2007 - Handbook of Formula and Physical Constants
2007 - Handbook of Formula and Physical Constants
2007 - Handbook of Formula and Physical Constants
Formulae and
Physical Constants
TOPIC PAGE
SI Multiples..............................................................................1
Thermodynamics.....................................................................21
Fluid Mechanics......................................................................30
Electricity................................................................................33
To
To To To Metre, To To To
Milli- Centi- Deci- Gram, Deca- Hecto- Kilo-
Litre
Metre,
Gram, x 103 x 102 x 101 x 10-1 x 10-2 x 10-3
Litre
Page 1
BASIC UNITS
SI IMPERIAL
DISTANCE
1 metre (1 m) = 100 centimetres (100 cm) 12 in. = 1 ft
= 1000 millimetres (1000 mm) 3 ft = 1 yd
5280 ft = 1 mile
1760 yd = 1 mile
1 kilometre (1 km) = 1000 m
Conversions:
1 in. = 25.4 mm
1 ft = 30.48 cm
1 mile = 1.61 km
1 yd = 0.914 m
1m = 3.28 ft
Area
Conversions:
Page 2
SI IMPERIAL
Volume
Conversions:
Conversions:
Density
mass weight
mass density = weight density =
volume volume
m ⎛ kg ⎞ w ⎛ lb ⎞
ρ= ⎜ ⎟ ρ= ⎜ ⎟
V ⎝ m3 ⎠ V ⎝ ft 3 ⎠
Conversions:
kg
(on Earth) a mass density of 1 results in a weight density of 0.0623 lb3
m3 ft
Page 3
SI Imperial
RELATIVE DENSITY
In SI R.D. is a comparison of mass density In Imperial the corresponding quantity is
to a standard. For solids and liquids the specific gravity; for solids and liquids a
standard is fresh water. comparison of weight density to that of water.
Conversions:
Page 4
Greek Alphabet
Page 5
MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE
Logarithms
P=Vx or x = logP/logV
Algebra
1. Quadratic Equation
If ax2 + bx + c = 0,
- b ± b 2 − 4ac
Then x =
2a
Trigonometry
1. Basic Ratios
opposite
sin A = ,
hypotenuse
adjacent
cos A = ,
hypotenuse
opposite
tan A =
adjacent
Page 6
4. Solution of Triangles
a. Sine Law
a b c
= =
Sin A Sin B Sin C
b. Cosine Law
c2 = a2 + b2 - 2 ab Cos C
a2 = b2 + c2 - 2 bc Cos A
b2 = a2 + c2 - 2 ac Cos B
Geometry
1. Areas of Triangles
a. All Triangles
a+b+c
where, s is half the sum of the sides, or s =
2
b. Equilateral Triangles
2. Circumference of a Circle
C = πd
3. Area of a Circle
circumference × r π
A = πr2 = = d 2 = 0.7854d2
2 4
Page 7
4. Area of a Sector of a Circle
arc × r
A=
2
θ°
A= × π r2 (θ = angle in degrees)
360
θ°r 2
A= (θ = angle in radians)
2
4 2 d
Also approximate area = h - 0.608
3 h
6. Ellipse
π
A= Dd
4
Approx. circumference = π
(D + d )
2
7. Area of Trapezoid
⎛a + b⎞
A= ⎜ ⎟h
⎝ 2 ⎠
8. Area of Hexagon
Page 8
9. Area of Octagon
10. Sphere
4 3
Volume V = πr
3
Volume of segment
Vs = πh (3r – h)
2
3
πh
Vs = (h 2 + 3a 2) where a = radius of segment base
6
π 2
V= d L where L is cylinder length
4
12. Pyramid
Volume
1
V= base area x perpendicular height
3
Volume of frustum
h
VF = (A + a + Aa ) where h is the perpendicular height, A and a are areas as shown
3
Page 9
13. Cone
π DL
A=
2
π (D + d)L
AF =
2
Volume of cone:
Volume of frustum:
Page 10
APPLIED MECHANICS
displacement
Velocity - vector property equal to
time
m ft
Conversions: 1 = 3.28
s s
km mi
1 = 0.621
h h
m ft
In SI the basic unit is 2
, in Imperial 2
s s
m ft
Conversion: 1 = 3.28
s2 s2
m ft
Acceleration due to gravity, symbol "g", is 9.81 2
or 32.2 2
s s
Page 11
Linear Velocity and Acceleration
u initial velocity v = u + at
v final velocity
s= v+u t
t elapsed time 2
s displacement s = ut + 1 at 2
a acceleration 2
v 2 = u 2 + 2 as
ω2 = ω1 + α t
θ = ω1 + ω2 x t
2
θ = ω1 t + ½ α t2
ω2 2 = ω1 2 + 2 α θ
linear displacement, s = rθ
linear velocity, v = rω
linear, or tangential acceleration, aT = r α
radians/sec = 2πrpm/60
Page 12
Tangential, Centripetal and Total Acceleration
a T = rα
ac = v2/r = r ω2
Total acceleration, a, of a rotating point experiencing angular acceleration is the vector sum
of aT and ac
a = aT + ac
Force
kg m
In SI the unit of force is the newton, N, defined as a
s2
Weight
In Imperial, the mass of an object (rarely used), in slugs, can be calculated from the known weight
in pounds
Weight
m= g g = 32.2 ft2
s
Page 13
Newton's Second Law of Motion
F = ma (Imperial F = w
g a, where w is weight)
Torque Equation
T=Iα where T is the acceleration torque in Nm, I is the moment of inertia in kg m2 and
α is the angular acceleration in radians/s2
Momentum
p = mv (Imperial p = w
g v, where w is weight)
kg m
in SI unit is s
Work
W = Fs
1 J = 1 Nm
Kinetic Energy
E k = 1 mv 2
2
Page 14
Kinetic Energy of Rotation
1
E R = mk 2 ω 2 where k is radius of gyration, ω is angular velocity in rad/s
2
or
1
E R = Iω 2 where I = mk2 is the moment of inertia
2
mv 2
FC = where r is the radius
r
or
Potential Energy
Ep = m g h
In Imperial this is usually expressed Ep = w h where w is weight, and h is height above some
specified datum
Thermal Energy
In SI the common units of thermal energy are J, and kJ, (and kJ/kg for specific quantities)
In Imperial, the units of thermal energy are British Thermal Units (Btu)
Page 15
Electrical Energy
In SI the units of electrical energy are J, kJ and kilowatt hours kWh. In Imperial, the unit of
electrical energy is the kWh
Power
1 W = 1 Js
1 h.p. = 550 ft –s lb
1 kW = 0.948 Btu
s
Pressure
1 Pa = 1 N2
m
In Imperial, the basic unit is the pound per square inch, psi
Atmospheric Pressure
Page 16
Pressure Conversions
Pressure may be expressed in standard units, or in units of static fluid head, in both SI and Imperial
systems
m
Velocity of P = ω R 2 - x 2
s
Acceleration of P = ω2 x m/s2
2π
The period or time of a complete oscillation = seconds
ω
General formula for the period of S.H.M.
displacement
T = 2π
acceleration
Simple Pendulum
L
T = 2π T = period or time in seconds for a double swing
g
L = length in metres
Page 17
The Conical Pendulum
Lifting Machines
load W
M.A. = =
effort F
effort distance
V.R. (velocity ratio) =
load distance
M.A.
η = efficiency =
V.R.
1. Lifting Blocks
2 πR
Velocity ratio =
2 π(r - r1 )
2
2R
= 2R
r - r1
2D
Velocity ratio =
(d - d 1 )
Page 18
3. Inclined Plane
length
V.R. =
height
4. Screw Jack
circumference of leverage
V.R. =
pitch of thread
Indicated Power
Brake Power
load P
Direct stress = =
area A
extension ΔA
Direct strain = =
original length L
Modulus of elasticity
force
Shear stress τ =
area under shear
x
Shear strain =
L
Modulus of rigidity
shear stress
G=
shear strain
Page 19
General Torsion Equation (Shafts of circular cross-section)
T = τ = Gθ
J r L
M=σ=E
I y R
1. For Rectangle
I = πD
4
64
Page 20
THERMODYNAMICS
Temperature Scales
5 9
° C = (° F − 32) °F = °C + 32
9 5
Q = mcΔT
m is mass
c is specific heat
ΔT is temperature change
Latent Heat
Gas Laws
1. Boyle’s Law
PV = constant or
P1V1 = P2V2
Page 21
2. Charles’ Law
V
When gas pressure is constant, = constant
T
V1 V2
or = , where V is volume and T is absolute temperature
T1 T2
3. Gay-Lussac's Law
P
When gas volume is constant, = constant
T
P1 P2
Or = , where P is absolute pressure and T is absolute temperature
T1 T2
P1V1 P2V2
= = constant
T1 T2
Also
Page 22
SPECIFIC HEATS OF GASES
T1 – T2
Carnot Cycle η = where T1 and T2 are absolute temperatures of heat source and sink
T1
1. Spark Ignition Gas and Oil Engines (Constant Volume Cycle or Otto Cycle)
1 cylinder volume
η =1- (γ - 1)
where rv = compression ratio =
rv clearance volume
2. Diesel Cycle
(R γ − 1)
η =1- where r = ratio of compression
rvγ - 1 γ(R - 1)
R = ratio of cut-off volume to clearance volume
Page 23
3. High Speed Diesel (Dual-Combustion) Cycle
kβ γ - 1
η =1-
rvγ - 1 [(k - 1) + γk(β - 1)]
cylinder volume
where rv =
clearance volume
1
η =1- ⎛ γ −1 ⎞
⎜⎜ γ ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
r
p
Page 24
Page 25
Heat Transfer by Conduction
Q = λAtΔT
d
where Q = heat transferred in joules
λ = thermal conductivity or coeficient of heat
transfer in 2J × m or W
m × s × °C m × °C
A = area in m2
t = time in seconds
ΔT = temperature difference between surfaces in °C
d = thickness of layer in m
2πλtΔTL
Q=
⎛D⎞
1n ⎜ ⎟
⎝d⎠
Where D = outside diameter
d = inside diameter
L = length in metres
λ = thermal conductivity
t = time ( seconds )
ΔT = temperature difference ( degrees C )
Page 26
COEFFICIENTS OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
Material Coefficient of
Thermal Conductivity
W/m °C
Air 0.025
Aluminum 206
Brass 104
Brick 0.6
Concrete 0.85
Copper 380
Cork 0.043
Felt 0.038
Glass 1.0
Glass, fibre 0.04
Iron, cast 70
Plastic, cellular 0.04
Steel 60
Wood 0.15
Wallboard, paper 0.076
Page 27
Page 28
Chemical Heating Value of a Fuel
N2
Air in kg per kg of fuel = ×C
33 (CO 2 + CO)
Boiler Formulae
s (h 1 - h 2 )
m
Equivalent evaporation =
2257 kJ/kg
(h 1 - h 2 )
Factor of evaporation =
2257 kJ/kg
m s (h1 - h 2 )
Boiler efficiency =
f × calorific value of fuel
m
s
where m = mass flow rate of steam
h1 = enthalpy of steam produced in boiler
h2 = enthalpy of feedwater to boiler
mf = mass flow rate of fuel
Page 29
FLUID MECHANICS
At the vena contracta, the volumetric flow rate Q of the fluid is given by
The coefficients of contraction and velocity are combined to give the coefficient of discharge, Cd
i.e. C d = C cC v
and Q = C dA 2gh
Page 30
Bernoulli’s Theory
P v2
H = h+ +
w 2g
H = total head (metres) w = force of gravity on 1 m3 of fluid (N)
h = height above datum level (metres) v = velocity of water (metres per second)
P = pressure (N/m2 or Pa)
d 2g
d 2g
Pump Calculations
n 2 D2
Q 2 = Q1 × ×
n1 D1
2 2
⎛n ⎞ ⎛D ⎞
h1 = h 2 × ⎜ 2 ⎟ × ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ n1 ⎠ ⎝ D1 ⎠
3 3
⎛n ⎞ ⎛D ⎞
kW2 = kW1 × ⎜ 2 ⎟ × ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ n1 ⎠ ⎝ D1 ⎠
whereη1 = η 2
kW = pump power required
h = head developed by pump, m
D = impeller diameter, mm
η = pump efficiency
n = pump speed in rpm
Q = quantity pumped in A/min
Page 31
Actual Pipe Dimensions
Note: The upper figures in each square demote wall thickness in mm and the lower figures denote
mass per meter, in kilograms.
Page 32
ELECTRICITY
Ohm's Law
E
I =
R
or E = IR
Conductor Resistivity
L
R = ρ
a
where ρ = specific resistance (or resistivity) (ohm metres, Ω·m)
L = length (metres)
a = area of cross-section (square metres)
Temperature correction
Rt = Ro (1 + αt)
(1 + αt 2 )
R2 = R1
(1 + αt 1 )
α Values Ω/ΩºC
copper 0.00428
platinum 0.00385
nickel 0.00672
tungsten 0.0045
aluminum 0.0040
Page 33
Dynamo Formulae
φ ZNP
Average e.m. f . =
b60
where N = rotational speed of armature in r/min
φ = flux per pole in webers
P = total number of field poles
Z = total number of armature conductors
b = number of armature paths,
for wave winding b = 2
for lap winding b = P
Alternating Current
pN
Frequency of alternator = cycles per second
60
Page 34
Slip of Induction Motor
Inductive Reactance
1.256T 2μA
Inductance of an iron cored solenoid = henries
L × 108
Capacitance Reactance
1
Capacitance reactance of AC circuit = ohms
2πfC
⎛ 1 ⎞
Total reactance = ⎜ 2πfL - ⎟ohms
⎝ 2π fC ⎠
1 2
= R 2 + (2π fL - ) ohms
2 π fC
Page 35
Current in AC Circuit
impressed volts
Current =
impedance
Force on conductors:
Power Factor
true watts
p.f. =
volts x amperes
Star connected
Line voltage = 3 x phase voltage
Line current = phase current
Delta connected
Line voltage = phase voltage
Line current = 3 x phase current
Page 36
Page 37
ION NAMES AND FORMULAE
MONATOMIC POLYATOMIC
Page 38
USEFUL DATA
Temperature Scales
Page 39
Velocities and Acceleration
Angular Measure
INTEREST FORMULAS
1. F = P (1+ i )
n
F
2. P =
(1+ i) n
i
3. A = F
(1+ i) n -1
(1+ i) n -1
4. F = A
i
i (1+ i) n
5. A = P
(1+ i) n -1
(1+ i) n -1
6. P = A
i (1+ i) n
i (1+ i) n
7. A = (P - L)
(1+ i) n -1
Page 40
Page 41
Page 42
Page 43
Page 44
Page 45
Page 46
Page 47
Page 48
Page 49
This material is owned by Power Engineering Training Systems and may not be modified from its original form.
Duplication of this material for student use in-class or for examination purposes is permitted without written approval.