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Uncooled microbolometer detector: Recent developments at ULIS

Article in Opto-Electronics Review · March 2006

DOI: 10.1016/j.infrared.2006.06.030

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 Infrared Photoelectronics
OPTO-ELECTRONICS REVIEW 14(1), 25–32

Uncooled microbolometer detector: recent developments at ULIS

J.L. TISSOT*, C. TROUILLEAU, B. FIEQUE, A. CRASTES, and O. LEGRAS

ULIS, BP 27 – 38113 Veurey-Voroize, France

Uncooled infrared focal plane arrays are being developed for a wide range of thermal imaging applications. Fire-fighting,
predictive maintenance, process control and thermography are a few of the industrial applications which could take benefit
from uncooled infrared detector. Therefore, to answer these markets, a 35-µm pixel-pitch uncooled IR detector technology
has been developed enabling high performance 160´120 and 384´288 arrays production. Besides a wide-band version from
uncooled 320´240/45 µm array has been also developed in order to address process control and more precisely industrial
furnaces control. The ULIS amorphous silicon technology is well adapted to manufacture low cost detector in mass produc-
tion. After some brief microbolometer technological background, we present the characterization of 35 µm pixel-pitch detec-
tor as well as the wide-band 320´240 infrared focal plane arrays with a pixel pitch of 45 µm.

Keywords: uncooled IRFPA, 2D array, MWIR, LWIR, microbolometer, amorphous silicon.

1. Introduction
Uncooled infrared detectors are now available for various
applications. Their simple operating conditions are similar
to those of digital CMOS active pixel sensor (APS) used in
some digital cameras. They have already shown their po-
tentiality to fulfil many commercial and military applica-
tions. One of the key parameters is the low cost achievable
with uncooled detectors compared to cooled quantum de-
tectors. Cooled detectors are designed for high perfor- Fig. 1. Bolometer pixel structure.
mance systems and uncooled detectors are designed for
low cost systems and mass production. sponse maximum at a wavelength close to 10 µm. However,
This paper describes the advantages of the amorphous the measured response is still substantial in the 3–5 µm range
silicon technology, the characterization of 35-µm pixel- as shown in the following paragraphs.
pitch detectors and the characterization of wide-band Besides its silicon technology compatibility, amorphous
320´240 uncooled detectors. Some mass production results silicon presents many other advantages. First, it enables the
and a short presentation of the next bolometer generation manufacturing of very thin suspended membranes (1000 )
conclude the discussion. combined with short leg lengths resulting in high fill factor
and high mechanical strength structures that could sustain
2. Background high vibration rates and high mechanical shocks. This re-
duced mechanical susceptibility to vibration or shock solic-
The bolometer is composed of a thermometer [1] integrated itation is obviously important for many military as well as
on a micro-bridge. This micro-bridge is supported by two legs commercial applications. Secondly, the very thin thermally
anchored over the silicon substrate by metal studs. This mi- isolated suspended membrane, along with the low thermal
cro-bridge is built on a sacrificial layer which is removed in a mass of silicon, results in a very low pixel thermal time
final step. The micro-bridge is only 0.1 µm thick of doped constant (approx. 4 ms for 45 µm pixel pitch and 7 ms for
amorphous silicon and the distance between the ROIC and the 35 µm and 25 µm pixel-pitch). Moreover, this simple tech-
micro-bridge is 2.5 µm (Fig. 1). This vacuum gap works as a nology leads to high manufacturing yield and therefore low
quarter wavelength cavity, which sets the detector spectral re- manufacturing cost.

3. 35-µm pixel-pitch uncooled IRFPA

*e-mail: [email protected]
For enabling the design of 35-µm pixel pitch devices while
The paper presented there appears in Infrared Photoelectronics,
edited by Antoni Rogalski, Eustace L. Dereniak, Fiodor F. Sizov, keeping high performance, CEA/LETI has defined new
Proc. SPIE Vol. 5957, 59570M (2005). process flow and pixel design with advanced design rules,

Opto-Electron. Rev., 14, no. 1, 2006 J.L. Tissot 25

Uncooled microbolometer detector: recent developments at ULIS

to improve the thermal insulation from 1.4´107 K/W up to

4.2´107 K/W. Moreover, the pixel structure still uses a one
level structure, the manufacture of which is much easier
than double deck structures. In order to limit the low fre-
quency noise, a specific design of the pixel has been devel-
oped, which essentially maximizes the sensitive material
volume defining the electrical resistance. Namely, the
membrane thickness has been adjusted on the basis of 7 ms
thermal time constant (Rth.Cth), still compatible with
60 Hz video frame rate. The resulting mean NETD (f/1,
300 K, 60 Hz) has been dropped to 30 mK. The character-
istics of this 2nd generation process flow are summarized in
the following table for a 35´35 µm² pixel pitch.
Table 1. 35-µm pixel size parameters.
Fig. 3. 320´240/384´288 ROIC schematic.
Rth (K/W) tth (ms) NETD (mK) Fill factor
4.2´107 7 < 30 > 80%
IRFPAs. These new components take advantage of the 3.3
This 2nd generation technology enables the manufactur- V/5 V voltage supplied by the 0.5 µm – 5 V CMOS tech-
ing of products based on 35-µm pixel size and leads to dra- nology. Even if the three clocks are pulsed in 3.3 V, the an-
matic improvement in performance and cost. alogue part, which is supplied in 5 V, enables to get a dy-
namic range from 0.4 to 3.2 V. This ensures a wider dy-
3.1. ROIC design namic range with a low NETD and takes benefit for
TEC-less use. These two ROICs have been designed to
The two CMOS readout integrated circuits (384´288 and consume less than 70 mW for the 160´120 array and less
160´120) have a similar structure to the 45 µm 320´240 than 130 mW for the 384´288 array.
focal plane array. The pixels are pulse-biased row by row. An on-chip biases module, based on a band-gap struc-
Figure 2 shows the synoptic of the signal processing from ture, generates most of the voltage and current biases. The
one pixel to the video signal output. A blind bolometer sup- outputs of this module are stabilized against temperature
presses the background current. Then, the signal is inte- fluctuations (< 100 ppm/°C) and leads to a high noise rejec-
grated in a capacitance trans-impedance amplifier. After- tion on analogue biases. This module and the 3.3 V clocks
wards, during the next row time, this integrated signal is provide a simple electrical interface requiring only three
held, multiplexed, and finally amplified. Figure 3 shows 3.3 V clocks and five biases. Moreover, the internal data
that the skimming, integration and sample and hold func- processing has been designed in order to deliver a video
tions are located at one end of each column. compliant with CCIR and NTSC formats.
Compared to the 45-µm product, several on-chip fea- An on-chip thermometer, based on a p/n silicon junc-
tures have been added to simplify the use of these new tion with a buffer to prevent any ROIC parasitic coupling,

Fig. 2. Synoptic of the pixel readout architecture.

26 Opto-Electron. Rev., 14, no. 1, 2006 © 2006 COSiW SEP, Warsaw

 Infrared Photoelectronics

Fig. 4. UL 03 08 1 – 384´288, 35-µm pixel pitch.

Fig. 6. UL 03 04 1 – 384´288 (320´240), 35-µm pixel pitch.

has been implemented in the readout circuit to deliver a
voltage VTEMP that follows ROIC temperature variation.
For TEC-less operation, VTEMP output can be used to ad- The package base plate is composed of a highly heat con-
just the different operating points. ductive material allowing efficient thermal transfer either
Finally, the wider array ROIC provides two different ar- through the back or the front of the package.
ray sizes: 320´240 and 384´288 formats by applying 3.3 V The distance between FPA and external window side is
or ground on the “SIZE” input pad. 1.32 mm enabling the possibility to use short back work-
ing-distance optics. Additionally, for both detectors UL 03
3.2. Packaging 08 1 and UL 03 04 1, the optical centre is the same for the
two array formats 384´288 or 320´240. This package de-
Two new flat packages have been developed for the two ar- veloped for wide bolometer arrays, is compatible with the
rays 384´288 (3202´40) and 160´120 with 35-µm pixel 640´480 microbolometer FPAs with 25-µm pitch pixels
pitch. These packages (Figs. 5 and 6) are based on avail- currently under development at ULIS.
able technologies widely developed for the packaging of
mass produced electronic devices. 3.3. Electro-optical tests
The lead frames enable electronic board integration like
it is for standard CMS devices, insuring high electrical con- As characteristics of UL 02 05 1 have already been pre-
tact reliability in tough and demanding environmental ap- sented [2,3], this part focuses only on the tests of the UL 03
plications such as military operations, fire fighting, process 04 1 and UL 03 08 1 full size 384´288. All electrical and
control or predictive maintenance. electro-optical tests are defined and carried out with f/1 op-
The package of the UL 02 05 1 (160´120/35 µm pixel tical aperture, a background temperature at 293 K and a
pitch) is a standard package often used for the telecom mar- FPA controlled at 303 K. The excellent linearity above
ket. Only the processes used to assemble the thermoelectric 99% on the total electrical range (0.4–3.2 V) allowed all
cooler, the die and the window housing have been adapted the tests at 60 Hz frame rate and with a 6.4 MHz master
to take into account the required lifetime under vacuum. clock. Moreover, all the presented tests correspond to a
Conversely, the package of the UL 03 04 1 (384´288) typical polarization and a 59.3 µs integration time. Figure 7
is designed in house. It is a lead-free metal package assem- shows the histogram and also a map of an output DC level
bled with high reliability ceramic feed through technology. for a detector presented in front of a 293 K blackbody with-
out any correction. The electrical dynamic range extends
from 0.4 V to 3.2 V.
Very few bad pixels are located on this map. The
knowledge and control of bolometer technology acquired
over the last years allows the production of 35-µm
bolometer arrays with a pixel-operability much higher than
99.5%. The responsivity (7.2 mV/K, s = 1.1%) is measured
between two blackbodies at 293 K and 308 K. Therefore,
by considering Planck’s law, if we associate the available
electrical dynamic range (0.4–3.2 V) presented in Fig. 7
and the mean value of the responsivity, the temperature dy-
namic range could be higher than 200°C without any pixel
saturation before correction or calibration. Associated with
Fig. 5. UL 02 05 1 – 160´120, 35-µm pixel pitch. a mean rms noise of 310 µV, presented in Fig. 8, these

Opto-Electron. Rev., 14, no. 1, 2006 J.L. Tissot 27

Uncooled microbolometer detector: recent developments at ULIS

Table 2. Summary of typical characteristics of UL 03 08 1.

Array configuration 384´288/320´240
Pitch size 35´35 µm
Nominal operating temperature 30°C
Spectral response 8–14 µm
Typical responsivity 7.2 mV/K
Typical noise 310 µVrms
Typical NETD @ f/1 43 mK
Operability > 99.5%
Fig. 7. Output raw DC level distribution and map.
Thermal time constant < 7 ms

35-µm pixel pitch detectors achieve a mean NETD of 43 Spatial NETD < temporal NETD
mK for f/1, 50 Hz and a 303 K background. Power dissipation 130 mW
All these results obtained with this wide FPA confirm Typical frame rate 60 Hz
the characteristics on the smaller array 160´120/35 µm Output video CCIR–NTSC compatible
pixel pitch. Moreover, NETD as low as 27 mK has already NETD´time constant 300E-6
been demonstrated under the same conditions with reduced
scene temperature dynamic range. The detector operating
This low and constant standard deviation of 1.4% dem-
point could be tuned in line with the application. It is a
onstrates the excellent homogeneity for a large number of
trade off between NETD performance and the available
detectors. Also, first results on the 384´288 arrays show
scene temperature dynamic range. Number of applications
the same productiveness. The excellent yield and the mas-
such as process control, need a high temperature dynamic
tering of the 35-µm technology allow ULIS to produce
range while others like medical applications, require a
highly uniform detectors.
better NETD with a dynamic range of a few degrees.
Both the spatial and temporal NETD of a UL 03 08 1 4. New developments
are presented in Fig. 8. We observe the characteristic “W”
shape of the spatial NETD with the two minima at 20°C The development of the 3rd generation has been under
and 40°C. These points correspond to the two points of progress at CEA/LETI for few years and a first 320´240
gain and offset calibration. Within this range, the spatial arrays has been developed with a pixel pitch of 25 µm. The
NETD is always below the temporal NETD to ensure that pixel architecture developed for this small pixel pitch is
the spatial patterns are not distinguished from the temporal still based on a one level structure while pushing the pixel
noise on the image. By combining a mean temporal NETD design improvement to some further limits. This new archi-
of around 43 mK and the improved power supply rejection tecture leads to obtain high performance in conjunction
ratio, the images of the 384´288 are sharply contrasted and with small thermal time constants. The first prototype
present a high quality resolution. shows a mean NETD of 75 mK (f/1, 60 Hz, 300 K) with 6
ms as thermal time constant. This very low thermal time
3.4. Mass production feasibility constant leaves a large margin to increase the performance
of this new detector further. These results demonstrate that
The following bar-chart offers the distribution of the stan-
dard deviation of the responsivity on more than 3000
U 02 05 1 issued during 2004.

Fig. 9. Distribution of responsivity standard deviation (%) on more

Fig. 8. Spatial and temporal NETD (TPFA = 30°C). than 3000 UL 02 05 1.

28 Opto-Electron. Rev., 14, no. 1, 2006 © 2006 COSiW SEP, Warsaw

 Infrared Photoelectronics
amorphous silicon may compete with other developments
even at reduced pitches, while maintaining a small thermal
time constant with a very simple process [4].
Based on this first result, a 640´480 array is currently
developed and will be mass produced from 2005 as well as
a 320´240 for automotive application.

5. Wide-band 320´240 uncooled IRFPA

In theory, a thermal bolometer made from a resistively cou-
pled thin film membrane shows a flat response across the
entire spectrum. However, in order to maximize the re-
sponse in the LWIR, these semi-transparent thin film struc-
tures are traditionally built with a quarter wave optical cav-
Fig. 11. Microbolometer chip spectral response measurement.
ity under the membrane. This cavity increases the absorp-
tion efficiency in the LWIR by re-capturing some of the
missed LWIR flux reflected back by an aluminium reflec- 5.1. Microbolometer chip spectral response
tor. The peak absorption wavelength lp dictated by the op-
tical cavity is given by Eq. (1) where n is the index of re- As it can be seen in Fig. 11, the spectral response of the
fraction of the transmission media in the cavity (vacuum), e microbolometer is efficient in the 3–5 µm band. Two dif-
is the cavity depth, and k is the resonant order ferent methods have been used to measure the micro-
bolometer response. The first one corresponds to a method
(2k + 1) l p
ne = . (1) which takes the fill factor into account. The response is in-
4 directly measured, with an IR spectrometer equipped with
As a consequence, for n = 1 (vacuum), e ~2.5 µm, and k = an integration sphere. A large beam (~5 mm diameter) is
0, lp = 10 µm which corresponds to the standard ULIS shed on the array and the total reflected, diffracted or dif-
microbolometer array product in the LWIR. For k = 1, lp = fused back flux is detected, and normalized against the
3.33 µm. Therefore, the standard ULIS microbolometer spectral reflectivity of a reference mirror. We assume the
pixel structure should exhibit increased absorption factor in quantity (1–R) to be closely representative of the effective
the MWIR, although not as high as that in the LWIR. spectral absorption, and hence of the response. The other
One can evaluate the result of such quarter-wave cavity, one is the microbolometer response of one pixel measured
in Fig. 10, where the microbolometer response and the con- with an FTIR bench (Fourier transform infrared).
tribution of this cavity are described. In this figure, we can Characterization elements explain the differences be-
see both the measured microbolometer response and the tween the two results shown in Fig. 11. First, as noticed be-
theoretical quarter-wave response for a 2.5-µm cavity. For fore, the fill factor is not taken into account in the FTIR
the theoretical curve, the response is calculated for an infi- method because only one pixel is sampled in this electrical
nite pixel and all process layers are taken into account. In measurement. Moreover, in this measure, the results are
this case, the fill factor is considered as 100%. For the normalized to the maximum value, and therefore, the de-
other curve, the measurement method of the spectral re- tector window transmission is de-correlated from the rough
sponse is described in the next paragraph. FTIR measurement. Despite these differences, the rough
curves profiles are the same.

5.2. Filters
For wide-band prototype development, a specific 3–5 µm
and 8–16 µm ranges detector window has been used. Its
transmission is shown in Fig. 12. An added sapphire filter,
placed on the optical path, has also been used (Fig. 13) in
order to cut-off the atmospheric transmission beyond 5 µm.

5.3. Responsivity evaluation

We assessed the responsivity in the MWIR range by multi-
plying the microbolometer responsivity presented in Fig. 11
by the window prototype transmission shown in Fig. 12. This
result is given in Fig. 14. On the same graph, one can see the
Fig. 10. Quarter-wave cavity (theoretical and measured) spectrum. calculated luminance for a black body at 450°C and 650°C.

Opto-Electron. Rev., 14, no. 1, 2006 J.L. Tissot 29

Uncooled microbolometer detector: recent developments at ULIS

DVllow - lhigh (T )
FOM = (3)
DV8 -12 mm (30 ° C)

Where Adet is the sensitive bolometer membrane surface

and W is the solid angle W = p 4 f 2 calculated with the f
number. As a result, we can estimate a sensitivity compari-
son (FOM) for different temperatures and wavelength
ranges. Table 3 provides these results.

Table 3. Calculated relative response versus wavelength

ranges.
Detector llow lhigh TBB Relative
Fig. 12. Wide-band window prototype transmission. (µm) (µm) (°C) response
Standard LWIR 8 12 30 1
320´240/45 µm
Standard LWIR 8 12 450 4
320´240/45 µm
Wide-band 3 5 450 6.6
320´240/45 µm
Wide-band 3.5 5 450 4.8
320´240/45 µm
Wide-band 3.7 4.8 450 3.4
320´240/45 µm

Table 3 shows that the relative response is more than

six time higher for a 450°C scene temperature with the
Fig. 13. Sapphire filter transmission. wide-band prototype detector (in the 3–5 µm range) than
with the LWIR standard detector (in the 8–12 µm range)
for a 30°C scene temperature. Other wavelength range rela-
tive responses are presented in order to fit specific applica-
tions.

5.4. Electro optical characterization

In order to evaluate the performances in the 3–5 µm wave
band range, a high temperature cavity blackbody has been
used. We placed a diaphragm in the optic path to fix the
field of view. The f number resulting from the limiting dia-
Fig. 14. Microbolometer responsivity over the waveband. phragm amounts to 9.54. Figure 15 shows a schematic of
the experimental setup, and Fig. 16 is a plot of the DC out-
What is very important to notice, is that, even if the put level for different blackbody temperature. We also have
microbolometer response in the 3 to 5 µm range is half the carried out measurements with a sapphire filter in order to
response in the 8–14 µm range, the flux coming from a cutoff the atmospheric transmission beyond 5 µm.
blackbody at 450°C or 650°C is roughly ten times higher in We calculated the derivative against temperature of the
the 3–5 µm range than in the 8–14 µm range. In order to previous results. This leads to the responsivity R presented
compare the standard 8–12 µm detector and the wide-band below. The previous results have been obtained with f/9.54.
detector prototype, we define a factor of merit which is a In order to compare these results with classical optical ap-
signal difference DV ratio, or responsivity ratio. This ratio erture we extrapolate the results at f/1. This extrapolation is
allow us to compare a signal difference for a given temper-
ature T and a given wavelength range to the signal differ-
ence calculated for 30°C in the 8–12 µm wavelength range.
Following Planck’s law, one can determine this signal
difference ÄV we can reach, and the factor of merit FOM

¶L
DV = Rmean ò dlA det W (2)
¶l Fig. 15. Experimental setup.

30 Opto-Electron. Rev., 14, no. 1, 2006 © 2006 COSiW SEP, Warsaw

 Infrared Photoelectronics
obtained by using the relation R1/W1 = R1/W2 where R1 and
R2 are the responsivity associated with the W1 and W2 solid
angles. W is related to the f number, by the formula
W = p 4 f 2 . The extrapolated responsivity can be seen in
Figs. 17 and 18.
We can fit any specific filter onto a camera, in order to
match the detector with a given application. We tried to
simulate what could be expected with the wide-band proto-
type detector provided with a perfect 3–5 µm band pass
(with 100% transmission between 3 and 5 µm, and 0 out-
side that range).
Fig. 16. DC output signal versus blackbody temperature (@f/9.54). Table 4 summarizes all the results and points out that
the responsivity will be close to 45 mV/K @f/1 for 450°C
temperature scene and 30 mV/K with additional 3–5 µm
filter.
Table 4. Results summary for f/1.
With Without 3–5 µm band
sapphire sapphire pass filter.
filter filter Extrapolation
result
Responsivity between 49 mV/K 66 mV/K 31 mV/K
400°C and 500°C

For some applications, we have to be able to detect a

hot spot in a background environment at 20°C, for example
Fig. 17. Responsivity with sapphire filter for different ranges of in aerial observation such as fire detection from satellites
high temperatures (@f/1). [5]. In this case, the signal to noise ratio is very high be-
cause the response is measured between 20°C and high
temperature (i.e., 450°C).
The next table summarizes the wide-band detector pro-
totype parameters and performances.
Different pictures have been taken with both detector in
both ranges (3–5 µm and 8–12 µm). We can see differences
of temperature on the soldering iron with the wide-band de-
tector whereas with the 8–12 µm detector, the signal satu-
rate on the iron (Fig. 20).
Table 5. Detector summary (values @f/1).
Range
LWIR – 30°C MWIR – 450°C
Fig. 18. Responsivity without sapphire filter for different ranges of
high temperatures (@f/1). Responsivity 5 mV/K 45 mV/K
Array size 320´240
Pixel pitch 45 µm
Operability > 99.5%
Pin out Fully compatible with UL 01 01 1
electronics board

6. Improvement in progress
The current filter of the wide-band prototype window allow
the detector to have a sufficient responsivity both in the
3–5 µm and in the 8–12 µm wave band. But the drawback
of this filter is the cut-off at 9.5 µm and its poor transmis-
Fig. 19. Responsivity with sapphire filter and with 3–5 µm filter for sion in the region close to 7 µm to 8 µm which could be
different high temperatures ranges (@f/1). a disadvantage for some gas detection. An improved win-

Opto-Electron. Rev., 14, no. 1, 2006 J.L. Tissot 31

 Uncooled microbolometer detector: recent developments at ULIS

Fig. 21. Spectral response of the improved detector under develop-

ment in comparison with different gas detection wavelength.

eration 25-µm pixel-pitch detectors in 640´480, 384´288,

and 160´120 formats.
Besides, new detectors with wide-band sensitivity
based on standard 320´240/45 µm pixel pitch detector have
been demonstrated. The fields of application are in indus-
trial processes, thermography, gas detection and furnace
control or fire detection.

Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank LETI LIR Uncooled detec-
tors Teams and ULIS personnel who develop and produce
Fig. 20. Soldering iron (temperature 450°C). uncooled infrared microbolometer detectors. We also thank
Sofradir staff for their contribution and their support.
dow with a continuous high transmission in a spectral
range from 3 to 16 µm is under test. It leads to the im- Reference
proved spectral response shown in Fig. 21 which is to be
compared with the first prototype spectral response shown 1. C. Vedel, J.L. Martin, J.L. Ouvrier-Buffet, J.L. Tissot, M.
in Fig. 14. Vilain, and J.J. Yon, “Amorphous silicon based uncooled
microbolometer IRFPA”, Proc. SPIE 3698, 276–283 (1999).
2. C. Trouilleau, A. Crastes, J.L. Tissot, J.P. Chatard, and S.
7. Conclusions Tinnes, “Amorphous silicon based uncooled microbolome-
ter IRFPA”, Proc. SPIE 5251, 272–279 (2003).
Developments of amorphous silicon microbolometer tech- 3. J.L. Tissot, M. Vilain, A. Crastes , S. Tinnes, A. Larre, O.
nology have been focusing on the improvement of their Legras, and J.J. Yon “Uncooled IRFPA with high perfor-
sensitivity, enabling the possibility of manufacturing high mance and low thermal time constant”, Proc. SPIE 5612,
performance devices with small pixel pitch, at a low cost. 72–77 (2004).
The 320´240/384´288 and 160´120 with 35-µm pixel 4. J.J. Yon, A. Astier, S. Bisotto, G. Chamings, A. Durand,
pitch arrays have demonstrated high uniform performance J.L. Martin, E. Mottin, J.L. Ouvrier-Buffet, and J.L. Tissot,
and very low thermal time constant which open the field to “First demonstration of 25-µm pitch uncooled amorphous
new applications. The tuning of these focal plane arrays en- silicon microbolometer IRFPA at LETI-LIR”, SPIE Proc.
ables ULIS to match many applications from high dynamic 5783, 432–440 (2005).
5. B.D. Oelrich, A. Crastes, C.I. Underwood, and S. Mackin,
range for industrial controls or small dynamic range and
“A low-cost mid-wave IR microsatellite image concept
low NETD like medical applications. Technology develop-
based on uncooled technology”, Proc. SPIE 5570, 209–217
ment is in progress to enable the production of a new gen- (2004).

32 Opto-Electron. Rev., 14, no. 1, 2006 © 2006 COSiW SEP, Warsaw

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