Additional

Notes
ANDERSON SERANGOON JUNIOR COLLEGE
PHYSICS 9749

Topic 4: Forces
Learning Outcomes:

Candidates should be able to:

Types of forces
(a) recall and apply Hooke’s law (F = kx, where k is the force constant) to new situations or
to solve related problems.
(b) describe the forces on a mass, charge and current-carrying conductor in gravitational,
electric and magnetic fields, as appropriate.
(c) show a qualitative understanding of normal contact forces, frictional forces and viscous
forces including air resistance. (No treatment of the coefficients of friction and viscosity
is required.)

Centre of gravity
(d) show an understanding that the weight of a body may be taken as acting at a single point
known as its centre of gravity.

Turning effects of forces

(e) define and apply the moment of a force and the torque of a couple.
(f) show an understanding that a couple is a pair of forces which tends to produce rotation
only.
(g) apply the principle of moments to new situations or to solve related problems.

Equilibrium of forces
(h) show an understanding that, when there is no resultant force and no resultant torque, a
system is in equilibrium.
(i) use a vector triangle to represent forces in equilibrium.

Upthrust
(j) derive, from the definitions of pressure and density, the equation p = ρgh.
(k) solve problems using the equation p = ρgh.
(l) show an understanding of the origin of the force of upthrust acting on a body in a fluid.
(m) state that upthrust is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the weight of the
fluid displaced by a submerged or floating object.
(n) calculate the upthrust in terms of the weight of the displaced fluid.
(o) recall and apply the principle that, for an object floating in equilibrium, the upthrust is
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the weight of the object to new situations
or to solve related problems.

1. How Submarines Work. Retrieved from (http://science.howstuffworks.com/transport/engines-equipment/submarine1.htm).

2. Cartesian diver. Retrieved from (http://physics.org/interact/physics-to-go/cartesian-diver/).
3. Biomechanics & High Jump. Retrieved from (https://www.topendsports.com/sport/athletics/biomechanics-highjump.htm)

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PHYSICS 9749

A Types of Forces

Force is a • A force is a push or a pull, that is, a force is an interaction between two bodies or between
physical a body and its environment. Hence we always refer to the force that one body exerts on
quantity that
can change the another.
•
shape of an
object, the From the topic of Dynamics, Newton’s 2nd Law states that the resultant force acting on a
direction of its body is proportional to the rate of change of momentum of the body and the change in
motion and its
acceleration. momentum takes place in the direction of the force.
• Force is a vector quantity and requires both magnitude and direction for it to be fully
defined. The SI unit for force is newton (N) and one newton is equal to 1 kg m s -2.
• In the analysis of forces and interactions, the terms objects and systems will be used in
various discussions. Objects, can be treated as having no internal structure or an internal
structure that can be ignored. A system, on the other hand, is a collection of objects with
an internal structure which may need to be taken into account.

A.1 Types of interaction

• There are four fundamental forces within all atoms that dictate interactions between
individual particles, and the large-scale behavior of all matter throughout the Universe.
They are the strong and weak nuclear forces, the electromagnetic force and gravitational
force.

Relative
Name Comment Example
Strength
Large short-ranged forces between The holding together
nuclear particles. Basically of nucleons in a
Strong nuclear 1
attractive, but can be effectively nucleus.
repulsive in some circumstances.
It is long-ranged but much weaker Electricity,
than the strong force. It can be magnetism, and light
Electromagnetic ~ 10-2 attractive or repulsive and acts only are all produced by
between pieces of matter carrying this force.
electrical charge.
It is very short-ranged and is very It is responsible for -
weak. decay (the
conversion of a
Weak nuclear ~ 10-14
neutron to a proton,
an electron and an
antineutrino).
It is long-ranged but very weak. It is Pull of Earth on Moon
always attractive, and acts between and Moon on Earth.
Gravitational ~ 10-40
any two pieces of matter in the
Universe since mass is its source.

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PHYSICS 9749

A.2 Field of Force

• A physical body can exert a force on another similar body not in contact with it. Such They are
thus
interactions can be explained using the field concept. sometimes
• Field concept can be used to explain a physical phenomenon in terms of a field and known as
non-contact
the manner in which it interacts with matter or with other fields. forces.
• A Field of Force is a region of space surrounding a body within which it can exert a
force on another similar body not in contact with it.

(i) Gravitational Force

• A body of mass M establishes round itself a region of space in which it has the ability
(or potential) to exert a gravitational force on another mass.
• The strength of the gravitational field established by mass, M, at a point in the region
of space is given by g, and the gravitational force F exerted on another body of mass,
m, placed at that point is given by F = mg. The gravitational force F is always attractive
and points towards the mass M.

(ii) Electric Force

• A body of charge Q establishes around itself a region of space in which it has the ability
(or potential) to exert an electric force on another charge.
• The two kinds of charges responsible for electric forces are the positive and negative
charges. Unlike gravitational forces, electric forces can be attractive or repulsive,
depending on the signs of the charges involved.
• Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.

(iii) Magnetic Force

• A magnetic field may exist in a region of space as a result of the presence of either a
permanent magnet or a moving charge or current–carrying conductor.

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A.3 Some common types of Forces

(i) Contact Force

When a body is in contact with another surface, the surface exerts a contact force on the
body. This contact force has two components, namely the normal contact force (FN) and
the frictional force (Fr).

Normal Contact Force, FN

• Consider a stone resting on a road. If the contact between the road and the stone is
examined closely, it can be seen that the two rough surfaces make close contact only
at relatively few places. Where contact is made, the road will exert a force on the stone
as shown in Fig 1(a).

FN

stone

road
Fig 1(b)
Fig 1(a)

• The sum of all these forces is shown in Fig 1(b) and this single force is the normal
contact force which the road exerts on the stone. The normal contact force acts
perpendicular to the surface that the body is in contact with and is always directed away
from the surface towards the body.

Frictional Force, Fr
• For stationary body, the frictional force acts along the surface in a direction to prevent
the body from sliding (or to oppose the tendency of motion).
• For surfaces in relative motion, the direction is to oppose the relative motion of the
surfaces.
• Using the example of the stone above, if the stone is sliding across the road (e.g. to
the left), Fig 1(a) then changes to Fig 2(a).

normal contact force, contact force, F

FN which is the
stone vertical component of
contact force
frictional force, Fr
motion which is the horizontal
component of contact
road force

Fig 2(a) Fig 2(b)

• The contact force can be considered as being the vector sum of a horizontal component
(the frictional force) and a vertical component (the normal contact force).

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• For two surfaces where friction can be neglected (i.e. smooth surface) the only force
will be the normal contact force. When a surface is rough, there will be frictional force
as long as the body has a tendency to move.
• Friction is often regarded as a nuisance but it is often crucially necessary. For example,
walking is made possible by friction. Chaos and accidents usually follow when the
reduction in friction takes place on wet roads.

(ii) Viscous force

• When a solid moves in a fluid (liquid or gas) or when a fluid moves over it, it will also
experience a resistance. This is called the viscous force.
• Viscous forces oppose motion, so the direction of a viscous force on a moving body is
always opposite to the direction of its motion.
• Viscous forces are also dissipative in nature.
• The magnitude of viscous forces is dependent on the speed of bodies. For example,
the air resistance (an example of viscous force) acting against a car is proportional to
the speed of the car at low speeds (F α v). At high speeds, the air resistance is
proportional to the square of the speed of the car (F α v2).
• Viscous forces also depend on the type of fluid (viscosity) involved. For example, for a
body moving at the same speed, it will encounter larger viscous force when travelling
through oil compared to air or water.
• Frictional forces vs viscous forces
Frictional Forces Viscous forces
Act along the surfaces in contact Act along the surfaces in contact
between two solid bodies. between a fluid and a solid body.
Not affected by relative motion of Increase when relative velocity of fluids
two surfaces. and moving bodies increases.
Friction exists even when the body Does not exist when there is no relative
is at rest. motion.

Check Your Understanding

Is friction an example of viscous force? Yes or No

(iii) Tension

• Tension is the force which is transmitted through a string, rope, cable or wire when it is
pulled tight by forces acting from opposite ends.
• Tension is directed along the length of the string and pulls equally on the bodies on the
opposite ends of the string.

Tension in a spring
• When a body is acted upon by a force, it can be compressed, stretched or bent. If when
the force is removed, the body returns to its original shape, it is said to be elastic. Solids
that do not return to their original configuration once they have been distorted are
categorised as plastics.

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• Elastic materials will stretch until they reach their limit of elasticity, or yield point. After
that point, they exhibit plastic deformation and will never return to their original shape.
Ductile materials stretch thinner and thinner, while brittle materials break without any
plastic deformation. Eventually all will rupture at their breaking point.

Hooke’s Law

Memorize Hooke’s Law states that, provided the proportionality limit is not exceeded, the extension
(or compression) of a body is proportional to the applied load.

Note that
exceeding Mathematical form of Hooke’s Law
limit of
proportionality
Consider a spring as shown in the figure.
just means
force no
longer
proportional
to extension,
does not
imply object
cannot return
to original Lo L
length. Only
when you
exceed limit
of elasticity
will there be origin
permanent
unstretched Finternal
deformation.
length
extension, x
(a displacement)
Fexternal

Fexternal = kx
Finternal = – kx

where Fexternal is the force supplied by an external agent on the spring distorting it from
• length
≠extension equilibrium position in newtons (N)
• extension = Finternal is the force exerted by the spring to restore itself to equilibrium position in
final length –
original length newtons (N)
• compression x is the extension (or compression) of the spring (x = L – Lo) in metres (m)
= original
length - final k is the stiffness / spring constant / force constant in newtons per metre (N m-1)
length

• The negative sign indicates that the spring force is a restoring force, i.e., the force
Finternal always acts in the direction opposite to the direction in which the system is
displaced.
• Here we assume that the positive direction for values of x is the same as the positive
values of the force supplied by the external agent.
• x is the distance that the spring has been stretched or compressed with respect to the
equilibrium position. Do not confuse x with the length of the spring!

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• The graph of the external force plotted against extension (or compression) for a spring
under load is shown below:

Force / N
P, Limit of Proportionality

O x Extension or
compression x / cm
• Features of the graph:

o The magnitude of the force is directly proportional to the extension/compression of

the spring (i.e. F α x) until P, which is known as the limit of proportionality. Beyond
this point, force is no longer proportional to extension/compression.
o The ratio of force to extension/compression (within the limit of proportionality) is the
spring constant,
F
spring constant k =
x

o The larger the value of k, the stiffer the spring. That is, a larger force is required to
extend it by a given length.

Example 1

Some weight-lifters use a 'chest expander', consisting of a strong spring with a handle at each
end, to exercise chest and arm muscles. The spring obeying Hooke's law has an unstretched
length of 50.0 cm and a spring constant of 400 N m-1.

Calculate the tension in the spring when the overall length is 70.0 cm.

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PHYSICS 9749

Elastic Potential Energy (Strain Energy)

• An external force F acting on a spring or wire (causing it to extend to x1) performs work W
Strain given by
energy is the
energy
stored in a
material
when it is W = area under F-x graph from x = 0 to x1
stretched or
compressed.

• This work is stored as elastic potential energy (strain energy) in the spring or wire.

• Elastic potential energy stored is represented by the area under the force-extension graph.

Derivation of Elastic Potential Energy:

Force / N
F = kx
C
F2

A
F1

O x1 x2 Extension / m
B D

Energy stored when spring is extended from 0 to x1 = area under F − x graph from 0 to x1
= area of triangle OAB
1
= F1x1
2
1
= kx12 (since F1 = kx1 )
2

Additional energy stored when spring is extended from x1 to x2

Note : = area under the F − x graph from x1 to x2
Common
mistake = area of triangle OCD − area of triangle OAB
1 1
= F2 x2 − F1x1
1
2
(
k x22 − x12 ) 2 2
is not equal to
1
1
(
= k x22 − x12
2
)
k ( x2 − x1 )
2

2
This area is the area enclosed by the trapezium BACD.

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• The graph of total elastic potential energy stored (U) against extension/compression
(x) is shown below.

Elastic potential energy U / J The equation

U = ½ kx2
has the same
format as
y = mx2.

Extension or compression x / m

Check Your Understanding

Shade the area which gives the work done on the spring by the force Fx in the figure below.

Example 2

The extension of Spring A when a variable force is applied is given by the graph below.

Force / N
4.0

2.0

0 0.1 0.2 Extension of spring / cm

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(a) Calculate the increase in potential energy stored when the spring extends from
0.10 cm to 0.20 cm.

Note that the (b) Spring B is added in series to Spring A such that when a force of 4.0 N is applied, the
effective spring
constants of total extension is 0.30 cm. Sketch the force-extension graph of Spring B in the figure
springs arranged above.
in series is given
by:
1 1 1
= + …+
𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑘1 𝑘𝑁

& for springs

arranged in
parallel, it is given
by

keff = k1 + …. + kN

Do not memorise
them. You can
learn to derive
them in Tutorial
Question A1.

(iv) Forces due to fluid

Pressure at a point in a Liquid

Derivation:

Fig 1 Fig 2 A

• Pressure is defined as the force per unit area, where the force is acting at right angles to a
unit area.

• At a particular point in a liquid at rest, the pressure is the same in all directions, as illustrated
in Fig 1.

• A fluid at rest exerts a force due to fluid pressure and the force always acts perpendicularly
to any surface it is in contact with.

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Remember
• Consider a point which is at a depth h below the surface of the liquid in Fig 2. The pressure this
derivation
due to the liquid at this depth h is due to the weight of the column of liquid F above it over
an area of A.

h is measured
• Pressure P = F from the
A surface of the
liquid
downwards.
• Density  is defined as the mass m per unit volume V of a substance.
h is always the
vertical height.
m g (V  )g (hAfluid )g
• Hence, Pressure P = F = fluid = fluid fluid = = h fluid g
A A A A

• Pressure in a fluid increases with depth of the fluid.

• The pressure at equal depths within a uniform liquid is the same.

• The equation is valid for fluids whose density is constant and does not change with depth,
that is, if the fluid is incompressible.

Example 3

A long narrow tube is filled with water of density 1000 kg m-3 to a depth of 1.5 m, and oil of
density 800 kg m-3 to a depth of 0.5 m. The tube is then inclined at 50° to the horizontal. Given
that the atmospheric pressure is 1.01 x 105 Pa, estimate the pressure at the bottom of the tube,
point P.

oil
0.5 m

water
1.5 m

50º
P

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Upthrust

• The figure above shows a body submerged in a fluid. Drawn on the body are forces
exerted on the body due to fluid pressure, and they are acting at right angles to the
surface of the body.
• The horizontal components of these forces cancel out each other. As for the vertical
components, the upward components on the bottom are larger than the downward
components at the top. Hence, the resultant of all of these forces gives an upward
force. This resultant upward force is known as the upthrust or buoyancy force.
Remember • Upthrust orignates from the difference in pressure between the top and bottom
this surfaces of the immersed body, a difference that always exists due to the fact that
pressure varies with depth. This implies that there is upthrust as long as a body is in a
fluid.

Derivation of magnitude of Upthrust :

• Consider a body of uniform cross-sectional area A of length l placed so that its top is
a distance d beneath the surface of a liquid of density f.
p0, atmospheric pressure
d

Pressure at top surface = d f g + p0

Force (downward) on top surface = (d f g + p0) A
Pressure at bottom surface = (d + l) f g + p0
Force (upward) on bottom surface = [(d + l) f g + p0] A
= volume
of object Upthrust = (d + l) f g A – d f g A = l A f g

= volume Hence, Upthrust = Vf f g

of object
below
fluid where Vf = l A is the volume of the body in the fluid
surface OR the volume of the fluid displaced

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• Archimedes’ Principle states that for a submerged or floating object in a fluid, it

experiences an upthrust equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the weight
of fluid displaced.

• For an object floating in equilibrium, since the only two forces acting on the floating
object are its weight and the upthrust, the Principle of Flotation states that for
an object floating in equilibrium, the upthrust is equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction to the weight of the object.

• Extending Archimedes’ Principle to an object floating in equilibrium, the weight of

the fluid displaced is therefore equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the
weight of the object.

Check Your Understanding

Which of the following object(s) can (i) Archimedes’ Principle and (ii) Principle of Flotation be
applied?
tight rope

air tight rope F

A B C
water
D

tight rope E

ground

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Example 4

A spherical buoy of radius 10 cm floats on the surface of the water with half of its volume
submerged in the water. The density of water is 1.0 x 103 kg m-3.

(a) Calculate the upthrust.

(b) Calculate the mass of the buoy.

Example 5

A wooden body is floating as shown. Density of the body and water is ρb and ρw respectively.
The body has base area A. Determine the ratio ρw /ρb.
Note: Be careful and meticulous in handling subscripts!
h

d
water

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B Centre of Gravity

• Any body other than the idealised point body has size. It therefore has its mass distributed
over its volume and forces acting on parts of it. If it were necessary to consider every bit of
the body’s mass separately, the mathematical manipulation would be very complex. To
simplify this, we use the term centre of mass.

• The centre of mass is the point at which the whole mass of the body may be considered to
be concentrated.

• The centre of gravity of an object is the point at which the whole weight of the body may
be considered to act.

• The position of the centre of mass is usually in the same place as the centre of gravity of
the body if the body is situated in a uniform gravitational field. The weight of a body may
be taken as acting through the centre of gravity of the body.

Applying centre of gravity to biomechanics in the area of sports

• The centre of gravity of a regularly shaped body of uniform thickness and density is at its
geometrical centre.

W = mg

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• For an irregularly shaped body, or for a body of non-uniform thickness or density, the centre
Please refer
to Appendix
of gravity can be found by using calculation or a plumb line.
to see how to
calculate cg.

Plumb line method to find centre of gravity

C Turning Effects of Forces

• A force, besides being able to cause a body to change its linear momentum, can also
cause the body to rotate. This is the moment of a force or the turning effect of a force.

C.1 Moment of a force

Memorize • Moment of a force is the turning effect of a force. It is equal to the product of the force and
the perpendicular distance of the line of action of the force from the pivot.

What is the
• Mathematically,
‘perpendicular
distance’
perpendicular
to?
Moment of a Force about a point O = Force x Perpendicular Distance to point O

What is the ‘line

of action of the • The unit of moment is the newton-metre (N m).
force’?

Where are the • It is a vector quantity. Its direction is either clockwise or anti-clockwise.
start and end
points of the
‘perpendicular • When finding moment of a force, we always find moment about any point. There is no need
distance’? for a physical pivot in the question for us to find the moment of a force.

• Examples of moment at work include: closing a door, lifting a car hood.

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θ
O
h

Method 1: Find the perpendicular

line of action of F distance d from O to the line of action of
the force F
F
moment of F about point O
d
=Fd
= F h sin θ
θ
O
h

Method 2: Resolving F into two

F perpendicular components, Fx and Fy
Fy

moment of F about point O

θ Fx = moment of Fy about point O
= (Fy) h = F sin θ h
O
h Note that component Fx has no turning
effect about point O since its line of
action passes through O.
Worked Example

Calculate the moment of the 12 N force about the given point X.

12 N

Solution

50o Moment of 12 N force about X

X = 12 sin 50o (3) or 12 (3 sin 50o)
= 28 N m

3m

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C.2 Torque of a Couple

• A couple consists of two equal and opposite parallel forces whose lines of action do not
Memorize
coincide.

• It is a system of forces which produces a turning effect only (i.e. zero translational effect),
resulting in rotation.

d sin θ
F θ d

Check Your Understanding

Which of the following shows a couple?

A B C D

Torque of a couple is the turning effect of a couple. It is equal to the product of one of the
Memorize forces and the perpendicular distance between the forces.

Torque = Force F x Perpendicular Distance between the Two Parallel Forces

= F x d sin θ

• The unit of torque is the newton-metre (N m).

• An example of the torque of a couple at work: turning a tap

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Example 6

Calculate the torque of the couple.

10 sin 30°
20 N 10 m
30°

20 N

D Equilibrium of Forces

• A system may consist either

1. a point mass (body has no dimension), or

2. an extended mass (body has dimension).

D.1 Point Mass

From Newton’s
• For a point mass (body with no dimension), the condition for equilibrium is: Law, it therefore
implies that when
a point mass is in
Resultant force must be zero (Translational Equilibrium) translational
equilibrium, it is
either at rest or
• There are 2 methods to solve a problem involving a point mass in equilibrium: moving with
constant velocity.

1. Method 1 (Force Diagram)

Force diagram must form a closed polygon.

2. Method 2 (Resolving Forces)

Vector sum of forces in any direction = 0
For example, vector sum of forces in x-direction = 0
vector sum of forces in y-direction = 0

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Example 7

A body of weight 200 N is suspended by two cords, A and B as shown below. Determine the
tension in each cord.

Cord B
30˚
Cord A

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D.2 Extended Mass (or rigid body)

• For an extended mass (body with dimensions) or a system in general, the conditions for When an object
equilibrium are: is at rest (no
translation or
rotation), the
object is said to
1. No resultant force (Translational Equilibrium) be in static
2. No resultant torque about any point (or axis) (Rotational Equilibrium) equilibrium (and
the 2 conditions
must be met).
• To solve problems involving an extended mass, the principle of moments may be applied. The same
conditions apply
to an object in
uniform
• The principle of moments states that for a system in equilibrium, there is no resultant translational
moment about any point (or axis). In other words, the sum of the clockwise moments about motion (without
rotation) such
any point (or axis) must be equal to the sum of anticlockwise moments about that same as an airplane
point (or axis). in flight with
constant speed,
direction and
altitude. Such a
Consider a uniform beam of weight W and length L hanging from the ceiling, supported by body is in
two ropes as shown in the figure below. equilibrium but
is not static.
ceiling

rope 1 rope 2
0.75 L
α β

Draw a Free Body Diagram (FBD) of the beam and identify the forces acting on the beam.
T2

T1
0.75 L
β
α

When applying
Resolving the tension forces and applying translational equilibrium (condition 1), we have: Condition 2, the
condition holds
[horizontal direction → +ve ] ∑ Fx = 0 true for any
point (or axis)
➔ T2 cos β – T1 cos α = 0 …………… [1] that you take
moments about.
[vertical direction  +ve] ∑ Fy = 0 It need not
➔ T1 sin α + T2 sin β – W = 0 ………...[2] necessarily be
the cg, and for
Using principle of moments and taking moments about the centre of gravity (applying that matter, the
point (axis)
rotational equilibrium, condition 2), we have: need not be on
∑ Mcg = 0 ➔ (T1 sin α) (0.5 L) – (T2 sin β) (0.25 L) = 0 ………………...[3] the object.

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Example 8

A hungry bear weighing 700 N walks out on a beam in an attempt to retrieve some “goodies”
hanging at the end of the beam. The beam is uniform, weighs 200 N, and is 6.00 m long. The
goodies weigh 80.0 N.

wire
60 0
H
goodies

(a) By drawing a labelled free body diagram of the beam, determine the tension in the wire
when the bear is at a distance of 1.00 m away from hinge H.
(b) Determine the force from the hinge when the bear is at this distance.

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ANDERSON SERANGOON JUNIOR COLLEGE
PHYSICS 9749

D.3 Equilibrium of Rigid Body under Three Concurrent Forces

The converse is
not necessarily
• When an extended mass (rigid body) true, ie if there
are 3 concurrent
1. is in equilibrium and forces acting on
an object, the
2. there are only 3 coplanar non-parallel forces acting on the body object may not
necessarily be
in equilibrium.
the forces must be concurrent forces (forces whose lines of action pass through a single You have to
point). check if the net
force acting on
the object is
zero.

Example 9

A uniform beam shown below is in equilibrium. It is supported by a wire and a rough wall.
Which of the following forces correctly show the direction of the force exerted by the wall on
the beam?

wall

D
tension A

B C

weight

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ANDERSON SERANGOON JUNIOR COLLEGE
PHYSICS 9749

Example 10

A non-uniform rod of length 1.0 metre is held horizontally in place by two inextensible strings.

(a) Without calculation, indicate the location of the centre of gravity of the rod in the diagram
below.
(b) If 1 = 30, 2 = 45 and the weight of the rod is 30 N, calculate the distance of the centre
of gravity from end A of the rod.

string 1 string 2
θ1 θ2
end A end B
rod

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ANDERSON SERANGOON JUNIOR COLLEGE
PHYSICS 9749

SUMMARY
Term Definition
Hooke's Law Provided the proportionality limit is not exceeded, the extension (or
compression) of a body is proportional to the applied load.
Archimedes’ principle For a submerged or floating object in a fluid, it experiences an upthrust
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the weight of fluid
displaced.
Principle of Flotation For an object floating in equilibrium, the upthrust is equal in magnitude
and opposite in direction to the weight of the object.
Centre of gravity The point at which the whole weight of that body may be considered to
act.
Moment of a force (about Moment is the turning effect of a force and is calculated as the product
a point) of the force and the perpendicular distance of the line of action of the
force from the pivot.
Couple Two equal and opposite parallel forces whose lines of action do not
coincide.

Torque of a couple Torque of a couple is the turning effect of a couple and is calculated as
the product of one of the forces and the perpendicular distance between
the forces.
Conditions for a system 1. No resultant force.
to be in equilibrium 2. No resultant torque about any point (or axis).
Principle of Moments The principle of moments states that for a system in equilibrium, there is
no resultant moment about any point (or axis). In other words, the sum
of the clockwise moments about any point (or axis) must be equal to the
sum of anticlockwise moments about that same point (or axis).

IMPORTANT EQUATIONS

Hooke's Law F = kx F = tension in the spring

k = spring constant
x = extension/compression of the spring
Elastic Potential 1 2 k = spring constant
Ee = kx
Energy (Ee ) 2 x = extension/compression of the spring

Pressure (P) F F = force acting perpendicularly on unit area

P= A= area
A
h = depth of fluid
P = h g
 = density of fluid
Upthrust U = Vρg U == gravitational
g upthrust acceleration
V = volume of fluid displaced by object
 = density of fluid
g = gravitational acceleration

Moment m = F d m = moment
F = applied force
d = perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force
to the pivot

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ANDERSON SERANGOON JUNIOR COLLEGE
PHYSICS 9749

APPENDIX

Spring that has exceeded the limit of elasticity

P, Limit of Proportionality
Note that E, Limit of Elasticity
exceeding
limit of Force / N
proportionality
just means
force no
longer
proportional
to extension,
does not
imply object
cannot return A
to original B
length. Only
when you
exceed limit
of elasticity
will there be O Extension or
permanent
deformation. compression/ cm

o Beyond the limit of elasticity, the spring will not return to its original length even when
applied force to extend it is removed.

o Area A + B represents the work done necessary to extend the elastic material.

o Area B represents the energy released when the applied force to extend it is released.
This is also the elastic potential energy stored within the elastic material.

o Not all the work done was transformed into elastic potential energy stored within the
elastic material. The energy which was not transformed is represented by area A. This
amount of energy is used to cause deformation of the material and is also converted
into heat.

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ANDERSON SERANGOON JUNIOR COLLEGE
PHYSICS 9749

Finding Centre of Gravity

A uniform L-shape body of dimensions in centimetres is placed on Cartesian plane as shown.

The following steps show how the coordinates of the location of centre of the gravity of the
body is obtained.

y / cm

10

0 2 14 x / cm

Consider that the block is made of two parts A and B.

Let t be the thickness of the block, ρ be the density of the body

y / cm
8
10
B
8
A

weight
of B

0 2 14 x / cm

1
weight of A
Consider the x-direction, taking moment about the origin (0, 0)
Moment due to weight of A + Moment due to weight of B
= Moment due to the weight of the block
(10 × 2)(t ρ g)(1) + (12 × 2)( t ρ g)(8) = (10 × 2 + 12 × 2) t ρ g x
x = 4.8

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ANDERSON SERANGOON JUNIOR COLLEGE
PHYSICS 9749

9 x / cm
14

2
A
y / cm 10 8 5 0
weight
of B weight of A

Consider the y-direction, taking moment about the origin (0, 0)

Moment due to weight of A + Moment due to weight of B
= Moment due to the weight of the block
(10 × 2)(t ρ g)(5) + (12 × 2)( t ρ g)(9) = (10 × 2 + 12 × 2) t ρ g y
y = 7.2

Coordinates of the location of centre of the gravity of the body is (4.8, 7.2)

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