axis,
Izz = Ixx + Lyy
Izz = 2Ixx

Ixx – 1/2Izz = D4/64

Iyy = D4/64

MOMENT OF INERTIA (M.I), OF A HOLLOW CIRCULAR DISC

Izz = /32[D4-d4]
Ixx = /D4-d4]
Iyy = /64 [D4 -d4]

BENDING STRESSES

BENDING Equation:-

M/I=E/R

Hence M/I=E/R=f/y……………………………………BENDING EQUATION

Where
M= B.M. or Moment of resistance of section
I= M.I. of the whole section about N.A.
E=Younge’s modulus of elasticity
R=Radius of curvature of N.A.
f= Bending stress at a distance y from N.A.
y=Distance of fibre from N.A.

APPLICATION OF BENDING EQUATION

The bending equation is authentic only for cases where there is pure Bending moment or
there is no shearing force. Generally where shearing force is zero, the Bending moment is
found to be maximum, in that case Bending equation holds correct results. The Bending
Moment at a section accompanied by a shearing force can’t be considered fairly correct for
the application of Bending equations.

ASSUMPTIONS IN THE THEORY OF PURE BENDING

1 The material of the beam is homogenous or uniform throughout.

2 The material of the beam is isotropic i.e. having same elastic properties in all the
directions.
3 The elastic limit remains within the permissible value.
4 The value of E (Young’s modulus) remains same for tension and compression.
5 The transverse section of the beam remains plane before and after bending.
6 The resultant force on the transverse section of the beam is zero.
7 The beam is assumed to be straight initially.
8 Each layer of beam is free to expand or contract independently of the layers above
and below it.
9 The application of load is only in the plane of bending.

BLENDING STRESSES

INTRODUCTION
When a section of beam is subjected to Bending moment, shear stresses and Bending stresses
are set up in the beam. When there is no shearing force it can be considered as pure bending.
Theses longitudinal bending stresses can either be compressive or tensile in nature.

BENDING EQUATIONS

M.I. of entire section of beam about N.A.

M/I = E/R.

Hence M/I = E/R = f/y……………………………………

M = B.M. or Moment of resistance of section,

I = M.I of the whole section about N.A.
E = Young’s modulus of elasticity,
R = Radius of curvature of N.A,
F = Bending stress at a distance y from N.A.,
Y = Distance of fibre from N.A.

APPLICATION OF BENDING EQUATION

The bending equation is authentic only for cases where there is pure Bending
moment or there is no shearing force. Generally where shearing force is zero,
the Bending moment is found to be maximum, in that case Bending equation
holds correct result. The Bending moment at a section accompanied by a
shearing force can’t be considered fairly correct for the application of Bending
equations.
ASSUMPTION OF BENDING EQUATION

1.The material of the beam is homogeneous or uniform throughout.

2.The material of the beam is isotropic i.e. having same elastic properties in all
the directions.
3.The elastic limit remains within the permissible valur.
4.The value of E ( Young’s modulus) remains same fore tension and
compression.
5.The transverse section of the beam remains plane before and after bending.
6.The resultant Force on the transverse section of the beam is zero.
7.The beam is assumed to be straight initially.
8.Each layer of beam is free to expand or contract independently of the layers
above and below it.
9.The application of load is only in the plane of bending.
SHEAR STRESSES
shear stressses of I section.

SLOPE AND DEFLECTION

Surveying- 1
 Measurements
• Linear Measurement
• Angular Measurement
 Operation in Chain Surveying
• Ranging
• Chaining
• Offsetting
 Reduction Of Level
• Height of Instrument Method
• Rise and Fall Method
 Errors in Levelling
• Instrumental Error
• Personal Error
• Natural Error
SECOND APPLICATION OF PASCAL’s LAW
LEVRAGE OF HYDRAULIC PRESS
 Construction
Material
Contents:
Classification of stones
Rocks & it’s types
Bricks & it’s classification
Cement & it’s composition
Paints and it’s composition
 Building construction
Contents :
Foundation & it’s types
 Stairs & it’s classification
 Masonry & it’s types
 Building & it’s classification
 Doors and windows & it’s types
 Foundation
A foundation is a lower portion
of building structure that transfers its gravity
loads to the earth. Foundations are generally
broken into two categories: shallow
foundations and deep foundations. A
tall building must have a strong foundation if it
is to stand for a long time.
Types Of Foundation
1.Shallow Foundation
It is further classified into:
Wall footing
Isolated footing
Combined footing
Raft footing
Inverted arch footing
 Grillage footing
2.Deep Foundation
It is further classified into:
• Pile Foundation
• Well Foundation
Wall footing Isolated footing
 Combined footing Raft footing

Inverted arch footing

Grillage footing
Types of Deep Foundation

Pile Foundation Well Foundation

 Stairs
A stairway, staircase, stairwell, flight of stairs, or
simply stairs is a construction designed to bridge a
large vertical distance by dividing it into smaller vertical
distances, called steps. Stairs may be straight, round, or may
consist of two or more straight pieces connected at angles.
Various Components or Parts of Staircase and their Details
Following are the various components of staircase:
Step
The step is composed of the tread and riser.
Tread The tread “depth” is measured from the outer edge of the
step to the vertical “riser” between steps. The “width” is measured
from one side to the other.
Riser
The vertical portion between each tread on the stair. This may be
missing for an “open” stair effect.
Landing – A landing is the area of a floor near the top or bottom step of a
stair. An intermediate landing is a small platform that is built as part of the
stair between main floor levels and is typically used to allow stairs to hange
directions, or to allow the user a rest.
Staircase – the entire structure relating to a stair, comprising steps, treads,
risers, strings, balustrading, landings etc
FLIGHT
It is a series of steps without any platform or landing or break in their
direction.
GOING
It is the horizontal distance between two successive riser faces.
NOSING
This is the outer projecting edge of a tread. This is generally made rounded
to give more pleasing appearance and makes the staircase easy to navigate
WINDERS
They are tapering steps used for changing the direction of a stair.
SCOTIA
It is a moulding provided under the nosing to improve the elevation of the
step, and to provide strength to nosing.
PITCH OR SLOPE
It is angle which the line of nosing of the stair makes with the horizontal.
 STRINGS OR STRINGERS
These are the sloping members which support the steps in a stair. They
run along the slope of the stair.
BALUSTER
It is a vertical member of wood or metal, supporting the hand rails.
HAND RAIL
It is a rounded or moulded member of wood or metal following generally
the contour of the nosing line, and fixed on the top of balusters.
RUN
It is the total length of stair in a horizontal plane, including landings.
HEADER
It is the horizontal structural member supporting stair stringers or
landings.
 Requirement Of a Good Stair

1. LOCATION
It should preferably be located centrally, ensuring sufficient
light and ventilation.
2. WIDTH OF STAIR
The width of stairs for public buildings should be 1.8 m and
for residential buildings 0.9 m.
3. LENGTH
The flight of the stairs should be restricted to a maximum of
12 and minimum of 3 steps.
4. PITCH OF STAIR
The pitch of long stairs should be made flatter by
introducing landing. The slope should not exceed 400 and
should not be less than 250.
5. HEAD ROOM
The distance between the tread and soffit of the flight
immediately above it, should not be less than 2.1 to 2.3 m.
This much of height is maintained so that a tall person can
use the stairs with some luggage on its head.
6. MATERIALS
Stairs should be constructed using fire resisting materials.
Materials also should have sufficient strength to resist any
impact.
7. BALUSTRADE
All open well stairs should be provided with balustrades, to avoid
accidents. In case of wide stairs it should be provided with hand
rails on both sides.
8. LANDING
The width of the landing should not be less than the width of the
stair.
9. WINDERS
These should be avoided and if found necessary, may be
provided at lower end of the flight.
10. STEP PROPORTIONS
The ratio of the going and the rise of a step should be well
proportioned to ensure a comfortable access to the stair way.
 CLASSIFICATION OF STAIRS
1. STRAIGHT STAIR: 2. DOGGED-LEGGED STAIR:

3. OPEN NEWEL STAIR:

4. GEOMETRICAL STAIR:
5. CIRCULAR STAIR: 6. SPIRAL STAIR:

7. QUARTER-TURN STAIR:
8. BIFURCATED
STAIR:
 Masonry
Masonry consists of building structures by laying
individual masonry units (brick, concrete block, stone, etc).
Normally the masonry units are laid with cement mortar,
which binds them together to create a
structure. Masonry construction can provide beautiful walls
and floors at economical prices.

Brick masonry
Brick masonry is used for construction of
buildings and other structures by using brick
stone, stone blocks, brick blocks with different
types of masonry.
Application of the Brick Masonry
Brick masonry has a number of practical application and can be used very
conveniently at places like construction of ordinary as well as important
building ,foundation,walls,columns,ornamental works ,circular brick work
buttresses, retaining structures, window sills, jambs, corbels, coping, fire
places, flumes, tall chimney,cavity walls,floors,arches,culverts,steps,etc.

Advantages of Brick masonry

Since shape and size of bricks are uniform, it do not need skilled
labour for the construction.
Bricks are light in weight and hence handling them is easy.
Bricks are easily available around cities and their transportation cost
is less because their weight is less.
It is possible to use all types of mortar in brick masonry.
Thinner walls can be constructed with bricks but it is not so with
stones.
It is easy to form openings for doors and windows.
Dead load of brick masonry is less.
Brick masonry has better fire and weather resistance compared to
stone masonry.
TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN MASONRY WORKS
1. HEADER:
It is a full brick or stone which is laid with its length perpendicular to the face of the wall.
2. STRETCHER:
It is a full brick or stone in which is laid its length parallel to the face of the wall.
3. BOND:
It is a term applied to the overlapping of bricks or stones in a wall in alternate courses, to bind
the whole wall together.
4. COURSE:
A horizontal layer of bricks or stones is termed as course.
5. HEADER COURSE:
It is a course of brickwork entirely composed of headers.
6. STRETCHER COURSE:
It is a course of brickwork in which all the bricks are laid as stretchers.
7. BED:
It is a term used to indicate the lower surface of bricks or stones in each course. It may also be
termed as surface of the bricks on which it rests.
8. FACE:
The surface of a wall exposed to weather is termed as face.
9. FACING:
The material used in the face of the wall is known as facing.
10. BACK:
The inner surface of the wall which is not exposed to the weather is termed as back.
11. BACKING:
The material used in forming the back of the wall is known as backing.
12. HEARTING:
The portion of a wall between facing and backing is termed as hearting.
13. JOINT:
The junction of two or more bricks or stones is called joint.
14. RACKING BACK:
The process of stopping the unfinished end of a wall in stepped fashion.
15. BAT:
It is a portion of a brick cut across the width or a brick cut by some fraction of its length.
16. CLOSER:
It is a portion of a brick cut in such a manner that its one long face remains uncut.
17. KING CLOSER:
It is a brick which is cut in such a way that the width of one of its end is half that of a full brick.
18. QUEEN CLOSER:
It is a term applied to a brick which is half as wide as full brick. Queen closer is made by cutting a brick
lengthwise into two portions.
19. BEVELLED CLOSER:
It is similar to king closer with the only difference that the whole length of the brick is bevelled for
maintaining half width at one end and full width at the other.
20. MITRED CLOSER:
It is a brick whose one end is cut splayed or mitred for the full width.
21. PERPEND:
It is a vertical joint on the face of a wall directly over vertical joints in an alternate course.
22. FROG:
It is a depression on the top face of a brick. Frog provides a recess for the mortar which on setting
forms a key and prevents the displacement of the brick above.
23. PLINTH:
The horizontal projecting or flush course of stone or brick provided at the base of the wall above
ground level is known as plinth.
24. SILL:
It is a horizontal member of brick, stone, concrete or wood provided to give support for the vertical
members of a window.
25. JAMBS:
The vertical sides of a finished opening for door, window or fire place etc. are termed as jambs.
26. REVEALS:
Reveals are the exposed vertical surfaces left on the sides of an opening after the door or window
frame has been fitted in position.
27. LINTEL:
A horizontal member of stone, brick, steel or RCC, used to support the masonry or load above an
opening.
28. ARCH:
A mechanical arrangement of wedge-shaped blocks of stone or brick arranged in the form of a curve
supporting the masonry or load above an opening.
29. CORNICE:
It is a horizontal moulded projection provided near the top of a building or at the junction of a wall and
ceiling.
30. PARAPET:
It is a term applied to a low wall built around a flat roof to act as a protective solid balustrade for the
users of the terrace.
31. WEATHERING:
Weathering is the term applied to the bevelled top surface of a stone.
32. GABLE:
It is a triangular shaped portion of masonry at the end of a sloped roof.
33. SPALLS:
Chips or small pieces of stone broken off a large block are termed as spalls.
34. COLUMNS:
It is an isolated vertical load bearing member whose width does not exceed four times its thickness.
35. PIER:
It is a vertical member of stone or brick masonry constructed to support an arch, beam or lintel etc.
36. BUTTRESS:
It is similar to pier built on the exterior of a wall properly bonded to it.
37. CORBEL:
It is the extension of one or more course of brick or stone from the face of a wall.
38. THRESHOLDS:
The arrangement of steps provided from ground level to reach plinth level on external doors and
verandah is termed as thresholds.

Types of Bonds in Brick Masonry Wall Construction :

The most commonly used types of bonds in brick masonry are:
1. Stretcher bond 6.English cross bond
2. Header bond 7.Brick on edge bond
3. English bond 8.Raking bond
4. Flemish bond 9.Facing bond
5. Dutch bond 10.Garden wall bond
1.Stretcher bond 2. Header bond 3. English bond

4. Flemish bond

5.Dutch bond
6.English cross bond 7.Brick on edge bond

8.Raking bond 10.Garden wall bond

 Stone masonry
The art of building the structures using stone blocks and mortar is termed as
stone masonry is preferred where building stones are abundantly available
in nature .These stones when cut and dressed to proper shape and size
provide an economical material for the construction of various parts of the
building in hilly terrains.
Glossary of terms
1. Natural Bed: The setting of the stone on the same plane as it was formed in the ground. This
generally applies to all stratified materials.
2. Bed: The top or bottom of a joint; natural bed-surface of stone parallel to its stratification.
3. Bedding plane. The plane along which a stone can be separated, easily, is called
bedding plane. Stones are laid in a structure so that load acts perpendicular to their
bedding plane.
4. Cornice. The course of a masonry provided at ceiling level of the roof projecting outside
the surface of the wall of a building, is called cornice.
5. Throating. A small groove cut on the underside of a projecting chuajja, cornice, coping,
to discharge rain water without trickling to walls, is called throating.
6. Coping: A flat stone used as a cap on walls or around the perimeter of patios and pool decks.
7. Template: A detailed pattern or drawing showing exact dimensions to be fabricated.
8.Bond stones: Bond stones are generally cut to twice the bed thickness of the material being used.
9. Reveals. The exposed vertical surfaces perpendicular to window or door frame, are
called reveals.
10. Drip stone. A projecting dressed stone having its undersurface throated, is called drip
stone.