At the end of this chapter, the students are expected to:

1. Define and Appreciate Agriculture

2. Understand the Brief History of Agriculture
3. Distinguish the Branches of Agriculture
4. Determine the Types of Agricultural Crops
5. Define the Different Types of Commercial Food Crops in the
Philippines, Its Common, Local and Scientific Names
6. Identify and Explain the Parts of the Plants and Its Function
Agriculture
It is the science, art and practice of cultivating the soil, producing crops
and raising livestock and in varying degrees the preparation and marketing and
resulting of products

Farm Equipment
These are machineries used in crop production. They are used in land
preparation and in transporting farm inputs and products. These equipment
need a highly skilled operator to use

Farm Implements
Accessories pulled by animals or mounted to machineries to make the
work easier

Farm Tools
Objects that are usually light and are used without the help of animals
and machines

Fertile Crescent
Semicircle of fertile land stretching from southeast coast of Mediterranean
around Syrian Desert, North of Arabia to Persian Gulf

Neolithic
Of or relating to the latest period of the Stone Age characterized by polished
stone implements

Parthenocarpy
The production of fruits without fertilization
What is Agriculture?
Nominal Definition (explains what a name is)
Agriculture comes from the Latin words ager, agri meaning field and
cultura meaning growing, cultivation. Therefore, it means “growing and
cultivating of the field.”

Real Definition (explains what a thing is)

Agriculture is the science or practice of farming which includes the
cultivation of the soil for the growing of crops and fruit-bearing trees. It also
considers the raising of animals to provide food and other raw materials which
can produce another product.
Elements in the Definition of Agriculture
• It is a science, because of systematically organized body of knowledge
which not only based on opinions, hypothesis and theories but on factual
and absolute knowledge. Also, it is a practice because of the actual
applications of the ideas.
• Of farming, because is the act or process of working the ground, planting
seeds, and growing edible plants. It can also include raising animals for
milk, meat and wool.

VALUE OF AGRICULTURE
Agriculture has a vital role in the life and progress of an economy. It does
provide food which is the basic needs of mankind, not only to sustain food and
raw material but also employment opportunities to a vast number of the
population of a country. It can be a source of livelihood which can contribute to
micro and macro community, supplying and sustaining food and fodder that are
the basic necessities of human to live, promoting the diplomatic friendship
facilitated by trading system in local, national and international arena,
marketable surplus products, source of saving of the entire national budget and
basis of the economic development of a country.

Without agriculture, the economy will be at high risk to food security that
may result into serious national problems. The effect may be adverse or even
worse.
 Agriculture was developed at least 10,000 years ago, and it has undergone
significant developments since the time of the earliest cultivation.

Ancient Origins
The Fertile Crescent of the Middle East was the site of the earliest planned
sowing and harvesting of plants that had previously been gathered in the wild.
Independent development of agriculture occurred in northern and southern
China, Africa's Sahel, New Guinea and several regions of the Americas. Barley
has been found in archeological sites in Levant, and East of the Zagros
Mountains in Iran.

The eight so-called Neolithic founder crops of agriculture includes emmer

wheat einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and
flax. Bitter vetch and lentils along with almonds and pistachios appear in
Franchthi Cave Greece simultaneously, about 9,000 BC. Neither was native to
Greece, and they appear 2,000 years prior to domesticated wheat in the same
location. This suggests that the cultivation of legumes and nuts preceded that of
grain in some Neolithic cultures.

By 7,000 BC, small-scale agriculture reached Egypt. From at least 7,000

BC the Indian subcontinent saw farming of wheat and barley, as attested by
archaeological excavation at Mehrgarh in Balochistan.

By 6,000 BC, mid-scale farming was entrenched on the banks of the Nile.
About this time, agriculture was developed independently in the Far East, with
rice, rather than wheat, as the primary crop. Chinese and Indonesian farmers
went on to domesticate taro and beans including mung, soy and azuki. To
complement these new sources of carbohydrates, highly organized net fishing of
rivers, lakes and ocean shores in these areas brought in great volumes of
essential protein. Collectively, these new methods of farming and fishing
inaugurated human population boom dwarfing all previous expansions, and it
continues today.

By 5,000 BC, the Sumerians had developed core agricultural techniques

including large scale intensive cultivation of land, mono-cropping, organized
irrigation, and use of a specialized labour force, particularly along the waterway
now known as the Shatt al-Arab, from its Persian Gulf delta to the confluence of
the Tigris and Euphrates. Domestication of wild aurochs and mouflon into cattle
and sheep, respectively, ushered in the large-scale use of animals for food/fiber
and as beasts of burden. The shepherd joined the farmer as an essential provider
for sedentary and semi-nomadic societies. Maize, manioc, and arrowroot were
first domesticated in the Americas as far back as 5,200 BC.

The potato, tomato, pepper, squash, several varieties of bean, tobacco, and
several other plants were also developed in the New World, as was extensive
terracing of steep hillsides in much of Andean South America. The Greeks and
Romans built on techniques pioneered by the Sumerians but made few
fundamentally new advances. Southern Greeks struggled with very poor soils,
yet managed to become a dominant society for years. The Romans were noted
for an emphasis on the cultivation of crops for trade.

Middle Ages
During the Middle Ages, Muslim farmers in North Africa and the Near East
developed and disseminated agricultural technologies including irrigation
systems based on hydraulic and hydrostatic principles, the use of machines and
the use of water raising machines, dams, and reservoirs. They also wrote
location-specific farming manuals, and were instrumental in the wider adoption
of crops including sugar cane, rice, citrus fruit, apricots, cotton, artichokes,
aubergines, and saffron. Muslims also brought lemons, oranges, cotton,
almonds, figs and sub-tropical crops such as bananas to Spain. The invention
of a three field system of crop rotation during the Middle Ages, and the
importation of the Chinese-invented moldboard plow, vastly improved
agricultural efficiency. Another important development towards the end of this
period was the discovery and subsequent cultivation of fodder crops which
allowed over-wintering of livestock.

Modern Era
After 1492, a global exchange of previously local crops and livestock breeds
occurred. Key crops involved in this exchange included the tomato, maize,
potato, cocoa and tobacco going from the New World to the Old, and several
varieties of wheat, spices, coffee, and sugar cane going from the Old World to the
New. The most important animal exportations from the Old World to the New
were those of the horse and dog (dogs were already present in the pre-Columbian
Americas but not in the numbers and breeds suited to farm work). Although not
usually food animals, the horse (including donkeys and ponies) and dog quickly
filled essential production roles on western hemisphere farms.
 By the early 1800s, agricultural techniques, implements, seed stocks and
cultivated plants selected and given a unique name because of its decorative or
useful characteristics had so improved that yield per land unit was many times
seen in the Middle Ages. With the rapid rise of mechanization in the late 19th
and 20th centuries, particularly in the form of the tractor, farming tasks could
be done with a speed and on a scale previously impossible. These advances have
led to efficiencies enabling certain modern farms in the United States, Argentina,
Israel, Germany, and a few other nations to output volumes of high quality
produce per land unit at what may be the practical limit.

The Haber-Bosch method for synthesizing ammonium nitrate represented

a major breakthrough and allowed crop yields to overcome previous constraints.
In the past century agriculture has been characterized by enhanced productivity,
the substitution of labor for synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, selective
breeding, mechanization, water pollution, and farm subsidies. In recent years
there has been a backlash against the external environmental effects of
conventional agriculture, resulting in the organic movement.

Agricultural exploration expeditions, since the late nineteenth century,

have been mounted to find new species and new agricultural practices in
different areas of the world.
BRANCHES OF AGRICULTURE
There are four main branches of agriculture, namely;
1. Livestock Production or Animal Husbandry
2. Crop Production or Agronomy
3. Agricultural Economics
4. Agricultural Engineering
I. Livestock Production or Animal Husbandry
Animal Husbandry is the branch of agriculture concerned with animals
that are raised for meat, fiber, milk, eggs, or other products. The term "livestock"
encompasses many species and numerous breeds within animal species which
can produce food and other raw materials. Livestock production or Animal
Husbandry has 4 common classifications such as:
a. Nomadic Pastoralism is the
husbandry of grazing animals is
viewed as an ideal way of making a
living and the regular movement of all
or part of the society is considered a
normal and natural part of life.
Pastoral nomadism is commonly
practice where climatic conditions
produce seasonal pastures but cannot support sustained stationary
agriculture because of the animals’ food limitations.

b. Poultry Farming is the raising of birds

domestically or commercially,
primarily for meat and eggs as well as
for feathers. Chickens, turkeys, ducks,
and geese are of primary importance,
while guinea fowl and squabs (young
pigeons) are chiefly of local interest.

c. Swine Farming is the raising and

breeding of domestic pigs as livestock,
and is a branch of animal husbandry.
Pigs are farmed principally for food (e.g.
pork, bacon, gammon) or sometimes
skinned.

d. Apiculture is the scientific method of

rearing honeybees. The word
‘apiculture’ comes from the Latin word
apis meaning bee and colere which
means “to culture”. Bees are mainly
reared for their honey. So, apiculture or
also known as beekeeping is the care
and management of honey bees for the
production of honey and the wax. In
this method of apiculture, bees are bred commercially in apiaries, an area
where a lot of beehives can be placed. Apiaries can be set up in areas where
there are sufficient bee pastures – usually areas that have flowering plants.
II. Crop Production or Agronomy
It is the science dealing with the cultivation of crops and vegetables on a
field scales either under rain fed or irrigation conditions. These crops are mainly
annuals cultivated food. The requirements of each crop are studied in terms of
soil and climate, as well as planting time and techniques, different cultivars,
fertilization, weed, disease, and insect control, as well as the effect of stress
factors. Crop Production or Agronomy includes:

1. Horticulture is the science and art of

growing and caring for plants, especially
flowers, fruits, and vegetables. The word is
derived from the Latin hortus which means
“garden” and colere which means “to
culture”. As a general term, it covers all
forms of garden management, but in
ordinary use it refers to intensive commercial production. Horticulture has 3
branches namely, pomology, olericulture and floriculture.

a. Pomology is the branch of botany that

studies all fruits, specifically the science
of growing fruits and nuts. The word is
derived from the Latin pomum which
means “fruit” and logia which means
“field of study”. As a branch of
horticulture, it focuses to the
cultivation of fruits, nuts, fruitbearing and nut-bearing trees/plants for
human use and consumption.

b. Olericulture is the science and art of

vegetable growing, dealing with the
culture of non-woody (herbaceous)
plants for food. The word is derived from
the Latin oleris which means “pot herb”
and colere which means “to culture”. As
language develops over long period of
time, it is simply defined as the science and art of growing vegetables
crops. It deals with the production, storage processing and marketing of
vegetables. It encompasses crop establishment, including cultivar
selection, seedbed preparation and establishment of vegetable crops by
 seed and transplants. It also includes maintenance and care of vegetable
crop production.

c. Floriculture refers to farming, plant

care, propagation, and cultivation with
one goal in mind, the maximum
production of flowering and ornamental
plants for gardens and floristry,
comprising the floral industry. The word
is derived from the Latin floris which
means “flower” and colere which means
“to culture”. Therefore, it is the cultivation of flower. To elaborate,
floriculture is an entire gardening spectrum that is geared towards
understanding and improving all aspects of bud and flower creation,
including indoor lighting, growroom requirements, greenhouse needs,
plant nutrition, irrigation, pest management, and breeding new
cultivars/strains.
III. Agricultural Economics
Is study of the allocation, distribution and utilization of the resources
used, along with the commodities produced, by farming. It concerns itself with
the study of the production and consumption of food in both developed and
developing countries along with analysis of the policies that shape the world’s
largest country.
IV. Agricultural Engineering
Is the area of engineering concerned with the design, construction and
improvement of farming equipment and machinery. Agricultural engineers
integrate technology with farming. For example, they design new and improved
farming equipment that may work more efficiently, or perform new tasks. They
design and build agricultural infrastructure such as dams, water reservoirs,
warehouses, and other structures. They may also help engineer solutions for
pollution control at large farms. Some agricultural engineers are developing new
forms of biofuels from non-food resources like algae and agricultural waste. Such
fuels could economically and sustainably replace gasoline without jeopardizing
the food supply.
 Agricultural crops are plants that are grown or intentionally managed by
man for certain purposes. They are classified in various terms used worldwide.

Types of Crops
Crops are divided into six categories and they’re as follows:
1. Food Crops
2. Feed Crops
3. Fiber Crops
4. Oil Crops
5. Ornamental Crops
6. Industrial Crops
Descriptions of Crops According to their Categories
I. Food Crops
A plant that is primarily raise, culture and harvest for the human
consumption. It has two sub categories, the field crops and root crops.
a. Field crop is a crop (other than fruits or
vegetables) that is grown on a large scale
for agricultural purposes. Examples are
wheat, rice, corn, sugarcane and other
forage crops. These crops typically consist
of a large majority of agricultural acreage
and crop revenues.

b. Root Crops – are underground plant

parts edible for human consumption.

II. Feed Crops

A plant that is primarily raise, culture and
harvest for the livestock consumption.

III. Fiber Crops

A plant that is primarily raise, culture
and harvest for its fibers which are used as raw
material.

IV. Oil Crops

A plant that is primarily raise, culture and
harvest as base for biodiesel production.
V. Ornamental Crops
A plant that is primarily raise and culture
for decorative purposes especially in gardens
and landscape design projects.

VI. Industrial Crops

A plant that is cultured for their biological
materials which are used in industrial processes
into nonedible products. (Example: Tobacco)

Classification of Crops According to their Reproduction

1. Sexual - plants that develop from a seed or a spore after undergoing union of
male and female gametes.

2. Asexual – plants which reproduce by any vegetative means without the union
of the sexual gametes.
Classification of Crops According to Mode of Pollination
I. Naturally Self Pollinated Crops – predominant mode of pollination in this
plant is self-pollination.

II. Naturally Cross Pollinated Crops – pollen transfer in these plants is from
another of one flower in a separate plant.

III. Both Self and Cross Pollination Crops – these plants are largely self-
pollinated but in varying amounts.
Classifications of Crops According to Growth Habits

I. Herb – succulent plants with self-supporting

stems

II. Vines – herbaceous climbing or twining plants

without self-supporting stem.

III. Lianas – woody climbing or twining plants

which depend on other plants for vertical support
to climb up to the tree.

IV. Shrubs – a small tree or tree like plants

generally less than 5 meters in height but other
authorities restricted to small, erect woody plants.

V. Trees – plants having erect and continuous

growth with a large develop of woody tissue, with a
single distinct stem or trunk.

VI. Evergreen – plants that maintain their leaves

throughout the year

VII. Deciduous – plants which naturally shed off

or lose leaves annually for extended periods.
Descriptions of Crops According to their Life Span
I. Annual crop is a plant that completes its life cycle, from germination to
production of seed, within one growing season, and then dies. Annual crops
examples are rice, corn and others.

II. Biennial crop is a plant that takes two years to complete its biological
lifecycle. Its examples are cabbage, parsley and others.

III. Perennial crop is a plant that lives more than two years. The term is often
used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. The term
is also widely used to distinguish plants with little or no woody growth from trees
and shrubs, which are also technically perennials.
Food Crop
A crop primarily raised and culture for human consumption. There are 5
major categories of common commercial crops in the Philippines they are the
following: cereal crops, root and tuber crops, sugar crops, vegetable crops, fruit
crops.
a. Cereal Crops – are one of the
members of grass family with their
seed to eat.

b. Root and Tuber Crops – a crop that

is root vegetables and thick
underground part of the stem which
is edible to consume by human.

c. Sugar Crops – several species of tall

perennial grass that are grown for
extraction of sugar product.

d. Vegetable Crops – are edible part/s

of the plant.

e. Fruit Crops – are groups of different

types of fruits that are edible to
consume by human.
Common Commercial Food Crops in the Philippines
COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME ENGLISH NAME
Palay Oryza sativa Linn Rice
Mais Zea mays L. Corn/Maize
Niyog Cocos nucifera L. Coconut
Tubo Saccharum officinarum L. Sugarcane
Saging Musa sapientum var. Banana
Pinya Ananas comosus L. Pineapple
Kape Coffea sp. Coffee
Mangga Mangofera indica Mango
Tabako Nicotiana tabacum Tobacco
Mani Archis hypogaea Linn. Peanut
Munggo Vigna radiata L. Mungbean
Kamoteng Kahoy Manihot esculenta Crantz. Cassava
Kamote Ipomoea batatas Lam Sweet Potato
Kamatis Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. Tomato
Bawang Allium sativum Linn. Garlic
Sibuyas Allium cepa Linn. Onion bulb
Repolyo Brassica oleracea L. Cabbage
Talong Solanum melongena Linn. Eggplant
Kalamansi Citrus madurensis Lour. Calamansi
 A plant has different parts. The main parts are the roots, stem and the
leaves. Each part has a vital role in the life of a plant. The root absorbs water
and different nutrients in the ground. The roots also establish the plant as
foundation. The stem carries the water and different nutrients from the ground
to the leaves. It also supports the foundation.
 The main functions of the root system are absorption of water and
minerals from the soil, providing a proper anchorage to the plant parts, storing
reserve food material and synthesis of plant growth regulators.

In majority of the dicotyledonous plants, the direct elongation of the

radicle leads to the formation of primary root which grows inside the soil. It
bears lateral roots of several orders that are referred to as secondary, tertiary,
and so on. The primary roots and its branches constitute the tap root system.

In monocotyledonous plants, the primary root is short lived and is replaced

by a large number of roots. These roots originate from the base of the stem and
constitute the fibrous root system.
 In some plants, roots arise from parts of the plant other than the radicle
and are called adventitious roots.

The root is covered at the apex by a thimble-like structure called the root
cap. It protects the tender apex of the root as it makes its way through the soil.

Tap roots of carrot, turnip and adventitious roots of sweet potato, get
swollen and store food.

Hanging structures that support a banyan tree are called prop roots.
 Similarly, the stems of maize and sugarcane have supporting roots
coming out of the lower nodes of the stem. These are called stilt roots.

In some plants such as Rhizophora growing in swampy areas, many roots

come out of the ground and grow vertically upwards. Such roots, called
pneumatophores, help to get oxygen for respiration.

The Stem
The stem of a plant is one of two structural parts of a vascular plant (a
plant that has tissues for moving water and nutrients), the other being the root.
The stem is the part above ground which provides support for leaves and buds.
It's like the major highway of a plant, and it's vital for plant life.

The region of the stem where leaves are born are called nodes while
internodes are the portions between two nodes. Some stems perform the
function of storage of food, support, protection and of vegetative propagation.
 Underground stems of potato, ginger, turmeric, zaminkand, colocasia
are modified to store food in them.

Stem tendrils which develop from axillary buds, are slender and spirally
coiled and help plants to climb such as in gourds (cucumber, pumpkins,
watermelon) and grapevines.

Axillary buds of stems may also get modified into woody, straight and
pointed thorns. They protect plants from browsing animals.
 Some plants of arid regions modify their stems into flattened (Opuntia), or
fleshy cylindrical (Euphorbia) structures. They contain chlorophyll and carry out
photosynthesis.

Underground stems of some plants such as grass and strawberry, etc.,

spread to new niches and when older parts die new plants are formed

The Leaf
Leaf is a flattened structure of a higher plant, typically green and bladelike,
that is attached to a stem directly or via a stalk. Leaves are the main organs of
photosynthesis and transpiration.

Leaves originate from shoot apical meristems. Leaf develops at the node
and bears a bud in its axil. The axillary bud later develops into a branch.
 A typical leaf consists of three main parts: leaf base, petiole and lamina.
The petiole help hold the blade to light. Long thin flexible petioles allow leaf
blades to flutter in wind, thereby cooling the leaf and bringing fresh air to leaf
surface. The lamina or the leaf blade is the green expanded part of the leaf with
veins and veinlets. There is, usually, a middle prominent vein, which is known
as the midrib. Veins provide rigidity to the leaf blade and act as channels of
transport for water, minerals and food materials.

Leaf Venation
The arrangement of veins and the veinlets in the lamina of leaf is termed
as venation. When the veinlets form a network, the venation is termed as
reticulate. When the veins run parallel to each other within a lamina, the
venation is termed as parallel. Leaves of dicotyledonous plants generally
possess reticulate venation, while parallel venation is the characteristic of most
monocotyledons.
 Modifications of Leaves
Leaves of certain insectivorous plants such as pitcher plant, venus-fly trap
are also modified leaves for their food.

Transpiration
Plants absorb mineral nutrients and water from the soil. Not all the water
absorbed is utilised by the plant. The water evaporates through the stomata
present on the surface of the leaves by the process of transpiration. The
evaporation of water from leaves generates a suction pull (the same that you
produce when you suck water through a straw) which can pull water to great
heights in the tall trees. Transpiration also cools the plant.

Water absorption through roots can be increased by keeping the plants

a. in the shade
b. in dim light
c. under the fan
 d. covered with a polythene bag
When we place a plant under the fan the speed of air flow is very high.
Transpiration will take place in presence of high air flow through the stomata.
Rate of transpiration increases during windy condition. Increase in the rate of
transpiration increases the water absorption also because when transpiration
occurs, it will create a transpiration pull and more water absorption will take
place.

Do Plants Also Respire?

In plants each part can independently take in oxygen from the air and give
out carbon dioxide. Even roots can respire. Can you guess what would happen
if a potted plant is overwatered? Plants carry out photosynthesis only during
the day and respiration both during the day time as well as night. Did you
know? For us oxygen is essential, but for those organisms which do not use it,
oxygen is toxic. In fact, our white blood cells use oxygen to kill invading bacteria.
Even for humans, it may be dangerous to breathe pure oxygen for long.
 The Flower
The flower is the reproductive unit in the angiosperms. It is meant for
sexual reproduction. Androecium and gynoecium are reproductive organs. When
a flower has both androecium and gynoecium, it is bisexual. A flower having
either only stamens or only carpels is unisexual. Aestivation: The mode of
arrangement of sepals or petals in floral bud with respect to the other members
of the same whorl is known as aestivation.

Parts of a Flower
 Androecium
Androecium is composed of stamens. Each stamen which represents the
male reproductive organ consists of a stalk or a filament and an anther. Each
anther is usually bilobed and each lobe has two chambers, the pollen-sacs. The
pollen grains are produced in pollen-sacs. A sterile stamen is called staminode.

Gynoecium
Gynoecium is the female reproductive part of the flower and is made up of
one or more carpels. A carpel consists of three parts namely stigma, style and
ovary. After fertilization, the ovules develop into seeds and the ovary matures
into a fruit. Placentation: The arrangement of ovules within the ovary is known
as placentation.
 The Fruit
The fruit is a characteristic feature of the flowering plants. It is a mature
or ripened ovary, developed after fertilization. If a fruit is formed without
fertilisation of the ovary, it is called a parthenocarpic fruit. The ovules after
fertilization, develop into seeds.

Transport of Water and Minerals in Plants

Plants absorb water and minerals by the roots. The roots have root hair.
The root hair increase the surface area of the root for the absorption of water
and mineral nutrients dissolved in water. The root hair is in contact with the
water present between the soil particles.

Plants have pipe-like vessels to transport water and nutrients from the
soil. The vessels are made of special cells, forming the vascular tissue. The
vascular tissue for the transport of water and nutrients in the plant is called the
xylem. The xylem forms a continuous network of channels that connects roots
to the leaves through the stem and branches and thus transport water to the
entire plant leaves synthesize food. The food has to be transported to all parts of
the plant. This is done by the vascular tissue called the phloem. Thus, xylem
and phloem transport substances in plants.