Multiple Access

Figure Data link layer divided into two functionality-oriented sublayers

Figure Taxonomy of multiple-access protocols discussed in this chapter
RANDOM ACCESS

In random access or contention methods, no station is

superior to another station and none is assigned the
control over another. No station permits, or does not
permit, another station to send. At each instance, a
station that has data to send uses a procedure defined
by the protocol to make a decision on whether or not to
send.
Topics discussed in this section:
ALOHA
Carrier Sense Multiple Access
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance
 RANDOM ACCESS
In a random access method, each station has the right to the medium
without being controlled by any other station. However, if more than
one station tries to send, there is an access conflict-collision-and the
frames will be either destroyed or modified. To avoid access conflict or
to resolve it when it happens, each station follows a procedure that
answers the following questions:
• When can the station access the medium?
• What can the station do if the medium is busy?
• How can the station determine the success or failure of the
transmission?
• What can the station do if there is an access conflict?
Figure Frames in a pure ALOHA network
Frames in a pure ALOHA network

• The pure ALOHA protocol relies on acknowledgments

from the receiver.

• When a station sends a frame, it expects the receiver to

send an acknowledgment.

• If the acknowledgment does not arrive after a time-out

period, the station assumes that the frame (or the
acknowledgment) has been destroyed and resends the
frame.
Figure Procedure for pure ALOHA protocol
 Example 1

The stations on a wireless ALOHA network are a

maximum of 600 km apart. If we assume that signals
propagate at 3 × 108 m/s, we find
Tp = (600 × 105 ) / (3 × 108 ) = 2 ms.
Now we can find the value of TB for different values of
K.

a. For K = 1, the range is {0, 1}. The station needs to|

generate a random number with a value of 0 or 1. This
means that TB is either 0 ms (0 × 2) or 2 ms (1 × 2),
based on the outcome of the random variable.
 Example 12.1 (continued)

b. For K = 2, the range is {0, 1, 2, 3}. This means that TB

can be 0, 2, 4, or 6 ms, based on the outcome of the
random variable.

c. For K = 3, the range is {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. This

means that TB can be 0, 2, 4, . . . , 14 ms, based on the
outcome of the random variable.

d. We need to mention that if K > 10, it is normally set to

10.
Figure Vulnerable time for pure ALOHA protocol
 Example 2

A pure ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a

shared channel of 200 kbps. What is the requirement to
make this frame collision-free?

Solution
Average frame transmission time Tfr is 200 bits/200 kbps or
1 ms. The vulnerable time is 2 × 1 ms = 2 ms. This means
no station should send later than 1 ms before this station
starts transmission and no station should start sending
during the one 1-ms period that this station is sending.
Note

The throughput for pure ALOHA is

S = G × e −2G .
The maximum throughput
Smax = 0.184 when G= (1/2).
 Example 3
A pure ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a
shared channel of 200 kbps. What is the throughput if the
system (all stations together) produces
a. 1000 frames per second b. 500 frames per second
c. 250 frames per second.
Solution
The frame transmission time is 200/200 kbps or 1 ms.
a. If the system creates 1000 frames per second, this is 1
frame per millisecond. The load is 1. In this case
S = G× e−2 G or S = 0.135 (13.5 percent). This means
that the throughput is 1000 × 0.135 = 135 frames. Only
135 frames out of 1000 will probably survive.
 Example 3 (continued)
b. If the system creates 500 frames per second, this is
(1/2) frame per millisecond. The load is (1/2). In this
case S = G × e −2G or S = 0.184 (18.4 percent). This
means that the throughput is 500 × 0.184 = 92 and that
only 92 frames out of 500 will probably survive. Note
that this is the maximum throughput case,
percentagewise.

c. If the system creates 250 frames per second, this is (1/4)

frame per millisecond. The load is (1/4). In this case
S = G × e −2G or S = 0.152 (15.2 percent). This means
that the throughput is 250 × 0.152 = 38. Only 38
frames out of 250 will probably survive.
Figure 6 Frames in a slotted ALOHA network
Note

The throughput for slotted ALOHA is

S = G × e−G .
The maximum throughput
Smax = 0.368 when G = 1.
Figure 7 Vulnerable time for slotted ALOHA protocol
 Example 4
A slotted ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a
shared channel of 200 kbps. What is the throughput if the
system (all stations together) produces
a. 1000 frames per second b. 500 frames per second
c. 250 frames per second.
Solution
The frame transmission time is 200/200 kbps or 1 ms.
a. If the system creates 1000 frames per second, this is 1
frame per millisecond. The load is 1. In this case
S = G× e−G or S = 0.368 (36.8 percent). This means
that the throughput is 1000 × 0.0368 = 368 frames.
Only 386 frames out of 1000 will probably survive.
 Example 4 (continued)
b. If the system creates 500 frames per second, this is
(1/2) frame per millisecond. The load is (1/2). In this
case S = G × e−G or S = 0.303 (30.3 percent). This
means that the throughput is 500 × 0.0303 = 151.
Only 151 frames out of 500 will probably survive.

c. If the system creates 250 frames per second, this is (1/4)

frame per millisecond. The load is (1/4). In this case
S = G × e −G or S = 0.195 (19.5 percent). This means
that the throughput is 250 × 0.195 = 49. Only 49
frames out of 250 will probably survive.
Figure 8 Space/time model of the collision in CSMA
Figure 9 Vulnerable time in CSMA
Figure 10 Behavior of three persistence methods
Figure 11 Flow diagram for three persistence methods
Figure 12 Collision of the first bit in CSMA/CD
Figure 13 Collision and abortion in CSMA/CD
Minimum Frame Size
• For CSMAlCD to work, we need a restriction on the frame size.
Before sending the last bit of the frame, the sending station must
detect a collision, if any, and abort the transmission.
• This is so because the station, once the entire frame is sent, does not
keep a copy of the frame and does not monitor the line for collision
detection. Therefore, the frame transmission time Tfr must be at least
two times the maximum propagation time Tp.
• To understand the reason, let us think about the worst-case scenario. If
the two stations involved in a collision are the maximum distance
apart, the signal from the first takes time Tp to reach the second, and
the effect of the collision takes another time Tp to reach the first.
• The requirement is that the first station must still be transmitting after
2Tp .
 Example 5

A network using CSMA/CD has a bandwidth of 10 Mbps.

If the maximum propagation time (including the delays in
the devices and ignoring the time needed to send a
jamming signal, as we see later) is 25.6 μs, what is the
minimum size of the frame?
Solution
The frame transmission time is Tfr = 2 × Tp = 51.2 μs.
This means, in the worst case, a station needs to transmit
for a period of 51.2 μs to detect the collision. The
minimum size of the frame is 10 Mbps × 51.2 μs = 512
bits or 64 bytes. This is actually the minimum size of the
frame for Standard Ethernet.
Figure 14 Flow diagram for the CSMA/CD
Figure 15 Energy level during transmission, idleness, or collision
Figure 16 Timing in CSMA/CA
Note

In CSMA/CA, the IFS can also be used to

define the priority of a station or a frame.
Note

In CSMA/CA, if the station finds the

channel busy, it does not restart the
timer of the contention window;
it stops the timer and restarts it when
the channel becomes idle.
Figure 17 Flow diagram for CSMA/CA
CONTROLLED ACCESS

In controlled access, the stations consult one another

to find which station has the right to send. A station
cannot send unless it has been authorized by other
stations. We discuss three popular controlled-access
methods.

Topics discussed in this section:

Reservation
Polling
Token Passing
Figure 18 Reservation access method
Figure 19 Select and poll functions in polling access method
Figure 20 Logical ring and physical topology in token-passing access method
CHANNELIZATION

Channelization is a multiple-access method in which

the available bandwidth of a link is shared in time,
frequency, or through code, between different stations.
In this section, we discuss three channelization
protocols.

Topics discussed in this section:

Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Figure 21 Frequency-division multiple access (FDMA)
Note

In FDMA, the available bandwidth

of the common channel is divided into
bands that are separated by guard
bands.
Figure 22 Time-division multiple access (TDMA)
Note

In TDMA, the bandwidth is just one

channel that is timeshared between
different stations.
Note

In CDMA, one channel carries all

transmissions simultaneously.
Figure 23 Simple idea of communication with code
Figure 24 Chip sequences
Figure 25 Data representation in CDMA
Figure 26 Sharing channel in CDMA
Figure 27 Digital signal created by four stations in CDMA
Figure 28 Decoding of the composite signal for one in CDMA