10 QUESTIONS AT A TIME:-

1.WHAT IS BUS TOPOLOGY?

Bus Topology

Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network

device is connected to a single cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point
connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the
topology crashes. In Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control)
protocols are followed by LAN ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha,
CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.

Bus Topology

Figure 3: A bus topology with shared backbone cable. The nodes are connected
to the channel via drop lines.

Advantages of Bus Topology

If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of
cables required to connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop
lines are required.

Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that
support up to 10 Mbps.
The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build
small networks.

Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting

techniques are well known.

CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.

Drawbacks of Bus Topology

A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.

If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.

If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid

this, various protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted
Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.

Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.

Security is very low.

A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices are
connected to a single coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. This topology is also
used in cable television networks. For more, refer to the Advantages and
Disadvantages of Bus Topology.

2.COMPARE BUS AND STAR TOPOLOGY

S.NO. Star Topology Bus Topology

Bus topology is a topology

Star topology is a topology in
where each device is connected
which all devices are connected to
to a single cable which is known
a central hub.
1. as the backbone.
S.NO. Star Topology Bus Topology

In a Bus topology, the failure of

In star topology, if the central hub
the network cable will cause the
fails then the whole network fails.
2. whole network to fail.

In star topology, there is a non- In a bus topology, there is a

linear arrangement of nodes in a linear arrangement of nodes in a
3. network. network.

Bus topology can not effectively

Management of high traffic and manage a terminator’s high
performance of the network is amount of traffic as if there is
highly dependent on the capacity high traffic then the
of the central hub. performance of the network is
4. affected.

Star topology does not have any Bus topology has a terminators
5. terminator. at both ends of the network.

Star topology has a high

implementation cost because of Bus topology is less expensive
the central hub and extra wires than a star topology.
6. required for connection.

7. Data transmission is faster in a star In a Bus topology, the data is

topology. transmitted slower as compared
S.NO. Star Topology Bus Topology

to a star topology.

In star topology the

communication between nodes is
In a Bus topology, the data from
done through a central hub, a
a sender device to a receiver
message from the sender node
device is sent directly.
reaches the central hub first then it
8. is transmitted to the receiver node.

Expansion of network i.e.

Expansion is easier.
9. addition of new node is difficult.

Fault identification and isolation Fault identification and isolation

10. are relatively easier. are not easier.

11. Chances of data collision are less, Data collisions occur frequently

The signal transmission is not The signal transmission is

12. unidirectional. unidirectional.

Less chances of data collision in High chances of data collision

13. star topology. in bus topology.

14. Examples- Examples-

Star topology is frequently used in

S.NO. Star Topology Bus Topology

Ethernet networks

high-speed LANs. The bus topology can be used

for the further incorporate I/O
Homes and workplaces frequently
devices like printers, scanners or
employ star topologies.
others in a network at
home/workplace.

3.WHAT IS STAR TOPOLOGY?

STAR TOPOPLOGY IS A TYPE OF NETWORK IN WHICH EACH DEVICE

IN THE NETWORK IN CONNECTED TO ONE SERVER KNOWN AS HUB
OR SWITCH.

THIS CENTRAL DEVICE ACT S A CONNECTION POINT FOR ALL

OTHER DEVICES IN THE NETWORK. THJE HUB CAN BE EITHER
SIMPLY BROADING DEVICES OR HAVING REPEATERS IN THEM.CO-
AXIAL CABLE OR RJ-45 ARE TYPICALLY USED FOR CONNECTING
LINK BETWEEN DEVICES AND HUB.

VARIOUS ETHERNET LAN PROTOCOLS LIKE CD(COLLISION

DETECTION)AND CSMA ARE USED
ADVANTAGE:-

Advantages of Star Topology

Easy to Set Up: Star topologies are relatively easy to set up, as each device only
requires one connection to the hub. This makes installation straightforward
(Techopedia).

Robustness: Star topologies are robust because if one link fails, only that link is
affected and not others. This makes them more reliable than bus topologies
(Wikipedia).

Fault Identification and Isolation: With each device having a dedicated

connection to the hub, faults are easy to identify and isolate. This simplifies
troubleshooting and maintenance (Computer Hope).

Cost-Effective: Star topologies can be cost-effective as they often use

inexpensive coaxial cable. However, the overall cost can be higher due to the
need for a central hub or switch.

Drawbacks of Star Topology

Dependence on Central Device: The network is dependent on the central hub or
switch. If this device fails, the entire system will go down. This makes star
topologies less reliable than ring or mesh topologies, which have multiple paths
for data to travel (Telecom ABC).

High Installation Cost: While the cabling itself may be inexpensive, the overall
cost of installation can be high due to the need for a central hub or switch.
Additionally, more cables are required compared to bus topologies.

Performance: The performance of the network is based on the single

concentrator (hub). If the hub becomes bottlenecked, it can impact the
performance of the entire network.

Examples of Star Topology

Local Area Networks (LANs): A common example of a star topology is a LAN

in an office where all computers are connected to a central hub. This allows
devices to share the bandwidth of the hub and communicate with each other
(TechTarget).

Wireless Networks: Star topologies are also used in wireless networks where all
devices are connected to a wireless access point (AP). The AP acts as the
central hub, connecting devices to the wired network (Javatpoint).

4.COMPARE STAR AND RING

Difference between Star and Ring Topology:

S.
No. Star topology Ring Topology

1. In star topology, the nodes are In ring topology, every node is

S.
No. Star topology Ring Topology

connected to the central hub or connected to its left and right side
router. nodes.

In star topology, the only hub is In-ring topology, every node are
2. the failure point. failure point.

3. The cost of star topology is high. The cost of ring topology is low.

In star topology, the information In-ring topology, the information is

is travel from the central hub or travel from nodes to nodes in a ring
4. router to all the nodes. manner in one direction.

The cables are required in star The cables are required in ring
topology more than the ring topology less than the star
5. topology. topology.

There are also n links in a ring

There are n links in Star
topology if there are n nodes
topology if there are n nodes.
6. present.

Whereas to add a new node in a

A new cable is added to the
ring topology, the connection must
central hub to add a new node.
7. be broken.
S.
No. Star topology Ring Topology

In Star topology, the addition

In-ring topology, the addition, and
and removal of new nodes are
removal of new nodes are difficult.
8. moderately difficult.

Star topology is used for local Ring topology is used for Wide
9. Area Network Area Network

The ring topology access rate is

Star topology access rate is fast.
10. slow.

Star topology transmission speed Ring topology transmission speed

11. is fast. is slow.

Applications-
Applications-
Used in SONET rings
High-speed LANs.
(Synchronous Optical Networks).
Usually employed in small size
Deployed in LAN and MAN and
networks, and more.
12. more.

Draw diagram in difference as well

5.Ring Topology:-
Ring topology is a type of network configuration where devices are connected
in a circular manner, forming a closed loop. Each device is connected to exactly
two other devices, forming a single continuous pathway for signals through
each node (Wikipedia). Data travels from one node to the next, around the ring,
until it reaches its destination.

Advantages of Ring Topology

Equal Access: Ring topologies emphasize equal access to network resources, as

all devices are arranged in a circular pattern (CBT Nuggets).

Reliability: Ring topologies are often used where high reliability and fault
tolerance are the highest priority, such as in satellite networks (Mindsensors).

Low Chance of Collisions: In a ring topology, the chances of data collisions are
low compared to bus topologies, as data travels in a circular path (Javatpoint).
Drawbacks of Ring Topology

Single Point of Failure: Because a unidirectional ring topology provides only

one pathway between any two nodes, the failure of a single link or node can
disrupt the entire network. A node failure or cable break might isolate every
node attached to the ring, causing communication to stop (Wikipedia).

Difficult Fault Isolation: If a fault does occur, it can be difficult to isolate and
troubleshoot due to the circular nature of the network.

Installation and Management: Ring topologies can be more complex to install

and manage compared to star or bus topologies. Adding or removing devices
requires breaking the ring, which can impact the entire network.

Examples of Ring Topology

FDDI Networks: One example of a ring topology is a Fiber Distributed Data

Interface (FDDI) network, which uses a dual ring for redundancy. If one ring
fails, the network can automatically switch to the other ring to maintain
connectivity.

SONET/SDH Networks: Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET) and

Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) networks also use a ring topology to
provide high-speed, fault-tolerant connections between nodes. These networks
are commonly used by telecommunications providers.

6. What are Internetworking Devices?

Internetworking devices are hardware components that connect different

network resources to create an internetwork. These devices enable
communication between devices on different networks, allowing resources such
as printers, servers, and storage devices to be shared (Techopedia).
Internetworking devices operate at various layers of the OSI model, depending
on their function.

Types of Internetworking Devices

Hubs/Repeaters: These devices regenerate signals to extend the distance of a

network. They operate at Layer 1 (Physical) of the OSI model and pass all data,
creating a single collision domain (Rutgers University).

Bridges: Bridges sort packets by MAC addresses and operate at Layer 2 (Data
Link) of the OSI model. They connect two or more networks together, dividing
a larger network into smaller segments to improve performance (Rutgers
University).

Switches: Switches are multi-port bridges that connect multiple devices within a
network. They operate at Layer 2 (Data Link) of the OSI model and forward
packets based on MAC addresses (GeeksforGeeks).

Routers: Routers connect multiple networks together and route packets between
them. They operate at Layer 3 (Network) of the OSI model and forward packets
based on IP addresses (GeeksforGeeks).

Gateways: Gateways connect networks that use different protocols, performing

any necessary translation. They operate at multiple layers of the OSI model,
depending on the specific protocols in use (GeeksforGeeks).

Modems: Modems (Modulator-Demodulator) connect a network to the Internet

over a broadband connection, such as cable or DSL. They convert digital data
from the network into analog signals for transmission over the broadband line,
and vice versa (GeeksforGeeks).

Let's Take a Closer Look at Routers

Routers are a critical type of internetworking device. They connect multiple

networks together and route packets between them, allowing devices on
different networks to communicate. Routers operate at Layer 3 (Network) of the
OSI model and forward packets based on IP addresses.

Here's how routers work:

Routing Tables: Routers maintain routing tables that map IP addresses to

specific network interfaces. These tables are built dynamically through routing
protocols like OSPF and EIGRP.

Packet Forwarding: When a router receives a packet, it examines the destination

IP address and consults its routing table to determine where to forward the
packet.

Network Address Translation (NAT): Routers often perform NAT to allow

multiple devices on a private network to share a single public IP address when
accessing the Internet.

Routers come in various forms, from small, home routers to large, enterprise
routers with many interfaces. They provide network address translation,
firewalling, and other advanced features to secure and manage network traffic.

7.What is RLE with example?

What is Run-Length Encoding (RLE)?

Run-Length Encoding (RLE) is a form of lossless data compression in which
runs of data (sequences in which the same data value occurs in many
consecutive data elements) are stored as a single data value and count, rather
than as the original run (Wikipedia). RLE is a simple yet effective method for
compressing data that contains sequences of repeated values.

How Does RLE Work?

RLE works by scanning through the data and identifying consecutive sequences
of the same value. Once a sequence is detected, it is replaced with a pair
consisting of the count of the consecutive values and the value itself. For
example, if a sequence of 10 zeros is found, it can be encoded as (10, 0)
(Dremio).

Example of RLE

Let's consider a simple example to illustrate how RLE works. Suppose we have
the following binary data string:

AAAAABBBCCCDDDD

Using RLE, this string would be compressed as follows:

(5, A)(3, B)(3, C)(4, D)

In this example, each sequence of repeated characters is replaced with a pair

containing the count of consecutive occurrences and the character itself. The
compressed data requires less space than the original data, illustrating the
compression achieved by RLE.

Advantages and Disadvantages of RLE

RLE has several advantages that make it a useful compression technique in

certain scenarios:

Simple to Implement: RLE is a very simple algorithm to implement, both for

encoding and decoding.

Lossless Compression: RLE is a lossless compression technique, meaning the

original data can be perfectly restored from the compressed data.

Efficient for Repetitive Data: RLE is highly effective for compressing data that
contains long runs of repeated values.

However, RLE also has some disadvantages:

Inefficient for Non-Repetitive Data: If the data does not contain many
sequences of repeated values, RLE may not achieve much compression. In fact,
in the worst case, RLE can actually increase the size of the data.
Not Suitable for Complex Data: RLE is not well-suited for compressing
complex data types like images or audio, which require more sophisticated
compression algorithms.

8.UDP HEADER

UDP Header

UDP header is an 8-byte fixed and simple header, while for TCP it may vary
from 20 bytes to 60 bytes. The first 8 Bytes contain all necessary header
information and the remaining part consists of data. UDP port number fields are
each 16 bits long, therefore the range for port numbers is defined from 0 to
65535; port number 0 is reserved. Port numbers help to distinguish different
user requests or processes.

UDP Header

Source Port: Source Port is a 2 Byte long field used to identify the port number
of the source.

Destination Port: It is a 2 Byte long field, used to identify the port of the
destined packet.

Length: Length is the length of UDP including the header and the data. It is a
16-bits field.
Checksum: Checksum is 2 Bytes long field. It is the 16-bit one’s complement of
the one’s complement sum of the UDP header, the pseudo-header of
information from the IP header, and the data, padded with zero octets at the end
(if necessary) to make a multiple of two octets.

Notes – Unlike TCP, the Checksum calculation is not mandatory in UDP. No

Error control or flow control is provided by UDP. Hence UDP depends on IP
and ICMP for error reporting. Also UDP provides port numbers so that is can
differentiate between users requests.

9.Differences between OSI Model and TCP/IP Model

Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP stands for

OSI stands for Open
Transmission Control
Full Form Systems
Protocol/Internet
Interconnection.
Protocol.

Layers It has 7 layers. It has 4 layers.

Usage It is low in usage. It is mostly used.

It is vertically It is horizontally
Approach
approached. approached.

Delivery of the package Delivery of the package

Delivery is guaranteed in OSI is not guaranteed in
Model. TCP/IP Model.
Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Replacement of tools Replacing the tools is not

Replacement and changes can easily easy as it is in OSI
be done in this model. Model.

It is less reliable than It is more reliable than

Reliability
TCP/IP Model. OSI Model.

10. SMTP
SMTP is an application layer protocol. The client who wants to send the mail
opens a TCP connection to the SMTP server and then sends the mail across the
connection. The SMTP server is an always-on listening mode. As soon as it
listens for a TCP connection from any client, the SMTP process initiates a
connection through port 25. After successfully establishing a TCP connection the
client process sends the mail instantly.

SMTP

SMTP Protocol

The SMTP model is of two types:

End-to-End Method
Store-and-Forward Method

The end-to-end model is used to communicate between different organizations

whereas the store and forward method is used within an organization. An SMTP
client who wants to send the mail will contact the destination’s host SMTP
directly, to send the mail to the destination. The SMTP server will keep the mail
to itself until it is successfully copied to the receiver’s SMTP.
The client SMTP is the one that initiates the session so let us call it the client-
SMTP and the server SMTP is the one that responds to the session request so let
us call it receiver-SMTP. The client-SMTP will start the session and the
receiver SMTP will respond to the request.

Model of SMTP System

In the SMTP model user deals with the user agent (UA), for example, Microsoft
Outlook, Netscape, Mozilla, etc. To exchange the mail using TCP, MTA is
used. The user sending the mail doesn’t have to deal with MTA as it is the
responsibility of the system admin to set up a local MTA. The MTA maintains a
small queue of mail so that it can schedule repeat delivery of mail in case the
receiver is not available. The MTA delivers the mail to the mailboxes and the
information can later be downloaded by the user agents.
SMTP Model

Components of SMTP

Mail User Agent (MUA): It is a computer application that helps you in sending
and retrieving mail. It is responsible for creating email messages for transfer to
the mail transfer agent(MTA).

Mail Submission Agent (MSA): It is a computer program that receives mail

from a Mail User Agent(MUA) and interacts with the Mail Transfer
Agent(MTA) for the transfer of the mail.

Mail Transfer Agent (MTA): It is software that has the work to transfer mail
from one system to another with the help of SMTP.

Mail Delivery Agent (MDA): A mail Delivery agent or Local Delivery Agent is
basically a system that helps in the delivery of mail to the local system.

Working of SMTP

Below mentioned are the steps of the working of SMTP [Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol].

Communication between the sender and the receiver: The sender’s user agent
prepares the message and sends it to the MTA. The MTA’s responsibility is to
transfer the mail across the network to the receiver’s MTA. To send mail, a
system must have a client MTA, and to receive mail, a system must have a
server MTA.

Sending Emails: Mail is sent by a series of request and response messages

between the client and the server. The message which is sent across consists of
a header and a body. A null line is used to terminate the mail header and
everything after the null line is considered the body of the message, which is a
sequence of ASCII characters. The message body contains the actual
information read by the receipt.
Receiving Emails: The user agent on the server-side checks the mailboxes at a
particular time of intervals. If any information is received, it informs the user
about the mail. When the user tries to read the mail it displays a list of emails
with a short description of each mail in the mailbox. By selecting any of the
mail users can view its contents on the terminal.

Working of SMTP

Some SMTP Commands

HELO: Identifies the client to the server, fully qualified domain name, only sent
once per session

MAIL: Initiate a message transfer, the fully qualified domain of the originator

RCPT: Follows MAIL, identifies an addressee, typically the fully qualified

name of the addressee, and for multiple addressees use one RCPT for each
addressee

DATA: Send data line by line