7.

2 The Source-Free RC Circuit 253

Finally, we consider four typical applications of RC and RL circuits: iC iR

delay and relay circuits, a photoflash unit, and an automobile ignition +
circuit. C v R
‒

7.2 The Source-Free RC Circuit

A source-free RCcircuit occurs when its dc source is suddenly disconnected. Figure 7.1
A source-free RC circuit.
The energy already stored in the capacitor is released to the resistors.
Consider a series combination of a resistor and an initially char ged
capacitor, as sho wn in Fig. 7.1. (The resistor and capacitor may be the A circuit response is the manner in
equivalent resistance and equi valent capacitance of combinations of re - which the circuit reacts to an
excitation.
sistors and capacitors.) Our objective is to determine the circuit response,
which, for pedagogic reasons, we assume to be the voltage v(t) across the
capacitor. Since the capacitor is initially charged, we can assume that at
time t = 0, the initial voltage is

v(0) = V0 (7.1)

with the corresponding value of the energy stored as

1 CV2
w(0) = __ (7.2)
0
2
Applying KCL at the top node of the circuit in Fig. 7.1 yields

iC + iR = 0 (7.3)

By definition, iC = C dv∕dt and iR = v∕R. Thus,

C ___ v =0
dv + __ (7.4a)
dt R
or
___ v =0
dv + ___ (7.4b)
dt RC
This is a first-order differential equation, since only the first derivative of
v is involved. To solve it, we rearrange the terms as
dv = − ___
___ 1 dt (7.5)
v RC
Integrating both sides, we get
t + ln A
ln v = − ___
RC
where ln A is the integration constant. Thus,
v = − ___
ln __ t (7.6)
A RC
Taking powers of e produces

v(t) = Ae−t∕RC
But from the initial conditions, v(0) = A = V0. Hence,

v(t) = V0e−t∕RC (7.7)

This shows that the voltage response of the RC circuit is an exponential de-
cay of the initial voltage. Since the response is due to the initial energy stored
and the physical characteristics of the circuit and not due to some e xternal
voltage or current source, it is called the natural response of the circuit.
254 Chapter 7 First-Order Circuits

The natural response of a circuit refers to the behavior (in terms of voltages
and currents) of the circuit itself, with no external sources of excitation.

The natural response is illustrated graphically in Fig. 7.2. Note that at

The natural response depends on the
nature of the circuit alone, with no t = 0, we have the correct initial condition as in Eq. (7.1). As t increases,
external sources. In fact, the circuit has the voltage decreases toward zero. The rapidity with which the v oltage
a response only because of the energy decreases is e xpressed in terms of the time constant, denoted by τ, the
initially stored in the capacitor. lowercase Greek letter tau.

v The time constant of a circuit is the time required for the response to
V0
decay to a factor of 1∕e or 36.8 percent of its initial value.1

V0 e‒t ⁄𝜏
0.368V0
This implies that at t = τ, Eq. (7.7) becomes

V0e−τ∕RC = V0e−1 = 0.368V0

0 𝜏 t
Figure 7.2 or
The voltage response of the RC circuit.
τ = RC (7.8)

In terms of the time constant, Eq. (7.7) can be written as

TABLE 7.1 v(t) = V0e−t∕τ (7.9)

Values of v (t)∕V0 = e−t∕τ. With a calculator it is easy to sho w that the v alue of v(t)∕V0 is as
t v(t)∕V0 shown in Table 7.1. It is evident from Table 7.1 that the voltage v(t) is less
than 1 percent of V0 after 5τ (five time constants). Thus, it is customary to
τ 0.36788 assume that the capacitor is fully dischar ged (or charged) after five time
2τ 0.13534 constants. In other words, it takes 5τ for the circuit to reach its final state
3τ 0.04979
or steady state when no changes take place with time. Notice that for every
4τ 0.01832
time interval of τ, the v oltage is reduced by 36.8 percent of its pre vious
5τ 0.00674
value, v(t + τ) = v(t)∕e = 0.368v(t), regardless of the value of t.
Observe from Eq. (7.8) that the smaller the time constant, the more
rapidly the v oltage decreases, that is, the f aster the response. This is
illustrated in Fig. 7.4. A circuit with a small time constant gi ves a f ast
response in that it reaches the steady state (or final state) quickly due to
quick dissipation of ener gy stored, whereas a circuit with a lar ge time
constant gives a slo w response because it tak es longer to reach steady
v state. At any rate, whether the time constant is small or large, the circuit
V0
reaches steady state in five time constants.
1.0 With the voltage v(t) in Eq. (7.9), we can find the current iR(t),
v(t) V
0.75
iR(t) = ___ = ___0 e −t∕τ (7.10)
R R
Tangent at t = 0 1
0.50 The time constant may be viewed from another perspective. Evaluating the derivative of
0.37 v(t) in Eq. (7.7) at t = 0, we obtain
0.25
dt ( V0)
__ v
d ___
|t=0
1 e−t∕τ
= −__
τ |
t=0
1
= − __
τ
Thus, the time constant is the initial rate of decay, or the time taken forv∕V0 to decay from
0 𝜏 2𝜏 3𝜏 4𝜏 5𝜏 t (s) unity to zero, assuming a constant rate of decay. This initial slope interpretation of the time
Figure 7.3 constant is often used in the laboratory to find τ graphically from the response curve dis-
Graphical determination of the time played on an oscilloscope. To find τ from the response curve, draw the tangent to the curve
constant τ from the response curve. at t = 0, as shown in Fig. 7.3. The tangent intercepts with the time axis at t = τ.
 7.2 The Source-Free RC Circuit 255

v = e‒t ⁄𝜏
V0
1

𝜏=2

𝜏=1

𝜏 = 0.5

0 1 2 3 4 5 t
Figure 7.4
Plot of v∕V0 = e−t∕τ for various values of the time constant.

The power dissipated in the resistor is

V2
p(t) = viR = ___0 e−2t∕τ (7.11)
R
The energy absorbed by the resistor up to time t is
t t V2
wR(t) = ∫ p(λ)dλ = ∫ ___0 e−2λ∕τ dλ
0 0 R
(7.12)
τV
|
2 t
= − ____0 e−2λ∕τ 1 CV 2(1 − e−2t∕τ),
= __ τ = RC
0
2R 0 2
Notice that as t → ∞, wR (∞) → _12 CV 20, which is the same as wC (0),
the energy initially stored in the capacitor. The energy that was initially
stored in the capacitor is eventually dissipated in the resistor.
In summary:

The time constant is the same regard-

The Key to Working with a Source-Free RC Circuit less of what the output is defined
Is Finding: to be.
1. The initial voltage v(0) = V0 across the capacitor.
2. The time constant τ.
When a circuit contains a single
capacitor and several resistors and
dependent sources, the Thevenin
With these tw o items, we obtain the response as the capacitor v oltage
equivalent can be found at the
vC (t) = v(t) = v(0)e−t∕τ. Once the capacitor voltage is first obtained, other terminals of the capacitor to form a
variables (capacitor current iC, resistor voltage vR, and resistor current iR) simple RC circuit. Also, one can use
can be determined. In finding the time constant τ = RC, R is often the Thevenin’s theorem when several
Thevenin equivalent resistance at the terminals of the capacitor; that is, capacitors can be combined to form
we take out the capacitor C and find R = RTh at its terminals. a single equivalent capacitor.

In Fig. 7.5, let vC (0) = 15 V. Find vC, vx, and ix for t > 0. Example 7.1
Solution:
We first need to make the circuit in Fig. 7.5 conform with the standard
RC circuit in Fig. 7.1. We find the equivalent resistance or the Thevenin
256 Chapter 7 First-Order Circuits

8Ω resistance at the capacitor terminals. Our objective is always to first ob-

ix tain capacitor voltage vC. From this, we can determine vx and ix.
+ + The 8- Ω and 12- Ω resistors in series can be combined to give a
5Ω 0.1 F vC 12 Ω vx 20-Ω resistor. This 20-Ω resistor in parallel with the 5-Ω resistor can be
‒ ‒
combined so that the equivalent resistance is
20 × 5 = 4 Ω
Req = ______
Figure 7.5
For Example 7.1. 20 + 5
Hence, the equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig. 7.6, which is analogous
to Fig. 7.1. The time constant is
τ = ReqC = 4(0.1) = 0.4 s
+
Thus,
Req v 0.1 F
v = v(0)e−t∕τ = 15e−t∕0.4 V, vC = v = 15e−2.5t V
‒
From Fig. 7.5, we can use voltage division to get vx; so
Figure 7.6 12 v = 0.6(15e−2.5t) = 9e−2.5t V
Equivalent circuit for the circuit in vx = ______
Fig. 7.5.
12 + 8
Finally,
v
ix = ___x = 0.75e−2.5t A
12

Practice Problem 7.1 Refer to the circuit in Fig. 7.7. Let vC (0) = 60 V. Determine vC, vx, and
io for t ≥ 0.
io 8Ω
Answer: 60e−0.25t V, 20e−0.25t V, −5e−0.25t A.
+ +
1
12 Ω 6Ω vx 3 F vC
‒ ‒

Figure 7.7
For Practice Prob. 7.1.

Example 7.2 The switch in the circuit in Fig. 7.8 has been closed for a long time, and
it is opened at t = 0. Find v(t) for t ≥ 0. Calculate the initial energy stored
t=0 in the capacitor.
3Ω 1Ω

+ Solution:
20 V +
‒ 9Ω v 20 mF For t < 0, the switch is closed; the capacitor is an open circuit to dc, as
‒
represented in Fig. 7.9(a). Using voltage division
9 (20) = 15 V,
vC (t) = _____ t<0
Figure 7.8
For Example 7.2. 9+3
Since the voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously, the
voltage across the capacitor at t = 0− is the same at t = 0, or
vC (0) = V0 = 15 V
 7.3 The Source-Free RL Circuit 257

For t > 0, the switch is opened, and we have the RC circuit shown 3Ω 1Ω
in Fig. 7.9(b). [Notice that the RC circuit in Fig. 7.9(b) is source free; +
the independent source in Fig. 7.8 is needed to provide V0 or the initial 20 V + 9Ω vC (0)
‒
energy in the capacitor.] The 1-Ω and 9-Ω resistors in series give
‒
Req = 1 + 9 = 10 Ω (a)
The time constant is
1Ω
τ = ReqC = 10 × 20 × 10−3 = 0.2 s
+
Thus, the voltage across the capacitor for t ≥ 0 is 9Ω Vo = 15 V 20 mF
−t∕τ −t∕0.2 ‒
v(t) = vC (0)e = 15e V
or (b)

v(t) = 15e−5t V Figure 7.9

For Example 7.2: (a) t < 0, (b) t > 0.
The initial energy stored in the capacitor is
1 Cv 2 (0) = __
wC (0) = __ 1 × 20 × 10−3 × 152 = 2.25 J
2 C 2

If the switch in Fig. 7.10 opens at t = 0, find v(t) for t ≥ 0 and wC (0). Practice Problem 7.2
Answer: 8e−2t V, 5.333 J. t=0
6Ω

+
24 V +
1 v
‒ 6 F 12 Ω 4Ω
‒

Figure 7.10
For Practice Prob. 7.2.

7.3 The Source-Free RL Circuit

Consider the series connection of a resistor and an inductor, as shown in i
Fig. 7.11. Our goal is to determine the circuit response, which we will
assume to be the current i(t) through the inductor . We select the induc - ‒ +
tor current as the response in order to take advantage of the idea that the vL vR
L R
inductor current cannot change instantaneously. At t = 0, we assume that + ‒
the inductor has an initial current I0, or

i(0) = I0 (7.13)
Figure 7.11
with the corresponding energy stored in the inductor as A source-free RL circuit.
1 L I2
w(0) = __ (7.14)
2 0
Applying KVL around the loop in Fig. 7.11,

vL + vR = 0 (7.15)

But vL = L di∕dt and vR = iR. Thus,

di + Ri = 0
L__
dt
258 Chapter 7 First-Order Circuits

or
di + __
__ Ri = 0 (7.16)
dt L
Rearranging terms and integrating gives
i(t) t
∫I
0
di = −
__
i
∫0 __RL dt

| |
i(t) t
ln i Rt
= − __ ⇒ Rt + 0
ln i(t) − ln I0 = − __
I0 L 0 L
or
i(t) Rt
ln ___ = − __ (7.17)
I0 L
Taking the powers of e, we have

i(t) = I0e−Rt∕L (7.18)

i(t) This sho ws that the natural response of the RL circuit is an e xpo-
I0 nential decay of the initial current. The current response is shown in
Fig. 7.12. It is evident from Eq. (7.18) that the time constant for the
RL circuit is

Tangent at t = 0
L
τ = __
0.368I0 R (7.19)
I0 e‒t ⁄𝜏

with τ ag ain ha ving the unit of seconds. Thus, Eq. (7.18) may be
written as
𝜏 −t∕τ
0 t
i(t) = I0 e (7.20)
Figure 7.12
The current response of the RL circuit.
With the current in Eq. (7.20), we can find the voltage across the
resistor as

vR(t) = iR = I0 Re−t∕τ (7.21)

The smaller the time constant τ of a
circuit, the faster the rate of decay of The power dissipated in the resistor is
the response. The larger the time
constant, the slower the rate of decay p = vRi = I20 Re−2t∕τ (7.22)
of the response. At any rate, the
response decays to less than 1 percent
The energy absorbed by the resistor is
of its initial value (i.e., reaches steady

|
state) after 5τ. t
wR(t) = ∫ p(λ)dλ = ∫ I20 Re−2λ∕τ dλ = − __τ I02Re−2λ∕τ 0 ,
t t
L
τ = __
0 0 2 R

or
1 L I2 (1 − e−2t∕τ)
wR(t) = __ (7.23)
2 0

Note that as t → ∞,wR(∞) → _12 L I20, which is the same aswL(0), the initial
Figure 7.12 shows an initial slope energy stored in the inductor as in Eq. (7.14). Again, the energy initially
interpretation may be given to τ. stored in the inductor is eventually dissipated in the resistor.
 7.3 The Source-Free RL Circuit 259

In summary:

The Key to Working with a Source-Free RL Circuit Is

to Find:
1. The initial current i(0) = I0 through the inductor.
2. The time constant τ of the circuit.
When a circuit has a single inductor
and several resistors and dependent
sources, the Thevenin equivalent can
With the tw o items, we obtain the response as the inductor current be found at the terminals of the
iL(t) = i(t) = i(0)e−t∕τ. Once we determine the inductor current iL, other inductor to form a simple RL circuit.
variables (inductor voltage vL, resistor voltage vR, and resistor current Also, one can use Thevenin’s theorem
iR) can be obtained. Note that in general,R in Eq. (7.19) is theThevenin when several inductors can be
resistance at the terminals of the inductor. combined to form a single equivalent
inductor.

Assuming that i(0) = 10 A, calculate i(t) and ix(t) in the circuit of Example 7.3
Fig. 7.13.
4Ω
Solution: i ix
There are two ways we can solve this problem. One way is to obtain the
equivalent resistance at the inductor terminals and then use Eq. (7.20). 2Ω + 3i
0.5 H ‒
The other way is to start from scratch by using Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
Whichever approach is taken, it is always better to first obtain the induc-
tor current. Figure 7.13
For Example 7.3.
■ METHOD 1 The equivalent resistance is the same as theThevenin
resistance at the inductor terminals. Because of the dependent source, we
insert a voltage source with vo = 1 V at the inductor terminals a-b, as in
Fig. 7.14(a). (We could also insert a 1-A current source at the terminals.)
Applying KVL to the two loops results in

2(i1 − i2) + 1 = 0 ⇒ i1 − i2 = − __1 (7.3.1)

2
6i2 − 2i1 − 3i1 = 0 ⇒ 5i
i2 = __ (7.3.2)
1
6

Substituting Eq. (7.3.2) into Eq. (7.3.1) gives

i1 = −3 A, io = −i1 = 3 A

io 4Ω
a
4Ω

+
vo = 1 V +
‒ i1 2Ω i2 ‒ 3i1
0.5 H i1 2Ω i2 + 3i
‒

b
(a) (b)
Figure 7.14
Solving the circuit in Fig. 7.13.
260 Chapter 7 First-Order Circuits

Hence,
v 1Ω
Req = RTh = __o = __
io 3
The time constant is

_1
3s
L = _2 = __
τ = ___
Req _13 2

Thus, the current through the inductor is

i(t) = i(0)e−t∕τ = 10e−(2∕3)t A, t>0

■ METHOD 2 We may directly apply KVL to the circuit as in

Fig. 7.14(b). For loop 1,
di1
1 ___
__ + 2(i1 − i2) = 0
2 dt
or
di1
___ + 4i1 − 4i2 = 0 (7.3.3)
dt

For loop 2,

6i2 − 2i1 − 3i1 = 0 ⇒ 5i

i2 = __ (7.3.4)
1
6

Substituting Eq. (7.3.4) into Eq. (7.3.3) gives

di1 __
___ + 2 i1 = 0
dt 3
Rearranging terms,

di1
___ 2 dt
= − __
i1 3

Since i1 = i, we may replace i1 with i and integrate:

| |
i(t) t
ln i 2t
= − __
i(0) 3 0

or

i(t) 2t
ln ____ = − __
i(0) 3

Taking the powers of e, we finally obtain

i(t) = i(0)e−(2∕3)t = 10e−(2∕3)t A, t>0

which is the same as by Method 1.

The voltage across the inductor is

( 3)
2 −(2∕3)t
di = 0.5(10) −__ 10 e−(2∕3)t V
v = L __ e = − ___
dt 3
 7.3 The Source-Free RL Circuit 261

Since the inductor and the 2-Ω resistor are in parallel,

v = −1.6667e−(2∕3)t A,
ix(t) = __ t>0
2

Find i and vx in the circuit of Fig. 7.15. Let i(0) = 7 A. Practice Problem 7.3
Answer: 7e−2t A, −7e−2t V, t > 0. 1Ω

i + vx ‒
2Ω
2H 6Ω
+ 2vx
‒

Figure 7.15
For Practice Prob. 7.3.

The switch in the circuit of Fig. 7.16 has been closed for a long time. At Example 7.4
t = 0, the switch is opened. Calculate i(t) for t > 0.

Solution:
When t < 0, the switch is closed, and the inductor acts as a short circuit
to dc. The 16-Ω resistor is short-circuited; the resulting circuit is shown t=0
2Ω 4Ω
in Fig. 7.17(a). To get i1 in Fig. 7.17(a), we combine the 4- Ω and 12-Ω
resistors in parallel to get i(t)

+ 40 V 12 Ω 16 Ω
4 × 12 = 3 Ω
______ ‒ 2H
4 + 12
Hence,
Figure 7.16
For Example 7.4.
40 = 8 A
i1 = _____
2+3

We obtain i(t) from i1 in Fig. 7.17(a) using current division, by writing i1 2Ω 4Ω

i(t)
12 i = 6 A,
i(t) = ______ t<0
12 + 4 1 40 V +
‒ 12 Ω

Since the current through an inductor cannot change instantaneously,

(a)
i(0) = i(0−) = 6 A
4Ω

When t > 0, the switch is open and the voltage source is disconnect- i(t)
ed. We now have the source-free RL circuit in Fig. 7.17(b). Combining 12 Ω 16 Ω 2H
the resistors, we have
Req = (12 + 4) ║ 16 = 8 Ω
(b)
The time constant is
2 = __
L = __ 1s Figure 7.17
τ = ___ Solving the circuit of Fig. 7.16: (a) for
Req 8 4 t < 0, (b) for t > 0.
Thus,
i(t) = i(0)e−t∕τ = 6e−4t A
262 Chapter 7 First-Order Circuits

Practice Problem 7.4 For the circuit in Fig. 7.18, find i(t) for t > 0.
t=0
Answer: 2e−2t A, t > 0.

12 Ω 8Ω

24 Ω 6A
i(t) 5Ω
2H

Figure 7.18
For Practice Prob. 7.4.

Example 7.5 In the circuit shown in Fig. 7.19, find io, vo, and i for all time, assuming
that the switch was open for a long time.
2Ω 3Ω
+ v ‒ io i Solution:
o
It is better to first find the inductor current i and then obtain other quanti-
10 V + t=0 6Ω 2H ties from it.
‒
For t < 0, the switch is open. Since the inductor acts like a short cir-
cuit to dc, the 6- Ω resistor is short-circuited, so that we ha ve the circuit
Figure 7.19 shown in Fig. 7.20(a). Hence, io = 0, and
For Example 7.5.
10 = 2 A,
i(t) = _____ t<0
2+3

2Ω 3Ω
vo(t) = 3i(t) = 6 V, t<0
+ v ‒ io i
o Thus, i(0) = 2.
10 V + 6Ω For t > 0, the switch is closed, so that the v oltage source is short-
‒
circuited. We now have a source-free RL circuit as shown in Fig. 7.20(b).
At the inductor terminals,
(a)
RTh = 3 ║ 6 = 2 Ω
3Ω
+ v ‒ io i so that the time constant is
o
+
6Ω vL 2H
L =1s
τ = ___
‒ RTh
Hence,
(b)
Figure 7.20 i(t) = i(0)e−t∕τ = 2e−tA, t>0
The circuit in Fig. 7.19 for: (a) t < 0,
(b) t > 0. Because the inductor is in parallel with the 6- and 3-Ω resistors,
di = −2(−2e−t) = 4e−t V,
vo(t) = −vL = −L __ t>0
dt
and
v 2 e−t A,
io(t) = __L = −__ t>0
6 3
 7.4 Singularity Functions 263

Thus, for all time,

io(t) =
{ 0 A,
2 e−t A,
− __
3
t<0
t>0
, vo(t) = { 6 V,
4e−t V,
t<0
t>0
2
i(t)

i(t) =
{ 2 A,
2e−t A,
t<0
t≥0
t
‒2
We notice that the inductor current is continuous at t = 0, while the 3 io(t)
current through the 6- Ω resistor drops from 0 to −2∕3 at t = 0, and the
voltage across the 3-Ω resistor drops from 6 to 4 at t = 0. We also notice Figure 7.21
that the time constant is the same regardless of what the output is defined A plot of i and io.
to be. Figure 7.21 plots i and io.

Determine i, io, and vo for all t in the circuit shown in Fig. 7.22. Assume Practice Problem 7.5
that the switch was closed for a long time. It should be noted that opening
a switch in series with an ideal current source creates an infinite voltage 3Ω
at the current source terminals. Clearly this is impossible. For the pur-
poses of problem solving, we can place a shunt resistor in parallel with t=0 i 1H
the source (which now makes it a voltage source in series with a resistor).
In more practical circuits, devices that act like current sources are, for the io
+
most part, electronic circuits. These circuits will allow the source to act 24 A 4Ω 2Ω vo
like an ideal current source over its operating range but voltage-limit it ‒
when the load resistor becomes too large (as in an open circuit).
Figure 7.22
Answer: For Practice Prob. 7.5.

i= { 16 A,
16e−2t A,
t<0
t≥0
, io =
{ 8 A,
−5.333e−2t A,
t<0
t > 0’

vo = { 32 V,
10.667e−2t V,
t<0
t>0

7.4 Singularity Functions

Before going on with the second half of this chapter, we need to digress
and consider some mathematical concepts that will aid our understand -
ing of transient analysis. A basic understanding of singularity functions
will help us make sense of the response of first-order circuits to a sudden
application of an independent dc voltage or current source.
Singularity functions (also called switching functions) are very use-
ful in circuit analysis. They serve as good approximations to the switch-
ing signals that arise in circuits with switching operations. They are
helpful in the neat, compact description of some circuit phenomena, es -
pecially the step response of RC or RL circuits to be discussed in the next
sections. By definition,

Singularity functions are functions that either are discontinuous or have

discontinuous derivatives.
 7.5 Step Response of an RC Circuit 271

{
If 0, t<0 Practice Problem 7.8
h(t) = −4, 0<t<2
3t − 8, 2<t<6
0, t>6
express h(t) in terms of the singularity functions.

Answer: −4u(t) + 2u(t − 2) + 3r (t − 2) − 10u(t − 6) − 3r(t − 6).

Evaluate the following integrals involving the impulse function: Example 7.9
10
∫0 (t2 + 4t −2)δ (t − 2) dt

∞
∫−∞ [δ (t −1)e−t cos t + δ(t + 1)e−t sin t] dt

Solution:
For the first integral, we apply the sifting property in Eq. (7.32).
10
∫0 (t2 + 4t − 2)δ (t − 2) dt = (t2 + 4t −2)∣t=2 = 4 + 8 − 2 = 10

Similarly, for the second integral,

∞
∫−∞ [δ (t −1)e−t cos t + δ (t + 1)e−t sin t] dt
= e−t cos t∣t=1 + e−t sin t∣t= −1

= e−1cos 1 + e1sin (−1) = 0.1988 − 2.2873 = −2.0885

Evaluate the following integrals: Practice Problem 7.9

∞ 10
∫−∞ (t3 + 5t2 + 10)δ(t + 3) dt, ∫0 δ (t − π) cos 3t dt

Answer: 28, −1.

7.5 Step Response of an RC Circuit

When the dc source of an RC circuit is suddenly applied, the v oltage or
current source can be modeled as a step function, and the response is
known as a step response.

The step response of a circuit is its behavior when the excitation is the
step function, which may be a voltage or a current source.
272 Chapter 7 First-Order Circuits

t=0 The step response is the response of the circuit due to a sudden applica -
R
tion of a dc voltage or current source.
Consider the RC circuit in Fig. 7.40(a) which can be replaced by the
+ circuit in Fig. 7.40(b), where Vs is a constant dc v oltage source. Again,
Vs + C v
‒ we select the capacitor voltage as the circuit response to be determined.
‒
We assume an initial v oltage V0 on the capacitor , although this is not
necessary for the step response. Since the v oltage of a capacitor cannot
(a) change instantaneously,
R v(0−) = v(0+) = V0 (7.40)

where v(0−) is the voltage across the capacitor just before switching and
+ v(0+) is its voltage immediately after switching. Applying KCL, we have
Vs u(t) +
‒ C v
‒ v − Vsu(t)
dv + _________
C ___ =0
dt R
or
(b)
Figure 7.40 ___ v = ___
dv + ___ Vs
u(t) (7.41)
An RC circuit with voltage step input. dt RC RC

where v is the voltage across the capacitor. For t > 0, Eq. (7.41) becomes
v = ___
dv + ___
___ Vs
(7.42)
dt RC RC
Rearranging terms gives
v − Vs
dv = − ______
___
dt RC
or
dv = −___
______ dt (7.43)
v − Vs RC
Integrating both sides and introducing the initial conditions,

| |
v(t) t
ln(v − Vs) t
= − ___
V0 RC 0

t +0
ln(v(t) − Vs) − ln(V0 − Vs) = − ___
RC
or
v − Vs t
ln ______ = − ___ (7.44)
V0 − Vs RC
Taking the exponential of both sides
v − Vs
______ = e−t∕τ, τ = RC
V0 − Vs

v − Vs = (V0 − Vs)e−t∕τ

or

v(t) = Vs + (V0 − Vs)e−t∕τ, t>0 (7.45)

Thus,

v(t) = { V0,
Vs + (V0 − Vs) e−t/τ,
t<0
t>0
(7.46)
 7.5 Step Response of an RC Circuit 273

This is known as the complete response (or total response) of the RC cir- v(t)
cuit to a sudden application of a dc voltage source, assuming the capaci-
Vs
tor is initially charged. The reason for the term “complete” will become
evident a little later . Assuming that Vs > V0, a plot of v(t) is sho wn in
Fig. 7.41.
If we assume that the capacitor is uncharged initially, we set V0 = 0
in Eq. (7.46) so that

{
V0
0, t<0
v(t) = (7.47)
Vs (1 − e−t/τ), t>0
0 t
which can be written alternatively as Figure 7.41
Response of an RC circuit with initially
v(t) = Vs(1 − e−t∕τ)u(t) (7.48) charged capacitor.

This is the complete step response of the RC circuit when the capacitor
is initially uncharged. The current through the capacitor is obtained from
Eq. (7.47) using i(t) = C dv ∕ dt. We get
dv = __
i(t) = C ___ C V e−t∕τ, τ = RC, t>0
dt τ
s

or
V
i(t) = __s e−t∕τ u(t) (7.49)
R
Figure 7.42 shows the plots of capacitor v oltage v(t) and capacitor cur -
rent i(t). v(t)
Rather than going through the derivations above, there is a systemat- Vs
ic approach—or rather, a shortcut method—for finding the step response
of an RC or RL circuit. Let us reexamine Eq. (7.45), which is more gener-
al than Eq. (7.48). It is evident that v(t) has two components. Classically
there are two ways of decomposing this into tw o components. The first
is to break it into a “natural response and a forced response’’ and the sec-
ond is to break it into a “transient response and a steady-state response.’’
Starting with the natural response and forced response, we write the total 0 t
or complete response as (a)

i(t)
Complete response = natural response + forced response
stored energy independent source Vs
R

or
v = vn + vf (7.50)
where
vn = Voe−t∕τ 0 t
(b)
and
Figure 7.42
vf = Vs(1 − e−t∕τ) Step response of an RC circuit with
initially uncharged capacitor: (a) voltage
We are familiar with the natural response vn of the circuit, as discussed response, (b) current response.
in Section 7.2. vf is known as the forced response because it is produced
by the circuit when an external “force’’ (a voltage source in this case) is
applied. It represents what the circuit is forced to do by the input excita-
tion. The natural response e ventually dies out along with the transient
component of the forced response, leaving only the steady-state compo-
nent of the forced response.
274 Chapter 7 First-Order Circuits

Another way of looking at the complete response is to break into

two components—one temporary and the other permanent, that is

Complete response = transient response + steady-state response

temporary part permanent part

or

v = vt + vss (7.51)

where

vt = (Vo − Vs)e−t∕τ (7.52a)

and

vss = Vs (7.52b)

The transient response vt is temporary; it is the portion of the complete

response that decays to zero as time approaches infinity. Thus,

The transient response is the circuit’s temporary response that will die
out with time.

The steady-state response vss is the portion of the complete response

that remains after the transient reponse has died out. Thus,

The steady-state response is the behavior of the circuit a long time after
an external excitation is applied.

The first decomposition of the complete response is in terms of the

source of the responses, while the second decomposition is in terms of
the permanency of the responses. Under certain conditions, the natural
response and transient response are the same.The same can be said about
the forced response and steady-state response.
Whichever way we look at it, the complete response in Eq. (7.45)
may be written as
This is the same as saying that the
complete response is the sum of the
transient response and the steady-state v(t) = v(∞) + [v(0) − v(∞)]e−t∕τ
response. (7.53)

where v(0) is the initial voltage at t = 0+ and v(∞) is the final or steady-
state value. Thus, to find the step response of an RC circuit requires three
things:

1. The initial capacitor voltage v(0).

2. The final capacitor voltage v(∞).
Once we know x (0), x (∞), and τ, 3. The time constant τ.
almost all the circuit problems in this
chapter can be solved using the
formula
We obtain item 1 from the given circuit for t < 0 and items 2 and 3 from
x(t) = x(∞) + [x(0) − x(∞)]e−t∕τ
the circuit for t > 0. Once these items are determined, we obtain the
 7.5 Step Response of an RC Circuit 275

response using Eq. (7.53). This technique equally applies to RL circuits,

as we shall see in the next section.
Note that if the switch changes position at time t = t0 instead of at
t = 0, there is a time delay in the response so that Eq. (7.53) becomes

v(t) = v(∞) + [v(t0) − v(∞)]e−(t − t0)∕τ (7.54)

where v(t0) is the initial value at t = t +0 . Keep in mind that Eq. (7.53) or
(7.54) applies only to step responses, that is, when the input e xcitation
is constant.

The switch in Fig. 7.43 has been in position A for a long time. At t = 0, Example 7.10
the switch moves to B. Determine v(t) for t > 0 and calculate its value at
t = 1 and 4 s.

3 kΩ A B 4 kΩ
t=0
+
24 V +
‒ 5 kΩ v 0.5 mF + 30 V
‒
‒

Figure 7.43
For Example 7.10.

Solution:
For t < 0, the switch is at position A. The capacitor acts like an open
circuit to dc, but v is the same as the voltage across the 5-k Ω resistor.
Hence, the voltage across the capacitor just before t = 0 is obtained by
voltage division as
5 (24) = 15 V
v(0−) = _____
5+3
Using the fact that the capacitor voltage cannot change instantaneously,

v(0) = v(0−) = v(0+) = 15 V

For t > 0, the switch is in position B. The Thevenin resistance connected

to the capacitor is RTh = 4 kΩ, and the time constant is

τ = RTh C = 4 × 103 × 0.5 × 10−3 = 2 s

Since the capacitor acts like an open circuit to dc at steady state,

v(∞) = 30 V. Thus,

v(t) = v(∞) + [v(0) − v(∞)]e−t∕τ

= 30 + (15 − 30)e−t∕2 = (30 − 15e−0.5t) V

At t = 1,
v(1) = 30 − 15e−0.5 = 20.9 V
At t = 4,
v(4) = 30 − 15e−2 = 27.97 V
276 Chapter 7 First-Order Circuits

Practice Problem 7.10 Find v(t) for t > 0 in the circuit of Fig. 7.44. Assume the switch has been
open for a long time and is closed at t = 0. Calculate v(t) at t = 0.5.
t=0
2Ω 6Ω
Answer: (9.375 + 5.625e−2t) V for all t > 0, 11.444 V.
+
‒
15 V + v 1
F + 7.5 V
‒ 3
‒

Figure 7.44
For Practice Prob. 7.10.

Example 7.11 In Fig. 7.45, the switch has been closed for a long time and is opened at
t = 0. Find i and v for all time.

i t=0
10 Ω

+
30u(t) V + + 10 V
1
‒ 20 Ω v 4 F ‒
‒

Figure 7.45
For Example 7.11.

Solution:
The resistor current i can be discontinuous at t = 0, while the capacitor
voltage v cannot. Hence, it is always better to find v and then obtain i
from v.
By definition of the unit step function,

30u(t) = { 0,
30,
t<0
t>0
For t < 0, the switch is closed and 30 u(t) = 0, so that the 30u(t) voltage
source is replaced by a short circuit and should be regarded as contribut-
ing nothing to v. Since the switch has been closed for a long time, the
10 Ω i capacitor voltage has reached steady state and the capacitor acts like an
open circuit. Hence, the circuit becomes that shown in Fig. 7.46(a) for
+
+ 10 V
t < 0. From this circuit we obtain
20 Ω v ‒
‒ v = 10 V, v = −1 A
i = − ___
10
(a) Since the capacitor voltage cannot change instantaneously,

10 Ω i v(0) = v(0−) = 10 V

+ For t > 0, the switch is opened and the 10-V voltage source is dis-
30 V +
1
‒ 20 Ω v 4 F connected from the circuit. The 30 u(t) voltage source is now operative,
‒ so the circuit becomes that shown in Fig. 7.46(b). After a long time, the
circuit reaches steady state and the capacitor acts like an open circuit
(b)
again. We obtain v(∞) by using voltage division, writing
Figure 7.46
Solution of Example 7.11: (a) for t < 0,
20 (30) = 20 V
v(∞) = _______
(b) for t > 0. 20 + 10
 7.5 Step Response of an RC Circuit 277

The Thevenin resistance at the capacitor terminals is

10 × 20 = ___
RTh = 10∥20 = _______ 20 Ω
30 3
and the time constant is
20 ⋅ __
τ = RTh C = ___ 5s
1 = __
3 4 3
Thus,

v(t) = v(∞) + [ v(0) − v(∞) ]e−t∕τ

= 20 + (10 − 20)e−(3∕5)t = (20 − 10e−0.6t) V

To obtain i, we notice from Fig. 7.46(b) that i is the sum of the currents
through the 20-Ω resistor and the capacitor; that is,
v + C ___
i = ___ dv
20 dt
= 1 − 0.5e−0.6t + 0.25(−0.6)(−10)e−0.6t = (1 + e−0.6t) A

Notice from Fig. 7.46(b) that v + 10i = 30 is satisfied, as expected.

{
Hence,
10 V, t<0
v= −0.6t t≥0
(20 − 10e ) V,

i=
{ −1 A,
(1 + e−0.6t) A,
t<0
t>0

Notice that the capacitor voltage is continuous while the resistor current
is not.

The switch in Fig. 7.47 is closed at t = 0. Find i(t) and v(t) for all time. Practice Problem 7.11
Note that u(−t) = 1 for t < 0 and 0 for t > 0. Also, u(−t) = 1 − u(t).

i t=0
5Ω

+
20u(‒t) V +
‒
v 0.2 F 10 Ω 3A
‒

Figure 7.47
For Practice Prob. 7.11.

Answer: i(t) = { 0,
−2(1 + e−1.5t) A,
t<0
t > 0,

v= { 20 V,
10(1 + e−1.5t) V,
t<0
t>0
278 Chapter 7 First-Order Circuits

R
i 7.6 Step Response of an RL Circuit
t=0
+ Consider the RL circuit in Fig. 7.48(a), which may be replaced by the
Vs +
‒
L v(t)
‒
circuit in Fig. 7.48(b). Again, our goal is to find the inductor current i as
the circuit response. Rather than apply Kirchhoff’s laws, we will use the
simple technique in Eqs. (7.50) through (7.53). Let the response be the
(a) sum of the transient response and the steady-state response,
R i = it + iss (7.55)
i
+
We know that the transient response is al ways a decaying e xponential,
Vs u(t) + L v(t) that is,
‒
‒
it = Ae−t∕τ, L
τ = __ (7.56)
R
(b)
where A is a constant to be determined.
Figure 7.48
An RL circuit with a step input voltage. The steady-state response is the value of the current a long time
after the switch in Fig. 7.48(a) is closed. We know that the transient
response essentially dies out after five time constants. At that time,
the inductor becomes a short circuit, and the v oltage across it is zero.
The entire source v oltage Vs appears across R. Thus, the steady-state
response is
V
iss = __s (7.57)
R
Substituting Eqs. (7.56) and (7.57) into Eq. (7.55) gives
V
i = Ae−t∕τ + __s (7.58)
R
We now determine the constant A from the initial v alue of i. Let I0 be
the initial current through the inductor, which may come from a source
other than Vs. Since the current through the inductor cannot change
instantaneously,

i(0+) = i(0−) = I0 (7.59)

Thus, at t = 0, Eq. (7.58) becomes

V
I0 = A + __s
R
From this, we obtain A as
i(t) V
A = I0 − __s
I0 R
Substituting for A in Eq. (7.58), we get

Vs
R
V
R ( V
i(t) = __s + I0 − __s e−t∕τ
R ) (7.60)

This is the complete response of the RL circuit. It is illustrated in

Fig. 7.49. The response in Eq. (7.60) may be written as
0 t
Figure 7.49
Total response of the RL circuit with i(t) = i(∞) + [ i(0) − i(∞) ]e−t∕τ (7.61)
initial inductor current I0.
 7.6 Step Response of an RL Circuit 279

where i(0) and i(∞) are the initial and final values of i, respecti vely.
Thus, to find the step response of an RL circuit requires three things:

1. The initial inductor current i(0) at t = 0.

2. The final inductor current i(∞).
3. The time constant τ.

We obtain item 1 from the given circuit for t < 0 and items 2 and 3 from
the circuit for t > 0. Once these items are determined, we obtain the
response using Eq. (7.61). Keep in mind that this technique applies only
for step responses.
Again, if the switching tak es place at time t = t0 instead of
t = 0, Eq. (7.61) becomes

i(t) = i(∞) + [i(t0) − i(∞)]e−(t−t0)∕τ (7.62)

If I0 = 0, then

{
0,
i(t) = __
Vs
R
(1 − e−t∕τ),
t<0
t>0
(7.63a)

or

V
i(t) = __s (1 − e−t∕τ)u(t) (7.63b)
R

This is the step response of theRL circuit with no initial inductor current.
The v oltage across the inductor is obtained from Eq. (7.63) using
v = L di∕dt. We get

di = V ___
v(t) = L __ L e−t∕τ, L,
τ = __ t>0
s
dt τR R

or
v(t) = Vs e−t∕τ u(t) (7.64)

Figure 7.50 shows the step responses in Eqs. (7.63) and (7.64).

i(t) v(t)
Vs Vs
R

0 t 0 t
(a) (b)
Figure 7.50
Step responses of an RL circuit with no initial inductor
current: (a) current response, (b) voltage response.
280 Chapter 7 First-Order Circuits

Example 7.12 Find i(t) in the circuit of Fig. 7.51 for t > 0. Assume that the switch has
been closed for a long time.
t=0

Solution:
2Ω 3Ω When t < 0, the 3-Ω resistor is short-circuited, and the inductor acts like
i
a short circuit. The current through the inductor att = 0− (i.e., just before
t = 0) is
10 V + 1
H
‒ 3
10 = 5 A
i(0−) = ___
2
Figure 7.51 Because the inductor current cannot change instantaneously,
For Example 7.12.
i(0) = i(0+) = i(0−) = 5 A

When t > 0, the switch is open. The 2- and 3- Ω resistors are in series,
so that
10 = 2 A
i(∞) = _____
2+3
The Thevenin resistance across the inductor terminals is

RTh = 2 + 3 = 5 Ω

For the time constant,

_1
1 s
L = __3 = ___
τ = ___
RTh 5 15
Thus,

i(t) = i(∞) + [i(0) − i(∞)]e−t∕τ

= 2 + (5 − 2)e−15t = 2 + 3e−15t A, t>0

Check: In Fig. 7.51, for t > 0, KVL must be satisfied; that is,
di
10 = 5i + L __
dt
di = [10 + 15e−15t] + __
5i + L __
dt 3 [ ]
1 (3)(−15)e−15t = 10

This confirms the result.

Practice Problem 7.12 The switch in Fig. 7.52 has been closed for a long time. It opens at
t = 0. Find i(t) for t > 0.
i 1.5 H
Answer: (4 + 2e−10t) A for all t > 0.
5Ω t=0 10 Ω 6A

Figure 7.52
For Practice Prob. 7.12.
 7.6 Step Response of an RL Circuit 281

At t = 0, switch 1 in Fig. 7.53 is closed, and switch 2 is closed 4 s later . Example 7.13
Find i(t) for t > 0. Calculate i for t = 2 s and t = 5 s.

S1 t = 0 6Ω
4Ω P
S2 i
t=4

40 V +
‒ 2Ω 5H

10 V +
‒

Figure 7.53
For Example 7.13.

Solution:
We need to consider the three time intervals t ≤ 0, 0 ≤ t ≤ 4, and t ≥ 4
separately. For t < 0, switches S1 and S2 are open so that i = 0. Since the
inductor current cannot change instantly,

i(0−) = i(0) = i(0+) = 0

For 0 ≤ t ≤ 4, S1 is closed so that the 4- and 6- Ω resistors are in

series. (Remember, at this time, S2 is still open.) Hence, assuming for
now that S1 is closed forever,
40 = 4 A,
i(∞) = _____ RTh = 4 + 6 = 10 Ω
4+6
5 = __
L = ___
τ = ___ 1s
RTh 10 2
Thus,

i(t) = i(∞) + [i(0) − i(∞)]e−t∕τ

= 4 + (0 − 4)e−2t = 4(1 − e−2t) A, 0≤t≤4

For t ≥ 4, S2 is closed; the 10-V voltage source is connected, and the

circuit changes. This sudden change does not affect the inductor current
because the current cannot change abruptly. Thus, the initial current is

i(4) = i(4−) = 4(1 − e−8) ≃ 4 A

To find i(∞), let v be the voltage at node P in Fig. 7.53. Using KCL,
40 − v + ______
______ 10 − v = __
v ⇒ 180 V
v = ____
4 2 6 11
i(∞) = __v = ___
30 = 2.727 A
6 11
The Thevenin resistance at the inductor terminals is
4 × 2 + 6 = ___
RTh = 4∥2 + 6 = _____ 22 Ω
6 3
and
5 = ___
L = __
τ = ___ 15 s
RTh __
22 22
3
282 Chapter 7 First-Order Circuits

Hence,
i(t) = i(∞) + [i(4) − i(∞)]e−(t−4)∕τ, t≥4
We need (t − 4) in the exponential because of the time delay. Thus,
i(t) = 2.727 + (4 − 2.727)e−(t−4)∕τ, 15
τ = ___
22
= 2.727 + 1.273e−1.4667(t−4), t≥4
Putting all this together,

{
0, t≤0
i(t) = 4(1 − e−2t), 0≤t≤4
2.727 + 1.273e−1.4667(t−4), t≥4
At t = 2,
i(2) = 4(1 − e−4) = 3.93 A
At t = 5,
i(5) = 2.727 + 1.273e−1.4667 = 3.02 A

Practice Problem 7.13 Switch S1 in Fig. 7.54 is closed at t = 0, and switch S2 is closed at t = 2s.
Calculate i(t) for all t. Find i(1) and i(3).
t=2

{
Answer:
0, t<0
S2
S1 10 Ω i(t) = 4(1 − e−9t), 0<t<2
20 Ω i(t) 7.2 − 3.2e−5(t−2), t>2
t=0
i(1) = 4 A, i(3) = 7.178 A.
12 A 15 Ω 5H

Figure 7.54
For Practice Prob. 7.13.

7.7 † First-Order Op Amp Circuits

An op amp circuit containing a storage element will exhibit first-order
behavior. Differentiators and integrators treated in Section 6.6 are exam-
ples of first-order op amp circuits. Again, for practical reasons, inductors
are hardly ever used in op amp circuits; therefore, the op amp circuits we
consider here are of the RC type.
As usual, we analyze op amp circuits using nodal analysis. Some -
times, the Thevenin equivalent circuit is used to reduce the op amp cir-
cuit to one that we can easily handle. The following three examples
illustrate the concepts. The first one deals with a source-free op amp
circuit, while the other two involve step responses. The three examples
have been carefully selected to co ver all possible RC types of op amp
circuits, depending on the location of the capacitor with respect to the
op amp; that is, the capacitor can be located in the input, the output, or
the feedback loop.
298 Chapter 7 First-Order Circuits

4. The singularity functions include the unit step, the unit ramp func -
tion, and the unit impulse functions. The unit step function u(t) is

u(t) = { 0,
1,
t<0
t>0
The unit impulse function is

{
0, t<0
δ(t) = Undefined, t=0
0, t>0
The unit ramp function is

r(t) = { 0,
t,
t≤0
t≥0

5. The steady-state response is the beha vior of the circuit after an in -

dependent source has been applied for a long time. The transient
response is the component of the complete response that dies out
with time.
6. The total or complete response consists of the steady-state response
and the transient response.
7. The step response is the response of the circuit to a sudden applica-
tion of a dc current or v oltage. Finding the step response of a first-
order circuit requires the initial v alue x(0+), the final value x(∞),
and the time constant τ. With these three items, we obtain the step
response as
x(t) = x(∞) + [x(0+) − x(∞)]e−t∕τ
A more general form of this equation is
x(t) = x(∞) + [x(t+0) − x(∞)]e−(t−t0)∕τ
Or we may write it as
Instantaneous value = Final + [Initial − Final]e−(t−t0)∕τ
8. PSpice is very useful for obtaining the transient response of a circuit.
9. Four practical applications of RC and RL circuits are: a delay circuit,
a photoflash unit, a relay circuit, and an automobile ignition circuit.

Review Questions
7.1 An RC circuit has R = 2 Ω and C = 4 F. The time capacitor voltage to reach 63.2 percent of its steady-
constant is: state value is:
(a) 0.5 s (b) 2 s (c) 4 s (a) 2 s (b) 4 s (c) 8 s
(d) 8 s 15 s (d) 16 s none of the above
7.2 The time constant for an RL circuit with R = 2 Ω and 7.4 An RL circuit has R = 2 Ω and L = 4 H. The time
L = 4 H is: needed for the inductor current to reach 40 percent
of its steady-state value is:
(a) 0.5 s (b) 2 s (c) 4 s
(d) 8 s 15 s (a) 0.5 s (b) 1 s (c) 2 s
(d) 4 s none of the above
7.3 A capacitor in an RC circuit with R = 2 Ω and
C = 4 F is being charged. The time required for the
 Problems 299

7.5 In the circuit of Fig. 7.79, the capacitor voltage just i(t)
before t = 0 is:
5H
(a) 10 V (b) 7 V (c) 6 V 10 A 2Ω
(d) 4 V 0V
t=0 3Ω

Figure 7.80
3Ω For Review Questions 7.7 and 7.8.

+ 7.8 In the circuit of Fig. 7.80, i(∞) is:

2Ω
10 V + v(t) 7F (a) 10 A (b) 6 A (c) 4 A
‒
– (d) 2 A 0A
t=0
7.9 If vs changes from 2 V to 4 V at t = 0, we may
Figure 7.79 express vs as:
For Review Questions 7.5 and 7.6. (a) δ(t) V (b) 2u(t) V
(c) 2u(−t) + 4u(t) V (d) 2 + 2u(t) V
4u(t) − 2 V
7.6 In the circuit in Fig. 7.79, v(∞) is:
7.10 The pulse in Fig. 7.116(a) can be expressed in terms
(a) 10 V (b) 7 V (c) 6 V of singularity functions as:
(d) 4 V 0V
(a) 2u(t) + 2u(t − 1) V (b) 2u(t) − 2u(t − 1) V
7.7 For the circuit in Fig. 7.80, the inductor current just
(c) 2u(t) − 4u(t − 1) V (d) 2u(t) + 4u(t − 1) V
before t = 0 is:
(a) 8 A (b) 6 A (c) 4 A Answers: 7.1d, 7.2b, 7.3c, 7.4b, 7.5d, 7.6a, 7.7c, 7.8e ,
(d) 2 A 0A 7.9c,d, 7.10b.

Problems
Section 7.2 The Source-Free RC Circuit 7.2 Find the time constant for the RC circuit in Fig. 7.82.

7.1 In the circuit shown in Fig. 7.81

120 Ω 12 Ω
v(t) = 56e−200t V, t>0
i(t) = 8e−200t mA, t>0 50 V + 80 Ω 50 mF
‒
(a) Find the values of R and C.
(b) Calculate the time constant τ.
(c) Determine the time required for the voltage to Figure 7.82
For Prob. 7.2.
decay half its initial value at t = 0.

7.3 Determine the time constant for the circuit in Fig. 7.83.
i
6 kΩ 25 kΩ

+
R v C 50 pF 40 kΩ 35 kΩ
‒

Figure 7.81 Figure 7.83

For Prob. 7.1. For Prob. 7.3.
 c h a p t e r

8
Second-Order
Circuits
Everyone who can earn a masters degree in engineering must earn a
masters degree in engineering in order to maximize the success of their
career! If you want to do research, state-of-the-art engineering, teach in a
university, or start your own business, you really need to earn a doctoral
degree!
—Charles K. Alexander

Enhancing Your Career

To increase your engineering career opportunities after graduation,
develop a strong fundamental understanding in a broad set of engineer -
ing areas. When possible, this might best be accomplished by working
toward a graduate degree immediately upon receiving your undergradu-
ate degree.
Each de gree in engineering represents certain skills the student
acquires. At the Bachelor de gree level, you learn the language of engi -
neering and the fundamentals of engineering and design.At the Master’s
level, you acquire the ability to do advanced engineering projects and to
communicate your work effectively both orally and in writing.The Ph.D.
represents a thorough understanding of the fundamentals of electrical
engineering and a mastery of the skills necessary both for w orking at
the frontiers of an engineering area and for communicating one’ s effort
to others.
If you have no idea what career you should pursue after graduation,
a graduate de gree program will enhance your ability to e xplore career
options. Since your undergraduate degree will only provide you with the
fundamentals of engineering, a Master’ s degree in engineering supple - Enhancing your career involves under-
mented by business courses benefits more engineering students than does standing your goals, adapting to changes,
getting a Master’s of Business Administration (MBA). The best time to anticipating opportunities, and planning
your own niche.
get your MB A is after you ha ve been a practicing engineer for some
© 2005 Institute of Electrical and
years and decide your career path would be enhanced by strengthening
Electronics Engineers (IEEE), from IEEE
your business skills. Potentials cover, April/May 2005
Engineers should constantly educate themselv es, formally and
informally, taking advantage of all means of education. Perhaps there is
no better way to enhance your career than to join a professional society
such as IEEE and be an active member.

311
312 Chapter 8 Second-Order Circuits

Learning Objectives
By using the information and exercises in this chapter you will be
able to:
1. Develop a better understanding of the solution of general-
second order differential equations.
2. Learn how to determine initial and final values.
3. Understand the response in source-free series RLC circuits.
4. Understand the response in source-free parallel RLC circuits.
5. Understand the step response of series RLC circuits.
R L
6. Understand the step response of parallel RLC circuits.
7. Understand general second-order circuits.
vs + C 8. Understand general second-order circuits with op amps.
‒

(a)

8.1 Introduction
is R C L In the previous chapter we considered circuits with a single storage ele-
ment (a capacitor or an inductor). Such circuits are first-order because
the differential equations describing them are first-order. In this chap -
(b) ter we will consider circuits containing two storage elements. These are
known as second-order circuits because their responses are described by
R1 R2
differential equations that contain second derivatives.
Typical e xamples of second-order circuits are RLC circuits, in
vs + L1 L2 which the three kinds of passive elements are present. Examples of such
‒
circuits are shown in Fig. 8.1(a) and (b). Other examples are RL and RC
circuits, as shown in Fig. 8.1(c) and (d). It is apparent from Fig. 8.1 that
(c) a second-order circuit may have two storage elements of different type or
the same type (provided elements of the same type cannot be represented
R
by an equi valent single element). An op amp circuit with tw o storage
elements may also be a second-order circuit. As with first-order circuits,
is C1 C2 a second-order circuit may contain se veral resistors and dependent and
independent sources.

(d) A second-order circuit is characterized by a second-order differential

Figure 8.1 equation. It consists of resistors and the equivalent of two energy storage
Typical examples of second-order circuits:
elements.
(a) series RLC circuit, (b) parallel RLC
circuit, (c) RL circuit, (d) RC circuit.
Our analysis of second-order circuits will be similar to that used for
first-order. We will first consider circuits that are excited by the initial
conditions of the storage elements.Although these circuits may contain
dependent sources, they are free of independent sources. These source-
free circuits will give natural responses as expected. Later we will con-
sider circuits that are e xcited by independent sources. These circuits
will give both the transient response and the steady-state response. We
consider only dc independent sources in this chapter. The case of sinu-
soidal and exponential sources is deferred to later chapters.
We begin by learning ho w to obtain the initial conditions for the
circuit v ariables and their deri vatives, as this is crucial to analyzing
second-order circuits. Then we consider series and parallel RLC cir-
cuits such as shown in Fig. 8.1 for the two cases of excitation: by initial
 8.2 Finding Initial and Final Values 313

conditions of the ener gy storage elements and by step inputs. Later

we e xamine other types of second-order circuits, including op amp
circuits. We will consider PSpice analysis of second-order circuits.
Finally, we will consider the automobile ignition system and smooth -
ing circuits as typical applications of the circuits treated in this chapter.
Other applications such as resonant circuits and filters will be covered
in Chapter 14.

8.2 Finding Initial and Final Values

Perhaps the major problem students f ace in handling second-order
circuits is finding the initial and final conditions on circuit variables.
Students are usually comfortable getting the initial and final values of
v and i but often have difficulty finding the initial values of their deriva-
tives: dv∕dt and di∕dt. For this reason, this section is e xplicitly devoted
to the subtleties of getting v(0), i(0), dv(0)∕dt, di(0)∕dt, i(∞), and v(∞).
Unless otherwise stated in this chapter , v denotes capacitor v oltage,
while i is the inductor current.
There are two key points to keep in mind in determining the initial
conditions.
First—as al ways in circuit analysis—we must carefully handle the
polarity of voltage v(t) across the capacitor and the direction of the current
i(t) through the inductor. Keep in mind that v and i are defined strictly ac-
cording to the passive sign convention (see Figs. 6.3 and 6.23). One should
carefully observe how these are defined and apply them accordingly.
Second, keep in mind that the capacitor voltage is always continu-
ous so that

v(0+) = v(0−) (8.1a)

and the inductor current is always continuous so that

i(0+) = i(0−) (8.1b)

where t = 0− denotes the time just before a switching event and t = 0+ is

the time just after the switching event, assuming that the switching event
takes place at t = 0.
Thus, in finding initial conditions, we first focus on those variables
that cannot change abruptly, capacitor voltage and inductor current, by
applying Eq. (8.1). The following examples illustrate these ideas.

The switch in Fig. 8.2 has been closed for a long time. It is open att = 0. Example 8.1
Find: (a) i(0+), v(0+), (b) di(0+)∕dt, dv(0+)∕dt, (c) i(∞), v(∞).
4Ω i 0.25 H
Solution:
(a) If the switch is closed a long time before t = 0, it means that the cir- +
+ 2Ω
cuit has reached dc steady state at t = 0. At dc steady state, the inductor 12 V ‒ 0.1 F v
acts like a short circuit, while the capacitor acts like an open circuit, so ‒
t=0
we have the circuit in Fig. 8.3(a) at t = 0−. Thus,
12 = 2 A,
i(0−) = _____ v(0−) = 2i(0−) = 4 V Figure 8.2
4+2 For Example 8.1.
314 Chapter 8 Second-Order Circuits

4Ω i 4Ω i 0.25 H 4Ω i

+ vL ‒ +
+ +
12 V + 2Ω v 12 V + 0.1 F v 12 V +
‒ ‒ ‒ v
‒ ‒
‒

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 8.3
Equivalent circuit of that in Fig. 8.2 for: (a) t = 0−, (b) t = 0+, (c) t → ∞.

As the inductor current and the capacitor voltage cannot change abruptly,

i(0+) = i(0−) = 2 A, v(0+) = v(0−) = 4 V

(b) At t = 0+, the switch is open; the equivalent circuit is as shown in

Fig. 8.3(b). The same current flows through both the inductor and ca-
pacitor. Hence,
iC(0+) = i(0+) = 2 A

Since C dv∕dt = iC, dv∕dt = iC∕C, and

(0+) ___
dv(0+) i_____
______ = C = 2 = 20 V/s
dt C 0.1
Similarly, since L di∕dt = vL, di∕dt = vL∕L. We now obtain vL by apply-
ing KVL to the loop in Fig. 8.3(b). The result is
−12 + 4i(0+) + vL(0+) + v(0+) = 0

or
vL(0+) = 12 − 8 − 4 = 0

Thus,
v (0+) ____
di(0+) ______
_____ = L = 0 = 0 A/s
dt L 0.25
(c) For t > 0, the circuit undergoes transience. But as t → ∞, the circuit
reaches steady state again. The inductor acts like a short circuit and the
capacitor like an open circuit, so that the circuit in Fig. 8.3(b) becomes
that shown in Fig. 8.3(c), from which we have
i(∞) = 0 A, v(∞) = 12 V

Practice Problem 8.1 The switch in Fig. 8.4 was open for a long time but closed at t = 0.
Determine: (a) i(0+), v(0+), (b) di(0+)∕dt, dv(0+)∕dt, (c) i(∞), v(∞).
t=0

10 Ω 0.4 H i

+
2Ω v 1 + 42 V
20 F ‒
‒

Figure 8.4
For Practice Prob. 8.1.

Answer: (a) 3.5 A, 7 V, (b) 87.5 A/s, 0 V/s, (c) 21 A, 42 V.

 8.2 Finding Initial and Final Values 315

In the circuit of Fig. 8.5, calculate: (a) iL(0+), vC (0+), vR(0+), Example 8.2
+ + +
(b) diL(0 )∕dt, dvC(0 )∕dt, dvR(0 )∕dt, (c) iL(∞), vC(∞), vR(∞).

4Ω

+ iL
1
F vC
+ 2
vR ‒
3u(t) A 2Ω 0.6 H
‒ + 20 V
‒

Figure 8.5
For Example 8.2.

Solution:
(a) For t < 0, 3 u(t) = 0. At t = 0−, since the circuit has reached steady
state, the inductor can be replaced by a short circuit, while the capacitor
is replaced by an open circuit as shown in Fig. 8.6(a). From this figure
we obtain
iL(0−) = 0, vR(0−) = 0, vC(0−) = − 20 V (8.2.1)
−
Although the derivatives of these quantities at t = 0 are not required, it
is evident that they are all zero, since the circuit has reached steady state
and nothing changes.

4Ω a + vo ‒ b
iL iC iL
+ 4Ω
+ +
vC 1 vC
+ 2 F +
‒ ‒ vL
vR 2Ω 3A 2Ω vR 0.6 H
+ 20 V ‒ + 20 V ‒
‒ ‒
‒

(a) (b)
Figure 8.6
The circuit in Fig. 8.5 for: (a) t = 0−, (b) t = 0+.

For t > 0, 3 u(t) = 3, so that the circuit is no w equivalent to that

in Fig. 8.6(b). Since the inductor current and capacitor v oltage cannot
change abruptly,

iL(0+) = iL(0−) = 0, vC (0+) = vC (0−) = −20 V (8.2.2)

Although the voltage across the 4-Ω resistor is not required, we will use
it to apply KVL and KCL; let it be called vo. Applying KCL at node a in
Fig. 8.6(b) gives
v (0+)
vR(0+) _____
3 = ______ + o (8.2.3)
2 4
Applying KVL to the middle mesh in Fig. 8.6(b) yields

−vR(0+) + vo(0+) + vC(0+) + 20 = 0 (8.2.4)

316 Chapter 8 Second-Order Circuits

Since vC (0+) = −20 V from Eq. (8.2.2), Eq. (8.2.4) implies that

vR(0+) = vo(0+) (8.2.5)

From Eqs. (8.2.3) and (8.2.5), we obtain

vR(0+) = vo(0+) = 4 V (8.2.6)

(b) Since L diL∕dt = vL,

diL(0+) ______
______ v (0+)
= L
dt L
But applying KVL to the right mesh in Fig. 8.6(b) gives
vL(0+) = vC (0+) + 20 = 0
Hence,
diL(0+)
______ =0 (8.2.7)
dt

Similarly, since C dvC∕dt = iC, then dvC∕dt = iC∕C. We apply KCL at

node b in Fig. 8.6(b) to get iC:
vo(0+)
_____ = iC (0+) + iL(0+) (8.2.8)
4

Since vo(0+) = 4 and iL(0+) = 0, iC(0+) = 4∕4 = 1 A. Then

+
dvC (0 ) iC (0+) ___
_______ = _____ = 1 = 2 V/s (8.2.9)
dt C 0.5

To get dvR(0+)∕dt, we apply KCL to node a and obtain

vR vo
3 = __ + __
2 4
Taking the derivative of each term and setting t = 0+ gives
dv (0+)
dvR(0+) ______
0 = 2_______ + o (8.2.10)
dt dt
We also apply KVL to the middle mesh in Fig. 8.6(b) and obtain
−vR + vC + 20 + vo = 0
Again, taking the derivative of each term and setting t = 0+ yields
+
dvR(0+) dv C (0 ) dvo(0+)
− _______ + _______ + ______ =0
dt dt dt
Substituting for dvC (0+)∕dt = 2 gives

dvR(0+)
_______ dvo(0+)
= 2 + ______ (8.2.11)
dt dt

From Eqs. (8.2.10) and (8.2.11), we get

dvR(0+) __
_______ = 2 V/s
dt 3
 8.3 The Source-Free Series RLC Circuit 317

We can find diR(0+)∕dt although it is not required. Since vR = 2iR,

diR(0+) __ dvR(0+) __
______ = 1 _______ 2 = __
= 1 __ 1 A/s
dt 2 dt 23 3
(c) As t → ∞, the circuit reaches steady state. We have the equivalent
circuit in Fig. 8.6(a) except that the 3-A current source is now operative.
By current division principle,
2 3A=1A
iL(∞) = _____
2+4
(8.2.12)
4 3 A × 2 = 4 V,
vR(∞) = _____ vC(∞) = −20 V
2+4

For the circuit in Fig. 8.7, find: (a) iL(0+), vC(0+), vR(0+), Practice Problem 8.2
(b) diL(0+)∕dt, dvC(0+)∕dt, dvR(0+)∕dt, (c) iL(∞), vC(∞), vR(∞).

+ vR ‒
iR

iC 5Ω iL

+ +
4u(t) A 1
F vC vL 2H 6A
5
‒ ‒

Figure 8.7
For Practice Prob. 8.2.

Answer: (a) −6 A, 0, 0, (b) 0, 20 V/s, 0, (c) −2 A, 20 V, 20 V.

8.3 The Source-Free Series RLC Circuit

An understanding of the natural response of the series RLC circuit is a
necessary background for future studies in filter design and communica-
tions networks.
R L
Consider the series RLC circuit sho wn in Fig. 8.8. The circuit is
being excited by the energy initially stored in the capacitor and inductor. I0
The energy is represented by the initial capacitor v oltage V0 and initial +
inductor current I0. Thus, at t = 0, i V0 C
‒
0
1
v(0) = __ ∫ i dt = V0
C −∞
(8.2a)

i(0) = I0 (8.2b) Figure 8.8

A source-free series RLC circuit.
Applying KVL around the loop in Fig. 8.8,

1 t i(τ) dτ = 0
di + __
Ri + L__
dt C −∞
∫ (8.3)
318 Chapter 8 Second-Order Circuits

To eliminate the integral, we differentiate with respect to t and rearrange

terms. We get

d2i + __
___ di + ___
R __ i =0 (8.4)
dt2 L dt LC
This is a second-order differential equation and is the reason for calling
the RLC circuits in this chapter second-order circuits. Our goal is to solv e
Eq. (8.4). To solv e such a second-order dif ferential equation requires
that we have two initial conditions, such as the initial v alue of i and its
first derivative or initial v alues of some i and v. The initial value of i is
given in Eq. (8.2b). We get the initial v alue of the deri vative of i from
Eqs. (8.2a) and (8.3); that is,

di(0)
Ri(0) + L_____ + V0 = 0
dt
or
di(0)
_____ 1 (RI + V )
= −__ 0 0 (8.5)
dt L
With the two initial conditions in Eqs. (8.2b) and (8.5), we can no w
solve Eq. (8.4). Our e xperience in the preceding chapter on first-order
circuits suggests that the solution is of exponential form. So we let

i = Aest (8.6)

where A and s are constants to be determined. Substituting Eq. (8.6) into

Eq. (8.4) and carrying out the necessary differentiations, we obtain

AR sest + ___
As2est + ___ A est = 0
L LC
or

Aest(s2 + __
LC )
1 =0
R s + ___ (8.7)
L

Since i = Aest is the assumed solution we are trying to find, only the
expression in parentheses can be zero:

s2 + __ 1 =0
R s + ___ (8.8)
L LC
This quadratic equation is kno wn as the characteristic equation of the
See Appendix C.1 for the formula to differential Eq. (8.4), since the roots of the equation dictate the character
find the roots of a quadratic equation. of i. The two roots of Eq. (8.8) are
___________
R +
√(___
2L )
R 1
2
s1 = −___ − ___ (8.9a)
2L LC
___________
R −
√(___
2L )
R 1
2
s2 = −___ − ___ (8.9b)
2L LC
A more compact way of expressing the roots is
_______ _______
s1 = −α + √α − ω0 , s2 = −α − √α − ω0
2 2 2 2
(8.10)
 8.3 The Source-Free Series RLC Circuit 319

where

R,
α = ___ 1
ω0 = ____
___
2L √ LC (8.11)

The roots s1 and s2 are called natural frequencies, measured in nepers

per second (Np/s), because they are associated with the natural response
of the circuit; ω0 is kno wn as the resonant frequency or strictly as the The neper (Np) is a dimensionless unit
undamped natur al frequency, e xpressed in radians per second (rad/s); named after John Napier (1550–1617),
and α is the neper frequency expressed in nepers per second. In terms of a Scottish mathematician.
α and ω0, Eq. (8.8) can be written as

s2 + 2αs + ω02 = 0 (8.8a)

The ratio α/ω0 is known as the damping
The variables s and ω0 are important quantities we will be discussing ratio ζ.
throughout the rest of the text.
The two values of s in Eq. (8.10) indicate that there are two possible
solutions for i, each of which is of the form of the assumed solution in
Eq. (8.6); that is,

i1 = A1es1t, i2 = A2es2t (8.12)

Since Eq. (8.4) is a linear equation, an y linear combination of the tw o

distinct solutions i1 and i2 is also a solution of Eq. (8.4). A complete or
total solution of Eq. (8.4) would therefore require a linear combination of
i1 and i2. Thus, the natural response of the series RLC circuit is

i(t) = A1es1t + A2es2t (8.13)

where the constants A1 and A2 are determined from the initial values i(0) The response is overdamped when
and di(0)∕dt in Eqs. (8.2b) and (8.5). the roots of the circuit’s characteristic
From Eq. (8.10), we can infer that there are three types of solutions: equation are unequal and real, critically
damped when the roots are equal and
1. If α > ω0, we have the overdamped case. real, and underdamped when the
2. If α = ω0, we have the critically damped case. roots are complex.
3. If α < ω0, we have the underdamped case.
We will consider each of these cases separately.

Overdamped Case (α > ω0)

From Eqs. (8.9) and (8.10), α > ω0 implies C > 4L∕R2. When this hap-
pens, both roots s1 and s2 are negative and real. The response is

i(t) = A1es1t + A2es2t (8.14)

which decays and approaches zero ast increases. Figure 8.9(a) illustrates
a typical overdamped response.

Critically Damped Case (α = ω0)

When α = ω0, C = 4L∕R2 and
R
s1 = s2 = − α = −___ (8.15)
2L
320 Chapter 8 Second-Order Circuits

i(t) For this case, Eq. (8.13) yields

i(t) = A1e−αt + A2e−αt = A3e−αt

where A3 = A1 + A2 . This cannot be the solution, because the two initial

conditions cannot be satisfied with the single constant A3. What then
could be wrong? Our assumption of an e xponential solution is incor -
rect for the special case of critical damping. Let us go back to Eq. (8.4).
0 t When α = ω0 = R∕2L, Eq. (8.4) becomes
d2i + 2α__
___ di + α2i = 0
dt 2 dt
(a)
or
i(t)

dt( dt ) ( dt + αi) = 0
d __
__ di + αi + α __
di (8.16)

If we let
di + αi
f = __ (8.17)
dt
0 1 t then Eq. (8.16) becomes
α
df
__ + αf = 0
dt
(b)
which is a first-order differential equation with solution f = A1e−αt, where
i(t) A1 is a constant. Equation (8.17) then becomes
e ‒t
di + αi = A e−αt
__
1
dt
0 t or
2π
ωd di + eαtαi = A
eαt __ 1 (8.18)
dt
(c)
This can be written as
Figure 8.9
(a) Overdamped response, (b) critically d (eαti) = A
__
damped response, (c) underdamped re- 1 (8.19)
dt
sponse.
Integrating both sides yields

eαti = A1t + A2

or

i = (A1t + A2)e−αt (8.20)

where A2 is another constant. Hence, the natural response of the critically

damped circuit is a sum of two terms: a negative exponential and a nega-
tive exponential multiplied by a linear term, or

i(t) = (A2 + A1t)e−αt (8.21)

A typical critically damped response is sho wn in Fig. 8.9(b). In f act,

Fig. 8.9(b) is a sk etch of i(t) = te−αt, which reaches a maximum v alue of
e−1∕α at t = 1∕α, one time constant, and then decays all the way to zero.
 8.3 The Source-Free Series RLC Circuit 321

Underdamped Case (α < ω0)

For α < ω0, C < 4L∕R2. The roots may be written as
__________
s1 = −α + √−(ω02 − α2) = −α + jωd (8.22a)
__________
s2 = −α − √ −(ω02 − α ) = −α − jωd
2
(8.22b)
___ _______
where j = √ −1 and ωd = √ ω20 − α2 , which is called thedamped frequency.
Both ω0 and ωd are natural frequencies because they help determine the
natural response; while ω0 is often called the undamped natur al fr e-
quency, ωd is called the damped natural frequency. The natural response
is
i(t) = A1e−(α−jωd)t + A2e−(α + jωd)t
= e−αt(A1e−jωd t + A2e−jωdt) (8.23)

Using Euler’s identities,

e jθ = cos θ + j sin θ, e−jθ = cos θ − j sin θ (8.24)

we get

i(t) = e−αt[A1(cos ωd t + j sin ωd t) + A2(cos ωd t − j sin ωd t)]

= e−αt[(A1 + A2) cos ωdt + j(A1 − A2) sin ωd t] (8.25)

Replacing constants ( A1 + A2) and j(A1 − A2) with constants B1 and B2,
we write

i(t) = e−αt(B1 cos ωdt + B2 sin ωdt) (8.26)

With the presence of sine and cosine functions, it is clear that the
natural response for this case is e xponentially damped and oscillatory
in nature. The response has a time constant of 1 ∕α and a period of
T = 2π∕ωd. Figure 8.9(c) depicts a typical underdamped response. Part
(a) and (b) of Fig. 8.9 assume for each case that i(0) = 0.
Once the inductor current i(t) is found for the RLC series circuit as
shown above, other circuit quantities such as indi vidual element voltages
can easily be found. F or example, the resistor v oltage is vR = Ri, and the
inductor voltage is vL = L di∕dt. The inductor current i(t) is selected as the R = 0 produces a perfectly sinusoidal
key variable to be determined first in order to take advantage of Eq. (8.1b). response. This response cannot be
We conclude this section by noting the follo wing interesting, pecu- practically accomplished with L and C
liar properties of an RLC network: because of the inherent losses in them.
See Figs 6.8 and 6.26. An electronic
1. The behavior of such a network is captured by the idea of damping, device called an oscillator can
which is the gradual loss of the initial stored ener gy, as e videnced produce a perfectly sinusoidal
by the continuous decrease in the amplitude of the response. The response.
damping ef fect is due to the presence of resistance R. The neper
frequency α determines the rate at which the response is damped.
___
If R = 0, then α = 0, and we have an LC circuit with 1∕√LC as the Examples 8.5 and 8.7 demonstrate the
undamped natural frequency. Since α < ω0 in this case, the response effect of varying R.
is not only undamped b ut also oscillatory. The circuit is said to be
loss-less, because the dissipating or damping element ( R) is absent.
By adjusting the value of R, the response may be made undamped, The response of a second-order circuit
overdamped, critically damped, or underdamped. with two storage elements of the same
2. Oscillatory response is possible due to the presence of the tw o type, as in Fig. 8.1(c) and (d), cannot
types of storage elements. Ha ving both L and C allows the flow be oscillatory.
322 Chapter 8 Second-Order Circuits

of energy back and forth between the tw o. The damped oscillation

exhibited by the underdamped response is kno wn as ringing. It
stems from the ability of the storage elements L and C to transfer
energy back and forth between them.
3. Observe from Fig. 8.9 that the w aveforms of the responses dif fer.
In general, it is dif ficult to tell from the waveforms the dif ference
between the overdamped and critically damped responses. The criti-
cally damped case is the borderline between the underdamped and
overdamped cases and it decays the fastest. With the sameinitial con-
ditions, the overdamped case has the longest settling time, because
What this means in most practical it tak es the longest time to dissipate the initial stored energy. If
circuits is that we seek an overdamped we desire the response that approaches the final value most rapidly
circuit that is as close as possible to without oscillation or ringing, the critically damped circuit is the
a critically damped circuit. right choice.

Example 8.3 In Fig. 8.8, R = 40 Ω, L = 4 H, and C = 1∕4 F. Calculate the charac -

teristic roots of the circuit. Is the natural response o verdamped, under-
damped, or critically damped?

Solution:
We first calculate
40 = 5,
R = ____
α = ___ ω0 = _____
1 1
___ = ______
_____ = 1
2L 2(4) √ LC
√
4 × __14
The roots are
_______ ______
s1,2 = −α ± √α2 − ω20 = − 5 ± √25 − 1

or
s1 = −0.101, s2 = −9.899
Since α > ω0, we conclude that the response is overdamped. This is also
evident from the fact that the roots are real and negative.

Practice Problem 8.3 If R = 10 Ω, L = 5 H, and C = 2 mF in Fig. 8.8, find α, ω0, s1, and s2. What
type of natural response will the circuit have?

Answer: 1, 10, −1 ± j9.95, underdamped.

Example 8.4 Find i(t) in the circuit of Fig. 8.10. Assume that the circuit has reached
steady state at t = 0−.

Solution:
For t < 0, the switch is closed. The capacitor acts like an open circuit
while the inductor acts like a shunted circuit. The equivalent circuit is
shown in Fig. 8.11(a). Thus, at t = 0,
10 = 1 A,
i(0) = _____ v(0) = 6i(0) = 6 V
4+6
 8.3 The Source-Free Series RLC Circuit 323

t=0 i
4Ω i
4Ω i
+
v + 9Ω
0.02 F 6Ω
‒ + v
10 V + + 0.02 F
‒ 10 V ‒ v 6Ω ‒
3Ω 0.5 H ‒ 0.5 H

Figure 8.10 (a) (b)

For Example 8.4.
Figure 8.11
The circuit in Fig. 8.10: (a) for t < 0, (b) for t > 0.

where i(0) is the initial current through the inductor andv(0) is the initial
voltage across the capacitor.
For t > 0, the switch is opened and the v oltage source is discon -
nected. The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 8.11(b), which is a source-
free series RLC circuit. Notice that the 3-Ω and 6-Ω resistors, which are
in series in Fig. 8.10 when the switch is opened, have been combined to
give R = 9 Ω in Fig. 8.11(b). The roots are calculated as follows:
9
R = _____
α = ___ 1 1
= 9, ω0 = ____
___ = _______
______ = 10
(2)
2L 2 __1
_______
√ LC 1 ___
__ × 1
2 √50
________
s1,2 = −α ± √ α − 2
ω20 = −9 ± √ 81 − 100
or
s1,2 = −9 ± j4.359
Hence, the response is underdamped (α < ω); that is,
i(t) = e−9t(A1 cos 4.359t + A2 sin 4.359 t) (8.4.1)
We now obtain A1 and A2 using the initial conditions. At t = 0,
i(0) = 1 = A1 (8.4.2)
From Eq. (8.5),

|
di
__
dt t=0
1 [Ri(0) + v(0)] = −2[9(1) − 6] = −6 A/s
= −__
L
(8.4.3)

Note that v(0) = V0 = −6 V is used, because the polarity ofv in Fig. 8.11(b)
is opposite that in Fig. 8.8. Taking the derivative of i(t) in Eq. (8.4.1),
di = −9e−9t(A cos 4.359t + A sin 4.359 t)
__
1 2
dt
−9t
+ e (4.359)(−A1 sin 4.359t + A2 cos 4.359 t)
Imposing the condition in Eq. (8.4.3) at t = 0 gives
−6 = −9(A1 + 0) + 4.359( −0 + A2)
But A1 = 1 from Eq. (8.4.2). Then
−6 = −9 + 4.359A2 ⇒ A2 = 0.6882
Substituting the v alues of A1 and A2 in Eq. (8.4.1) yields the com -
plete solution as
i(t) = e−9t(cos 4.359t + 0.6882 sin 4.359 t) A
324 Chapter 8 Second-Order Circuits

Practice Problem 8.4 The circuit in Fig. 8.12 has reached steady state at t = 0−. If the make-
before-break switch moves to position b at t = 0, calculate i(t) for
1
10 Ω a b
9 F t > 0.
t=0
Answer: e−2.5t(10 cos 1.6583t − 15.076 sin 1.6583 t) A.
i(t)
100 V + 5Ω
‒
1H

Figure 8.12
For Practice Prob. 8.4. 8.4 The Source-Free Parallel RLC Circuit
Parallel RLC circuits find many practical applications, notably in com-
v munications networks and filter designs.
Consider the parallel RLC circuit shown in Fig. 8.13. Assume initial
+ + inductor current I0 and initial capacitor voltage V0,
+
R v L I0 v C V0 0
‒
1
i(0) = I0 = __ ∫ v(t) dt
L −∞
(8.27a)
‒ ‒
v(0) = V0 (8.27b)

Figure 8.13 Because the three elements are in parallel, the y have the same voltage v
A source-free parallel RLC circuit. across them. According to passive sign convention, the current is enter -
ing each element; that is, the current through each element is leaving the
top node. Thus, applying KCL at the top node gives

v + __
1 t v(τ) dτ + C ___
__
R
∫
L −∞
dv = 0
dt
(8.28)

Taking the derivative with respect to t and dividing by C results in

d2v + ___
___ dv + ___
1 ___ 1 v=0 (8.29)
dt2 RC dt LC
We obtain the characteristic equation by replacing the first derivative
by s and the second derivative by s2. By following the same reasoning
used in establishing Eqs. (8.4) through (8.8), the characteristic equation
is obtained as
1 s + ___
s2 + ___ 1 =0 (8.30)
RC LC
The roots of the characteristic equation are
____________

( 2RC ) LC
√
1 ± ____
s1,2 = −____ 1 2− ___
1
2RC
or
_______
s1,2 = −α ± √ α2 − ω20 (8.31)

where

1 ,
α = ____ 1
ω0 = ____
___
2RC √LC (8.32)
 8.4 The Source-Free Parallel RLC Circuit 325

The names of these terms remain the same as in the preceding section,
as they play the same role in the solution. Again, there are three possible
solutions, depending on whether α > ω0, α = ω0, or α < ω0. Let us con-
sider these cases separately.

Overdamped Case (α > ω0)

From Eq. (8.32), α > ω0 when L > 4R2C. The roots of the characteristic
equation are real and negative. The response is

v(t) = A1es1t + A2es2t (8.33)

Critically Damped Case (α = ω0)

For α = ω0, L = 4R2C. The roots are real and equal so that the response is

v(t) = (A1 + A2t)e−αt (8.34)

Underdamped Case (α < ω0)

When α < ω0, L < 4R2C. In this case the roots are complex and may be
expressed as
s1,2 = −α ± jωd (8.35)

where
_______
ωd = √ω20 − α2 (8.36)

The response is

v(t) = e−αt(A1 cos ωdt + A2 sin ωdt) (8.37)

The constants A1 and A2 in each case can be determined from the

initial conditions. We need v(0) and dv(0)∕dt. The first term is known
from Eq. (8.27b). We find the second term by combining Eqs. (8.27) and
(8.28), as
V0
___ dv(0)
+ I0 + C _____ = 0
R dt
or
dv(0)
_____ (V0 + RI0)
= −_________ (8.38)
dt RC
The voltage waveforms are similar to those sho wn in Fig. 8.9 and will
depend on whether the circuit is overdamped, underdamped, or critically
damped.
Having found the capacitor voltage v(t) for the parallel RLC cir-
cuit as shown above, we can readily obtain other circuit quantities such
as indi vidual element currents. F or e xample, the resistor current is
iR = v∕R and the capacitor current is iC = C dv∕dt. We have selected the
capacitor voltage v(t) as the k ey variable to be determined first in order
to take advantage of Eq. (8.1a). Notice that we first found the inductor
current i(t) for the RLC series circuit, whereas we first found the capaci-
tor voltage v(t) for the parallel RLC circuit.
326 Chapter 8 Second-Order Circuits

Example 8.5 In the parallel circuit of Fig. 8.13, find v(t) for t > 0, assuming v(0) = 5 V,
i(0) = 0, L = 1 H, and C = 10 mF. Consider these cases: R = 1.923 Ω,
R = 5 Ω, and R = 6.25 Ω.

Solution:
■ CASE 1 If R = 1.923 Ω,
1 = ___________________
α = ____ 1 = 26
2RC 2 × 1.923 × 10 × 10−3
1
ω0 = ____ 1
___ = _____________
____________ = 10
√LC √1 × 10 × 10−3
Since α > ω0 in this case, the response is overdamped. The roots of the
characteristic equation are
_______
s1,2 = −α ± √α2 − ω20 = −2, − 50
and the corresponding response is
v(t) = A1e−2t + A2e−50t (8.5.1)
We now apply the initial conditions to get A1 and A2.
v(0) = 5 = A1 + A2 (8.5.2)

dv(0)
_____ v(0) + Ri(0) 5+0
= −__________ = −_______________ = −260
dt RC 1.923 × 10 × 10−3
But differentiating Eq. (8.5.1),
dv = −2A e−2t − 50A e−50t
___
1 2
dt
At t = 0,
−260 = −2A1 − 50A2 (8.5.3)
From Eqs. (8.5.2) and (8.5.3), we obtain A1 = −0.2083 and A2 = 5.208.
Substituting A1 and A2 in Eq. (8.5.1) yields
v(t) = −0.2083e−2t + 5.208e−50t (8.5.4)

■ CASE 2 When R = 5 Ω,
1 = _______________
α = ____ 1 = 10
2RC 2 × 5 × 10 × 10−3
while ω0 = 10 remains the same. Since α = ω0 = 10, the response is criti-
cally damped. Hence, s1 = s2 = −10, and
v(t) = (A1 + A2t)e−10t (8.5.5)
To get A1 and A2, we apply the initial conditions
v(0) = 5 = A1 (8.5.6)
dv(0)
_____ v(0) + Ri(0) 5+0
= −__________ = −____________ = −100
dt RC 5 × 10 × 10−3
But differentiating Eq. (8.5.5),
dv = (−10A − 10A t + A )e−10t
___
1 2 2
dt
 8.4 The Source-Free Parallel RLC Circuit 327

At t = 0,
−100 = −10A1 + A2 (8.5.7)
From Eqs. (8.5.6) and (8.5.7), A1 = 5 and A2 = −50. Thus,
v(t) = (5 − 50t)e−10t V (8.5.8)

■ CASE 3 When R = 6.25 Ω,

1 = __________________
α = ____ 1 =8
2RC 2 × 6.25 × 10 × 10−3

while ω0 = 10 remains the same. As α < ω0 in this case, the response is

underdamped. The roots of the characteristic equation are
_______
s1,2 = −α ± √α2 − ω02 = −8 ± j6
Hence,
v(t) = (A1 cos 6t + A2 sin 6t)e−8t (8.5.9)
We now obtain A1 and A2, as
v(0) = 5 = A1 (8.5.10)

dv(0)
_____ v(0) + Ri(0) 5+0
= − __________ = − ______________ = −80
dt RC 6.25 × 10 × 10−3
But differentiating Eq. (8.5.9),
dv = (−8A cos 6t − 8A sin 6t − 6A sin 6t + 6A cos 6t)e−8t
___
1 2 1 2
dt
At t = 0,
−80 = −8A1 + 6A2 (8.5.11)
From Eqs. (8.5.10) and (8.5.11), A1 = 5 and A2 = −6.667. Thus,
v(t) = (5 cos 6t − 6.667 sin 6t)e−8t (8.5.12)
Notice that by increasing the value of R, the degree of damping
decreases and the responses differ. Figure 8.14 plots the three cases.

v (t) V

1
Overdamped
Critically damped
0

Underdamped
‒1
0 0.5 1 1.5 t (s)
Figure 8.14
For Example 8.5: responses for three degrees of damping.
328 Chapter 8 Second-Order Circuits

Practice Problem 8.5 In Fig. 8.13, let R = 2 Ω, L = 0.4 H, C = 25 mF, v(0) = 0, i(0) = 50 mA.
Find v(t) for t > 0.

Answer: −2te−10t V.

Example 8.6 Find v(t) for t > 0 in the RLC circuit of Fig. 8.15.

30 Ω 0.4 H i

+
40 V + t=0 50 Ω 20 μF v
‒ ‒

Figure 8.15
For Example 8.6.

Solution:
When t < 0, the switch is open; the inductor acts like a short circuit while
the capacitor behaves like an open circuit. The initial voltage across the
capacitor is the same as the voltage across the 50-Ω resistor; that is,
50 (40) = __
v(0) = _______ 5 × 40 = 25 V (8.6.1)
30 + 50 8
The initial current through the inductor is
40 = −0.5 A
i(0) = −_______
30 + 50
The direction of i is as indicated in Fig. 8.15 to conform with the direc -
tion of I0 in Fig. 8.13, which is in agreement with the convention t hat
current flows into the positive terminal of an inductor (see Fig. 6.23). We
need to express this in terms of dv∕dt, since we are looking for v.
dv(0)
_____ v(0) + Ri(0) 25 − 50 × 0.5
= − __________ = −_____________ =0 (8.6.2)
dt RC 50 × 20 × 10−6
When t > 0, the switch is closed. The voltage source along with the
30-Ω resistor is separated from the rest of the circuit. The parallel RLC
circuit acts independently of the voltage source, as illustrated in Fig. 8.16.
Next, we determine that the roots of the characteristic equation are
1 = ________________
α = ____ 1 = 500
2RC 2 × 50 × 20 × 10−6
1
ω0 = ____ 1
___ = _____________ = 354
√ LC 0.4 × 20 × 10−6
_______
s1,2 = −α ± √α2 − ω20
__________________
= −500 ± √250,000 − 124,997.6 = −500 ± 354
or
s1 = −854, s2 = −146
 8.5 Step Response of a Series RLC Circuit 329

30 Ω 0.4 H

40 V + 50 Ω 20 μF
‒

Figure 8.16
The circuit in Fig. 8.15 when t > 0. The parallel
RLC circuit on the right-hand side acts indepen-
dently of the circuit on the left-hand side of the
junction.

Since α > ω0, we have the overdamped response

v(t) = A1e−854t + A2e−146t (8.6.3)
At t = 0, we impose the condition in Eq. (8.6.1),
v(0) = 25 = A1 + A2 ⇒ A2 = 25 − A1 (8.6.4)
Taking the derivative of v(t) in Eq. (8.6.3),
dv = −854A e−854t − 146A e−146t
___
1 2
dt
Imposing the condition in Eq. (8.6.2),
dv(0)
_____ = 0 = −854A1 − 146A2
dt
or
0 = 854A1 + 146A2 (8.6.5)
Solving Eqs. (8.6.4) and (8.6.5) gives
A1 = −5.156, A2 = 30.16
Thus, the complete solution in Eq. (8.6.3) becomes
v(t) = −5.156e−854t + 30.16e−146t V

Refer to the circuit in Fig. 8.17. Find v(t) for t > 0. Practice Problem 8.6
t=0
Answer: 50(e−10t − e−2.5t) V.

1.5 A 20 Ω 10 H 4 mF

8.5 Step Response of a Series RLC Circuit Figure 8.17

For Practice Prob. 8.6.
As we learned in the preceding chapter, the step response is obtained by
the sudden application of a dc source. Consider the series RLC circuit i
R L
shown in Fig. 8.18. Applying KVL around the loop for t > 0, t=0

di + Ri + v = V +
L __ s (8.39) Vs + C v
dt ‒
‒
But
dv
i = C ___ Figure 8.18
dt Step voltage applied to a series RLC circuit.
330 Chapter 8 Second-Order Circuits

Substituting for i in Eq. (8.39) and rearranging terms,

d2v + __
___ v = ___
dv + ___
R ___ Vs
(8.40)
dt 2 L dt LC LC
which has the same form as Eq. (8.4). More specifically, the coefficients
are the same (and that is important in determining the frequency param-
eters) but the variable is different. (Likewise, see Eq. (8.47).) Hence, the
characteristic equation for the series RLC circuit is not af fected by the
presence of the dc source.
The solution to Eq. (8.40) has two components: the transient re -
sponse vt(t) and the steady-state response vss(t); that is,

v(t) = vt(t) + vss(t) (8.41)

The transient response vt(t) is the component of the total response that
dies out with time. The form of the transient response is the same as the
form of the solution obtained in Section 8.3 for the source-free circuit,
given by Eqs. (8.14), (8.21), and (8.26). Therefore, the transient response
vt(t) for the overdamped, underdamped, and critically damped cases are:

vt(t) = A1es1t + A2es2t (Overdamped) (8.42a)

vt(t) = (A1 + A2t)e−αt (Critically damped) (8.42b)

vt(t) = (A1 cos ωdt + A2 sin ωdt)e−αt (Underdamped) (8.42c)

The steady-state response is the final value of v(t). In the circuit in

Fig. 8.18, the final value of the capacitor voltage is the same as the source
voltage Vs. Hence,
vss(t) = v(∞) = Vs (8.43)
Thus, the complete solutions for the o verdamped, underdamped, and
critically damped cases are:

v(t) = Vs + A1es1t + A2es2t (Overdamped) (8.44a)

v(t) = Vs + (A1 + A2t)e−αt (Critically damped) (8.44b)
−αt
v(t) = Vs + (A1 cos ωdt + A2 sin ωdt)e (Underdamped) (8.44c)

The values of the constants A1 and A2 are obtained from the initial condi-
tions: v(0) and dv(0)∕dt. Keep in mind that v and i are, respectively, the
voltage across the capacitor and the current through the inductor. There-
fore, Eq. (8.44) only applies for finding v. But once the capacitor voltage
vC = v is known, we can determine i = C dv∕dt, which is the same current
through the capacitor , inductor, and resistor . Hence, the v oltage across
the resistor is vR = iR, while the inductor voltage is vL = L di∕dt.
Alternatively, the complete response for any v ariable x(t) can be
found directly, because it has the general form
x(t) = xss(t) + xt(t) (8.45)
where the xss = x(∞) is the final value and xt(t) is the transient response.
The final value is found as in Section 8.2. The transient response has the
same form as in Eq. (8.42), and the associated constants are determined
from Eq. (8.44) based on the values of x(0) and dx(0)∕dt.
 8.5 Step Response of a Series RLC Circuit 331

For the circuit in Fig. 8.19, find v(t) and i(t) for t > 0. Consider these Example 8.7
cases: R = 5 Ω, R = 4 Ω, and R = 1 Ω.
R 1H
t=0
Solution: i +
24 V + 0.25 F v 1Ω
‒
■ CASE 1 When R = 5 Ω. For t < 0, the switch is closed for a long ‒
time. The capacitor behaves like an open circuit while the inductor
acts like a short circuit. The initial current through the inductor is Figure 8.19
For Example 8.7.
24 = 4 A
i(0) = _____
5+1
and the initial voltage across the capacitor is the same as the voltage
across the 1-Ω resistor; that is,

v(0) = 1i(0) = 4 V

For t > 0, the switch is opened, so that we ha ve the 1- Ω resistor

disconnected. What remains is the series RLC circuit with the v oltage
source. The characteristic roots are determined as follows:

α = ___ 5 = 2.5,
R = _____ 1
ω0 = ____ 1
___ = _________
_______ = 2
2L 2 × 1 √LC √1 × 0.25
_______
s1,2 = −α ± √α2 − ω02 = −1, −4

Since α > ω0, we have the overdamped natural response. The total
response is therefore

v(t) = vss + (A1e−t + A2e−4t)

where vss is the steady-state response. It is the final value of the capacitor
voltage. In Fig. 8.19, vf = 24 V. Thus,

v(t) = 24 + (A1e−t + A2e−4t) (8.7.1)

We now need to find A1 and A2 using the initial conditions.

v(0) = 4 = 24 + A1 + A2

or
−20 = A1 + A2 (8.7.2)
The current through the inductor cannot change abruptly and is the same
current through the capacitor at t = 0+ because the inductor and capacitor
are now in series. Hence,
dv(0) dv(0) __
i(0) = C _____ = 4 ⇒ _____ 4 = 16
= 4 = ____
dt dt C 0.25
Before we use this condition, we need to take the derivative of v in
Eq. (8.7.1).
dv = −A e−t− 4A e−4t
___ (8.7.3)
1 2
dt
At t = 0,
dv(0)
_____ = 16 = −A1 − 4A2 (8.7.4)
dt
332 Chapter 8 Second-Order Circuits

From Eqs. (8.7.2) and (8.7.4), A1 = −64∕3 and A2 = 4∕3. Substituting A1

and A2 in Eq. (8.7.1), we get
4 (−16e−t + e−4t) V
v(t) = 24 + __ (8.7.5)
3
Since the inductor and capacitor are in series for t > 0, the inductor
current is the same as the capacitor current. Hence,
dv
i(t) = C ___
dt
Multiplying Eq. (8.7.3) by C = 0.25 and substituting the values of A1
and A2 gives
4 (4e−t − e−4t) A
i(t) = __ (8.7.6)
3
Note that i(0) = 4 A, as expected.

■ CASE 2 When R = 4 Ω. Again, the initial current through the

inductor is
24 = 4.8 A
i(0) = _____
4+1
and the initial capacitor voltage is

v(0) = 1i(0) = 4.8 V

For the characteristic roots,

4 =2
R = _____
α = ___
2L 2 × 1
while ω0 = 2 remains the same. In this case, s1 = s2 = −α = −2, and
we have the critically damped natural response. The total response is
therefore
v(t) = vss + (A1 + A2t)e−2t

and, as before vss = 24 V,

v(t) = 24 + (A1 + A2t)e−2t (8.7.7)

To find A1 and A2, we use the initial conditions. We write

v(0) = 4.8 = 24 + A1 ⇒ A1 = −19.2 (8.7.8)

Since i(0) = C dv(0)∕dt = 4.8 or

dv(0) ___
_____ = 4.8 = 19.2
dt C
From Eq. (8.7.7),
dv = (−2A − 2tA + A )e−2t
___ (8.7.9)
1 2 2
dt
At t = 0,
dv(0)
_____ = 19.2 = −2A1 + A2 (8.7.10)
dt
 8.5 Step Response of a Series RLC Circuit 333

From Eqs. (8.7.8) and (8.7.10), A1 = −19.2 and A2 = −19.2. Thus,

Eq. (8.7.7) becomes

v(t) = 24 − 19.2(1 + t)e−2t V (8.7.11)

The inductor current is the same as the capacitor current; that is,
dv
i(t) = C ___
dt
Multiplying Eq. (8.7.9) by C = 0.25 and substituting the values of A1
and A2 gives
i(t) = (4.8 + 9.6t)e−2t A (8.7.12)
Note that i(0) = 4.8 A, as expected.

■ CASE 3 When R = 1 Ω. The initial inductor current is

24 = 12 A
i(0) = _____
1+1
and the initial voltage across the capacitor is the same as the voltage
across the 1-Ω resistor,
v(0) = 1i(0) = 12 V
1 = 0.5
R = _____
α = ___
2L 2 × 1
Since α = 0.5 < ω0 = 2, we have the underdamped response
_______
s1,2 = −α ± √α2 − ω02 = −0.5 ± j1.936
The total response is therefore

v(t) = 24 + (A1 cos 1.936t + A2 sin 1.936t)e−0.5t (8.7.13)

We now determine A1 and A2. We write

v(0) = 12 = 24 + A1 ⇒ A1 = −12 (8.7.14)

Since i(0) = C dv(0)∕dt = 12,

dv(0) ___
_____ = 12 = 48 (8.7.15)
dt C
But
dv = e−0.5t(−1.936A sin 1.936t + 1.936A cos 1.936t)
___
1 2
dt
− 0.5e−0.5t(A1 cos 1.936t + A2 sin 1.936t) (8.7.16)

At t = 0,
dv(0)
_____ = 48 = (−0 + 1.936A2) − 0.5(A1 + 0)
dt
Substituting A1 = −12 gives A2 = 21.694, and Eq. (8.7.13) becomes

v(t) = 24 + (21.694 sin 1.936t − 12 cos 1.936t)e−0.5t V (8.7.17)

The inductor current is

dv
i(t) = C ___
dt
334 Chapter 8 Second-Order Circuits

Multiplying Eq. (8.7.16) by C = 0.25 and substituting the values of A1

and A2 gives
i(t) = (3.1 sin 1.936t + 12 cos 1.936t)e−0.5t A (8.7.18)
Note that i(0) = 12 A, as expected.
Figure 8.20 plots the responses for the three cases. From this figure,
we observe that the critically damped response approaches the step input
of 24 V the fastest.
v (t) V
40
Underdamped
35

30
Critically damped
25

20

15
Overdamped
10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 t (s)
Figure 8.20
For Example 8.7: response for three degrees of damping.

Practice Problem 8.7 Having been in position a for a long time, the switch in Fig. 8.21 is
moved to position b at t = 0. Find v(t) and vR(t) for t > 0.
1Ω a b 2.5 H 10 Ω

t=0 ‒ vR +
+
18 V + 2Ω
1
F v 15 V +
‒ 40 ‒
‒

Figure 8.21
For Practice Prob. 8.7.

Answer: 15 − (1.7321 sin 3.464t + 3 cos 3.464t)e−2t V,

3.464e−2t sin 3.464t V.

Is t=0 R L C
+
v
8.6 Step Response of a Parallel RLC Circuit
‒
Consider the parallel RLC circuit sho wn in Fig. 8.22. We want to find
i due to a sudden application of a dc current. Applying KCL at the top
node for t > 0,
Figure 8.22
Parallel RLC circuit with an applied v + i + C ___
__ dv = I (8.46)
s
current. R dt
 8.6 Step Response of a Parallel RLC Circuit 335

But
di
v = L __
dt
Substituting for v in Eq. (8.46) and dividing by LC, we get

d2i + ___
___ 1 __
di + ___ Is
i = ___ (8.47)
dt 2 RC dt LC LC
which has the same characteristic equation as Eq. (8.29).
The complete solution to Eq. (8.47) consists of the transientresponse
it(t) and the steady-state response iss; that is,

i(t) = it(t) + iss(t) (8.48)

The transient response is the same as what we had in Section 8.4. The
steady-state response is the final value of i. In the circuit in Fig. 8.22, the
final value of the current through the inductor is the same as the source
current Is. Thus,

i(t) = Is + A1es1t + A2es2t (Overdamped)

i(t) = Is + (A1 + A2t)e−αt (Critically damped) (8.49)
−αt
i(t) = Is + (A1 cos ωdt + A2 sin ωdt)e (Underdamped)

The constants A1 and A2 in each case can be determined from the initial
conditions for i and di∕dt. Again, we should keep in mind that Eq. (8.49)
only applies for finding the inductor current i. But once the inductor cur-
rent iL = i is known, we can find v = L di∕dt, which is the same v oltage
across inductor, capacitor, and resistor . Hence, the current through the
resistor is iR = v∕R, while the capacitor current is iC = C dv∕dt. Alterna-
tively, the complete response for any variable x(t) may be found directly,
using

x(t) = xss(t) + xt(t) (8.50)

where xss and xt are its final value and transient response, respectively.

In the circuit of Fig. 8.23, find i(t) and iR(t) for t > 0. Example 8.8
t=0 20 Ω

i iR
+
4A 20 H 20 Ω 8 mF v + 30u(‒t) V
‒
‒

Figure 8.23
For Example 8.8.

Solution:
For t < 0, the switch is open, and the circuit is partitioned into two inde -
pendent subcircuits. The 4-A current flows through the inductor, so that
i(0) = 4 A
336 Chapter 8 Second-Order Circuits

Since 30u(− t) = 30 when t < 0 and 0 when t > 0, the voltage source is
operative for t < 0. The capacitor acts like an open circuit and the voltage
across it is the same as the voltage across the 20-Ω resistor connected in
parallel with it. By voltage division, the initial capacitor voltage is
20 (30) = 15 V
v(0) = _______
20 + 20
For t > 0, the switch is closed, and we ha ve a parallel RLC circuit
with a current source. The voltage source is zero which means it acts
like a short-circuit. The tw o 20- Ω resistors are no w in parallel. They
are combined to gi ve R = 20 ‖ 20 = 10 Ω. The characteristic roots are
determined as follows:
1 = _______________
α = ____ 1 = 6.25
2RC 2 × 10 × 8 × 10−3

1
ω0 = ____ 1
___ = _____________
____________ = 2.5
√ LC √ 20 × 8 × 10−3
_______ _____________
s1,2 = −α ± √α2 − ω02 = −6.25 ± √39.0625 − 6.25
= −6.25 ± 5.7282
or
s1 = −11.978, s2 = −0.5218
Since α > ω0, we have the overdamped case. Hence,
i(t) = Is + A1e−11.978t + A2e−0.5218t (8.8.1)
where Is = 4 is the final value of i(t). We now use the initial conditions to
determine A1 and A2. At t = 0,
i(0) = 4 = 4 + A1 + A2 ⇒ A2 = −A1 (8.8.2)
Taking the derivative of i(t) in Eq. (8.8.1),
di = −11.978A e−11.978t − 0.5218A e−0.5218t
__
1 2
dt
so that at t = 0,
di(0)
_____ = −11.978A1 − 0.5218A2 (8.8.3)
dt
But
di(0) di(0) ___
L _____ = v(0) = 15 ⇒ _____ = 15 = ___
15 = 0.75
dt dt L 20
Substituting this into Eq. (8.8.3) and incorporating Eq. (8.8.2), we get

0.75 = (11.978 − 0.5218)A2 ⇒ A2 = 0.0655

Thus, A1 = −0.0655 and A2 = 0.0655. Inserting A1 and A2 in Eq. (8.8.1)

gives the complete solution as

i(t) = 4 + 0.0655(e−0.5218t − e−11.978t) A

From i(t), we obtain v(t) = L di∕dt and

v(t) L __ di = 0.785e−11.978t − 0.0342e−0.5218t A
iR(t) = ___ = ___
20 20 dt
 8.7 General Second-Order Circuits 337

Find i(t) and v(t) for t > 0 in the circuit of Fig. 8.24. Practice Problem 8.8
Answer: 10(1− cos(0.5t)) A, 100 sin(0.5t) V. i
+
3.5u(t) A v 0.2 F 20 H
‒

8.7 General Second-Order Circuits Figure 8.24

Now that we have mastered series and parallel RLC circuits, we are pre- For Practice Prob. 8.8.
pared to apply the ideas to an y second-order circuit having one or more
independent sources with constant values. Although the series and paral- A circuit may look complicated at first.
lel RLC circuits are the second-order circuits of greatest interest, other But once the sources are turned off in
second-order circuits including op amps are also useful. Given a second- an attempt to find the form of the
order circuit, we determine its step response x(t) (which may be voltage transient response, it may be reducible
or current) by taking the following four steps: to a first-order circuit, when the storage
elements can be combined, or to a
1. We first determine the initial conditions x(0) and dx(0)∕dt and the parallel/series RLC circuit. If it is
final value x(∞), as discussed in Section 8.2. reducible to a first-order circuit, the
2. We turn off the independent sources and find the form of the transient solution becomes simply what we had
response xt(t) by applying KCL and KVL. Once a second-order differ- in Chapter 7. If it is reducible to a
ential equation is obtained, we determine its characteristic roots. De- parallel or series RLC circuit, we apply
pending on whether the response is overdamped, critically damped, the techniques of previous sections in
or underdamped, we obtain xt(t) with two unknown constants as we this chapter.
did in the previous sections.
3. We obtain the steady-state response as

xss(t) = x(∞) (8.51)

where x(∞) is the final value of x, obtained in step 1.

4. The total response is now found as the sum of the transient response
and steady-state response

x(t) = xt(t) + xss(t) (8.52) Problems in this chapter can also be

solved by using Laplace transforms,
We finally determine the constants associated with the transient re-
which are covered in Chapters 15
sponse by imposing the initial conditions x(0) and dx(0)∕dt, deter- and 16.
mined in step 1.
We can apply this general procedure to find the step response of
any second-order circuit, including those with op amps. The following
examples illustrate the four steps.

Find the complete responsev and then i for t > 0 in the circuit of Fig. 8.25. Example 8.9
Solution: i
4Ω 1H
We first find the initial and final values. At t = 0−, the circuit is at steady
state. The switch is open; the equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 8.26(a).
It is evident from the figure that 2Ω +
12 V + 1
F v
−
v(0 ) = 12 V, −
i(0 ) = 0 ‒ 2
‒
+
At t = 0 , the switch is closed; the equivalent circuit is in Fig. 8.26(b). By t=0
the continuity of capacitor voltage and inductor current, we know that
Figure 8.25
v(0+) = v(0−) = 12 V, i(0+) = i(0−) = 0 (8.9.1) For Example 8.9.
338 Chapter 8 Second-Order Circuits

4Ω i To get dv(0+)∕dt, we use C dv∕dt = iC or dv∕dt = iC∕C. Applying KCL

at node a in Fig. 8.26(b),
+ v(0+)
12 V + v i(0+) = iC(0+) + _____
‒ 2
‒ +
0 = iC(0 ) + 12
___ ⇒ iC(0+) = −6 A
2
(a) Hence,
dv(0+) ___
4Ω 1H i
a
______ = −6 = −12 V/s (8.9.2)
dt 0.5
iC
+ The final values are obtained when the inductor is replaced by a short
12 V +
‒ 2Ω v 0.5 F circuit and the capacitor by an open circuit in Fig. 8.26(b), giving
‒
12 = 2 A,
i(∞) = _____ v(∞) = 2i(∞) = 4 V (8.9.3)
4+2
Next, we obtain the form of the transient response for t > 0. By turn-
(b) ing off the 12-V voltage source, we have the circuit in Fig. 8.27. Apply-
Figure 8.26 ing KCL at node a in Fig. 8.27 gives
Equivalent circuit of the circuit in Fig. 8.25
for: (a) t < 0, (b) t > 0. v + __ dv
1 ___
i = __ (8.9.4)
2 2 dt

4Ω i Applying KVL to the left mesh results in

1H v
a di + v = 0
4i + 1 __ (8.9.5)
+ dt
1
2Ω v 2 F
‒ Since we are interested in v for the moment, we substitute i from
Eq. (8.9.4) into Eq. (8.9.5). We obtain

dv + __
2v + 2 ___ dv + __
1 ___ d2v + v = 0
1 ___
Figure 8.27
Obtaining the form of the transient dt 2 dt 2 dt2
response for Example 8.9.
or
d2v + 5 ___
___ dv + 6v = 0
dt 2 dt

From this, we obtain the characteristic equation as

s2 + 5s + 6 = 0
with roots s = −2 and s = −3. Thus, the natural response is

vn(t) = Ae−2t + Be−3t (8.9.6)

where A and B are unknown constantsto be determined later. The steady-

state response is
vss(t) = v(∞) = 4 (8.9.7)

The complete response is

v(t) = vt + vss = 4 + Ae−2t + Be−3t (8.9.8)

We now determine A and B using the initial values. From Eq. (8.9.1),
v(0) = 12. Substituting this into Eq. (8.9.8) at t = 0 gives

12 = 4 + A + B ⇒ A+B=8 (8.9.9)
 8.7 General Second-Order Circuits 339

Taking the derivative of v in Eq. (8.9.8),

dv = −2Ae−2t − 3Be−3t
___ (8.9.10)
dt
Substituting Eq. (8.9.2) into Eq. (8.9.10) at t = 0 gives

−12 = −2A − 3B ⇒ 2A + 3B = 12 (8.9.11)

From Eqs. (8.9.9) and (8.9.11), we obtain

A = 12, B = −4

so that Eq. (8.9.8) becomes

v(t) = 4 + 12e−2t − 4e−3t V, t>0 (8.9.12)

From v, we can obtain other quantities of interest by referring to

Fig. 8.26(b). To obtain i, for example,
v + __
i = __ dv = 2 + 6e−2t − 2e−3t − 12e−2t + 6e−3t
1 ___
2 2 dt (8.9.13)
−2t −3t
= 2 − 6e + 4e A, t>0
Notice that i(0) = 0, in agreement with Eq. (8.9.1).

Determine v and i for t > 0 in the circuit of Fig. 8.28. (See comments Practice Problem 8.9
about current sources in Practice Prob. 7.5.)
10 Ω 4Ω
Answer: 20(1 − e−5t) V, 5(1 − e−5t) A. 5A
i
+
1
20 F
v 2H
t=0
‒

Figure 8.28
For Practice Prob. 8.9.

Find vo(t) for t > 0 in the circuit of Fig. 8.29. Example 8.10
Solution: 1
This is an example of a second-order circuit with two inductors. We 3Ω 2 H
first obtain the mesh currents i1 and i2, which happen to be the currents
through the inductors. We need to obtain the initial and final values of i2
+
these currents. 7u(t) V + 1Ω vo 1
‒ 5H
For t < 0, 7u(t) = 0, so that i1(0−) = 0 = i2(0−). For t > 0, 7u(t) = 7, so i1 ‒
that the equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig. 8.30(a). Due to the continuity
of inductor current,
Figure 8.29
i1(0+) = i1(0−) = 0, i2(0+) = i2(0−) = 0 (8.10.1) For Example 8.10.
+ + + +
vL2(0 ) = vo(0 ) = 1[(i1(0 ) − i2(0 )] = 0 (8.10.2)
Applying KVL to the left loop in Fig. 8.30(a) at t = 0+,
7 = 3i1(0+) + vL1(0+) + vo(0+)
340 Chapter 8 Second-Order Circuits

1
3Ω L1 = 2 H 3Ω
+ vL1 ‒ i2 i2
i1 i1
+ +
7V + 1Ω vo vL2 L 2 = 51 H 7V + 1Ω
‒ ‒
‒ ‒

(a) (b)
Figure 8.30
Equivalent circuit of that in Fig. 8.29 for: (a) t > 0, (b) t → ∞.

or
vL1(0+) = 7 V
Since L1 di1∕dt = vL1,
di1(0+) v___
______ 7 = 14 A/s
= L1 = __ (8.10.3)
dt L1 __1
2
Similarly, since L2 di2∕dt = vL2,
di2(0+) v___
______ = L2 = 0 (8.10.4)
dt L2
As t → ∞, the circuit reaches steady state, and the inductors can be
replaced by short circuits, as shown in Fig. 8.30(b). From this figure,
7A
i1(∞) = i2(∞) = __ (8.10.5)
3
3Ω
1
2 H Next, we obtain the form of the transient responses by removing the
voltage source, as shown in Fig. 8.31. Applying KVL to the two meshes
yields
di1
1 ___
4i1 − i2 + __
1
i1 1Ω i2 5H =0 (8.10.6)
2 dt
and
Figure 8.31 di2
1 ___
i2 + __ − i1 = 0 (8.10.7)
Obtaining the form of the transient 5 dt
response for Example 8.10.
From Eq. (8.10.6),
di1
1 ___
i2 = 4i1 + __ (8.10.8)
2 dt
Substituting Eq. (8.10.8) into Eq. (8.10.7) gives
di1 __
1 ___ di d2i1
4i1 + __ + 4 ___1 + ___
1 ____ − i1 = 0
2 dt 5 dt 10 dt2
d2i1
____ di
+ 13 ___1 + 30i1 = 0
dt2 dt

From this we obtain the characteristic equation as

s2 + 13s + 30 = 0
which has roots s = −3 and s = −10. Hence, the form of the transient
response is
i1n = Ae−3t + Be−10t (8.10.9)
 8.7 General Second-Order Circuits 341

where A and B are constants. The steady-state response is

7A
i1ss = i1(∞) = __ (8.10.10)
3
From Eqs. (8.10.9) and (8.10.10), we obtain the complete response as
7 + Ae−3t + Be−10t
i1(t) = __ (8.10.11)
3
We finally obtain A and B from the initial values. From Eqs. (8.10.1) and
(8.10.11),
7+A+B
0 = __ (8.10.12)
3
Taking the derivative of Eq. (8.10.11), settingt = 0 in the derivative, and
enforcing Eq. (8.10.3), we obtain
14 = −3A − 10B (8.10.13)
From Eqs. (8.10.12) and (8.10.13), A = −4∕3 and B = −1. Thus,
7 − __
i1(t) = __ 4 e−3t − e−10t (8.10.14)
3 3
We no w obtain i2 from i1. Applying KVL to the left loop in
Fig. 8.30(a) gives
di1
1 ___ di1
1 ___
7 = 4i1 − i2 + __ ⇒ i2 = −7 + 4i1 + __
2 dt 2 dt
Substituting for i1 in Eq. (8.10.14) gives

28 − ___
i2(t) = −7 + ___ 16 e−3t − 4e−10t + 2e−3t + 5e−10t
3 3
(8.10.15)
10 e−3t + e−10t
7 − ___
= __
3 3
From Fig. 8.29,

vo(t) = 1[i1(t) − i2(t)] (8.10.16)

Substituting Eqs. (8.10.14) and (8.10.15) into Eq. (8.10.16) yields

vo(t) = 2(e−3t − e−10t) (8.10.17)

Note that vo(0) = 0, as expected from Eq. (8.10.2).

For t > 0, obtain vo(t) in the circuit of Fig. 8.32. ( Hint: First find v1 Practice Problem 8.10
and v2.)
1Ω v1 1Ω v2
Answer: 14(e−t − e−6t) V, t > 0. + vo ‒

35u(t) V + 1
F 1
F
‒ 2 3

Figure 8.32
For Practice Prob. 8.10.
 Review Questions 355

s2 + 2αs + ω02 = 0, where α is the neper frequenc y and ω0 is the

undamped natural frequency. For a series circuit, α = R∕2L, ___ for a
parallel circuit α = 1∕2RC, and for both cases ω0 = 1∕√LC .
3. If there are no independent sources in the circuit after switching (or
sudden change), we regard the circuit as source-free. The complete
solution is the natural response.
4. The natural response of an RLC circuit is o verdamped, under -
damped, or critically damped, depending on the roots of the charac-
teristic equation. The response is critically damped when the roots
are equal ( s1 = s2 or α = ω0), overdamped when the roots are real
and unequal (s1 ≠ s2 or α > ω0), or underdamped when the roots are
complex conjugate (s1 = s*2 or α < ω0).
5. If independent sources are present in the circuit after switching,
the complete response is the sum of the transient response and the
steady-state response.
6. PSpice is used to analyze RLC circuits in the same w ay as for RC
or RL circuits.
7. Two circuits are dual if the mesh equations that describe one circuit
have the same form as the nodal equations that describe the other. The
analysis of one circuit gives the analysis of its dual circuit.
8. The automobile ignition circuit and the smoothing circuit are typical
applications of the material covered in this chapter.

Review Questions
8.1 For the circuit in Fig. 8.58, the capacitor voltage at 8.4 If the roots of the characteristic equation of an RLC
t = 0− ( just before the switch is closed) is: circuit are −2 and −3, the response is:
(a) 0 V (b) 4 V (c) 8 V (d) 12 V (a) (A cos 2t + B sin 2t)e−3t
t=0 (b) (A + 2Bt)e−3t
(c) Ae−2t + Bte−3t
2Ω 4Ω (d) Ae−2t + Be−3t
where A and B are constants.
12 V +
‒ 1H 2F 8.5 In a series RLC circuit, setting R = 0 will produce:
(a) an overdamped response
(b) a critically damped response
Figure 8.58
For Review Questions 8.1 and 8.2. (c) an underdamped response
(d) an undamped response
8.2 For the circuit in Fig. 8.58, the initial inductor (e) none of the above
current (at t = 0) is:
8.6 A parallel RLC circuit has L = 2 H and C = 0.25 F. The
(a) 0 A (b) 2 A (c) 6 A (d) 12 A value of R that will produce a unity neper frequency is:
8.3 When a step input is applied to a second-order (a) 0.5 Ω (b) 1 Ω (c) 2 Ω (d) 4 Ω
circuit, the final values of the circuit variables are
found by: 8.7 Refer to the series RLC circuit in Fig. 8.59. What
kind of response will it produce?
(a) Replacing capacitors with closed circuits and
inductors with open circuits. (a) overdamped
(b) Replacing capacitors with open circuits and (b) underdamped
inductors with closed circuits. (c) critically damped
(c) Doing neither of the above. (d) none of the above
356 Chapter 8 Second-Order Circuits

1Ω 1H R L

1F vs +
‒ C L R is C

Figure 8.59 (a) (b)

For Review Question 8.7.
R C1

8.8 Consider the parallel RLC circuit in Fig. 8.60. What R1 R2

type of response will it produce? is vs + L C2
‒
(a) overdamped C1 C2
(b) underdamped
(c) critically damped (c) (d)
(d) none of the above
R1 R2

R1 C
is vs +
‒ C L
1Ω 1H 1F L R2

(e) (f)
Figure 8.60
For Review Question 8.8. Figure 8.61
For Review Question 8.9.
8.10 In an electric circuit, the dual of resistance is:
8.9 Match the circuits in Fig. 8.61 with the following (a) conductance (b) inductance
items: (c) capacitance (d) open circuit
(i) first-order circuit (e) short circuit
(ii) second-order series circuit
(iii) second-order parallel circuit Answers: 8.1a, 8.2c, 8.3b, 8.4d, 8.5d, 8.6c, 8.7b, 8.8b,
(iv) none of the above 8.9 (i)-c, (ii)-b, e, (iii)-a, (iv)-d, f, 8.10a.

Problems
Section 8.2 Finding Initial and Final Values 8.2 Using Fig. 8.63, design a problem to help other
students better understand finding initial and final
8.1 For the circuit in Fig. 8.62, find:
values.
(a) i(0+) and v(0+),
(b) di(0+)∕dt and dv(0+)∕dt,
(c) i(∞) and v(∞).

t=0 iR R1 R2
6Ω 4Ω iL
iC
R3
12 V +
‒
i
v +
‒ C L
+
2H 0.4 F v t=0
‒

Figure 8.62 Figure 8.63

For Prob. 8.1. For Prob. 8.2.