University of Petroleum & Energy Studies,

Dehradun Centre for Continuing Education

BCA-1 st Semester Assignment
#1 Subject- Network Basics Assignment -2

Max Marks. 100 Attempt all the questions

Question 1. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of layered protocol in detail.

Answer 1: Advantages:

Modularization and simplification: Breaks down systematic, complex co

mmunication processes into small, manageable tasks. Each layer focuses on
a specific function and makes it easier to understand, use and solve problem
s independently without affecting other processes. This modularization desig
n makes maintenance and upgrades easier.

Interoperability: The standard framework supports interoperability of diffe

rent systems and devices. Since each layer has its own communication proto
cols and protocols, devices from different companies or different software c
an communicate effectively if they follow the same standards at each layer.
This design allows different components to be integrated into a unified netw
ork.

Encapsulation: Layered systems use encapsulation to add appropriate contr

ol information to each layer. Information from layers is encapsulated in head
ers or fragments when it moves through the stack process, and headers and f
ragments contain the basic information for processing and routing the infor
mation. Encapsulation ensures that each layer can focus on its specific task
without worrying about the details of other layers.

Easy to manage and reliable: Tiered systems make maintenance and upgra
des easier. As long as the interface between the processes still exists, change
s or improvements can be implemented in a process without affecting the pe
rformance of other processes. This change also makes it easier to introduce
new technologies or processes without needing to overhaul the entire system
.

Efficiency: Process systems promote the efficient use of resources by allowi

ng different processes to work independently and together. For example, the
network layer is responsible for sending and forwarding packets, while the tr
ansport layer can handle end-to-end communication. This combination incre
ases overall physical activity and endurance.

Disadvantages:

Load: Layered systems may introduce additional overhead due to data enca
psulation at each layer. Each layer adds its own header, trailer, and control d
ata to the original data, increasing the overall size of the transmitted packet.
This overhead can impact network performance, especially in bandwidth-
limited or resource-constrained environments.

Complexity: Although layering makes communication easier to create and

manage, it can be complex, especially when the interaction effects of the lay
ers are difficult or difficult to understand. Debugging and troubleshooting co
mmunication problems may require a detailed understanding of the interacti
ons between multiple layers, which can be difficult in complex systems.

Flexibility: Rigid separation of layers sometimes leads to inflexibility in ada

pting to specific requirements or optimizations. Customizing or optimizing o
ne layer may require changes to several layers to ensure consistency and co
mpatibility; This increases development time and complexity.

Performance Impact: Additional processing required for each layer and op

eration can impact performance, especially in real-time or high-end applicati
ons. Remember that delay is very important. The overhead reported by the s
ystem can become significant, especially in constrained environments or wh
en processing large amounts of data.

Question 2: Discuss your understanding of access control facilitated by data link layer
in detail.
Answer 2:

Access control via the data link layer often involves controlling access to ph
ysical media, such as shared networks or wireless
channels across multiple network access points. This system provides a mec
hanism to manage access to shared media from multiple devices, preventing
conflicts and ensuring efficient and fair use of network resources. The two
main access control methods used by the data link layer are argument-based
access and control access.

Content-based access:

CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection): In Et

hernet, CSMA/CD is mainly used for storage management. Before sending,
the device listens to the medium to check if it is active (carrier sensing). If th
e environment is busy, the device waits for a random period of time and trie
s again. If more than one device tries to transmit at the same time, a conflict
occurs. In CSMA/CD, the device detects collisions by listening for message
s during transmission. When a collision is detected, the device immediately
stops, waits for the time to expire, and then sends it back.
CSMA/CA (Carrier Aware Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance):
CSMA/CA, used in wireless networks, is similar to CSMA/CD, but uses a d
ifferent method because it cannot interfere with traffic in the wireless enviro
nment. The device detects the medium before transmitting and waits to see i
f the medium is busy. After average failure, the device waits for recovery ti
me to further reduce collision. If the media is still inactive during this time, t
he device will send its data.
Token Migration: In a token migration network such as Token Ring, acces
s to media is tightly controlled by the token passed through the ring of the n
etwork. Only the device holding the token is allowed to send it, making the s
ign-in decision seamless. After sending the data, the device releases the toke
n, allowing the next device in the logical ring to capture it and send its data.
This approach guarantees fairness and prevents conflicts but requires additio
nal token management.
Reservation
Based protocols: These protocols allow the use of a specific device for a sp
ecific period of time. Devices negotiate access to media by sending specific
requests to a central authority or through a decentralized system. When spec
ial permission is obtained, the device is given a special period of time for tra
nsmission, ensuring access and preventing conflicts.
Management of the data link layer plays an important role in managing netw
ork resources, preventing data conflicts and ensuring network security. Fair
access to all media sharing devices. Different access control methods are use
d depending on the specific needs of the network topology, media types and
performance requirements.

Question 3: Describe the functionality of transport layer.

Answer 3:

The transport protocol is the fourth layer of the OSI (Open Systems Intercon
nect) model and the TCP/IP (Communications Control Protocol/Internet Pro
tocol) protocol family. It plays an important role in facilitating efficient and
effective communication between processes carried out between different ne
twork member The main functions of the transport layer include:

Segmentation and reassembly: The transport layer breaks data received fro
m the upper layer (such as the application layer) into smaller pieces called s
egments or data packets. Segmentation allows large blocks of data to be tran
smitted efficiently over the network. When the end is received, the transport
layer converts this piece of data into the original data and passes it to the up
per layer.
Link creation, maintenance, and termination: The transport system provi
des a mechanism for establishing, maintaining, and terminating communicat
ion links. This is especially important for connection-oriented protocols suc
h as TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) that enable reliable, deterministic
and undetectable data transfers. Networking involves a three-way collaborati
on where customers exchange changes and advice to create a better connecti
on.

Flow control: The transport process controls the flow of data between the se
nder and the receiver to protect the receiver from data that is outside the rece
iver's processing or storage. The flow control mechanism controls the data tr
ansfer rate and confirms the receipt of data. TCP uses a sliding window to a
djust the data transfer rate depending on network conditions and receiver ca
pacity.

Error detection and correction: The upload process detects errors in the su
bmitted data and provides error recovery and correction procedures. this is tr
ue. TCP uses connection codes and checksums to detect errors in transmissi
on segments. If an error is detected, TCP retransmits the damaged segment t
o ensure successful transmission.

Question 4:
Discuss the following application layer protocols in detail. 10 Marks ˆ DHCP
ˆ SNMP
ˆ SMTP
ˆ Telnet
ˆ NFS
Answer 4:

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP):

DHCP is a network management protocol used to dynamically assign IP add
resses and set parameters to network devices. It simplifies the process of IP
address, subnet mask assignment, default gateway configuration, and DNS s
erver assignment.
DHCP operates on a client-client model in which the DHCP server manages
and assigns IP addresses to DHCP clients. When a device (client) connects t
o the network, it sends a DHCP Discover message to discover available DH
CP servers. The DHCP server responds with a DHCP Offer containing the n
etwork settings. The client then selects the request and sends a DHCP reque
st to the server confirming the allocation. Finally, the server accepts the requ
est and configures the client network interface accordingly.
DHCP reduces the burden of network management by assigning IP addresse
s, especially in large networks where manual configuration does not work.
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP):

SNMP is a widely used network management and monitoring protocol. It all

ows network devices such as routers, switches, and servers to be remotely c
ontrolled and monitored through a central management system or Network
Management System (NMS).
SNMP operates in a manager-agent architecture in which an SNMP manage
r (control station) communicates with an SNMP agent (control device) to ret
rieve information, configure devices, and receive notifications about networ
k events.
SNMP defines standard management information boards (MIBs) that repres
ent managed objects on a device. Administrators can use SNMP Retrieve re
quests to ask the agent to retrieve specific information or use Set requests to
update device settings. SNMP traps also allow agents to send notifications t
o administrators, alerting them to important events such as connection state
changes or failures.
SNMP provides a unified network management system that simplifies coord
ination of devices from different vendors and allows administrators to monit
or network performance, improve health, and resolve issues.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP):

SMTP is a standard protocol for sending and receiving e-mail. It defines the
rules and recommendations for sending e-mail via post.
SMTP works on the client model where the email user (Mail User Agent -
MUA) sends mail to the SMTP server (Mail Transfer Agent - MTA) for deli
very. The SMTP server forwards the message to the recipient or sends it thr
ough an intermediate server until it reaches the end.
SMTP uses text-based command/response for communication between clien
t and server. The client initiates the session by connecting to the SMTP serv
er on port 25 and sending commands such as HELO, MAIL FROM, RCPT
TO and DATA to specify the sender, recipient and email details.
SMTP ensures the quality of email delivery through a combination of error
detection and notification mechanisms. However, it is generally associated
with messaging and generally does not work like forwarding or receiving by
other protocols such as POP3 (Post Office Protocol) or IMAP (Internet Mess
age Access Protocol).
Telnet:

Telnet is a network protocol used for remote terminal access and command l
ine interface (CLI) interaction with network devices. It allows users to remot
ely log in and execute commands as if they were directly connected to the d
evice's console.
Telnet operates on port 23 and uses a client-server architecture. The Telnet c
lient contacts the Telnet server running on the remote to provide the user wit
h a virtual conference. Once connected, users can interact with remote contr
ol commands, run applications, and manage files as if they were physically a
t the console.
Telnet sessions send information, including keystrokes and output, in plainte
xt, making them vulnerable to interception and eavesdropping. As a result, T
elnet is considered insecure when using untrusted networks and its use has b
een replaced by more secure methods such as SSH (Secure Shell).
Network File System (NFS):

NFS is a file sharing protocol that allows users to access files and directories
stored on a network. remote servers as on the client. Transactions, person. It
encourages collaboration and sharing among users by supporting transparent
data sharing and remote data access across networks.
NFS operates in a client-server model where the NFS client uses the NFS pr
otocol to mount remote files from the NFS server. When mounted, remote fi
les and directories appear as part of the user's local file system hierarchy, all
owing users and applications to interact with them seamlessly.
NFS supports reading and writing operations on remote files and provides p
ermissions based on the content of the file server. It provides data locking, c
aching, and asynchronous writes to improve performance and data consisten
cy.
NFS is widely used in Unix and Linux environments to share files and direct
ories on mounted systems. It facilitates centralized management and improv
es data accessibility and integration in distributed computing environments.

Question 5.
Differential between the adaptive and non-adaptive routing algorithms
Answer 5:

The main difference between adaptive and non-adaptive algorithms is their a

bility to respond to network and topology changes. Adaptive routing algorit
hms provide flexibility and resilience in a dynamic environment by dynamic
ally adjusting routing decisions based on real-time data, while non-adaptive
routing make static decisions, facilitating their use as a decision routing tabl
e, but there are problems for the weak Transfer.
Adaptive Routing Algorithm:

Dynamic response to network change: The adaptive routing algorithm con

tinuously monitors network conditions such as link failure, congestion, or to
pology changes and dynamically adjusts routing decisions accordingly. The
y react to changes over time by recomputing and switching to different netw
orks to improve performance.

Decentralized decision making: In transit, decisions will be made with eac

h router independently deciding the best path based on its local view of the n
etwork. In addition, a central control system, such as the process manageme
nt system of the network management server, can control the decision of the
entire network.

Examples: distance vector routing (e.g. RIP - Routing Information Protocol)

, link state routing (e.g. OSPF - Open Shortest Path First) and hybrid routing
(e.g. EIGRP - Enhanced Internal Gateway Routing Protocol) It is an exampl
e of a flexible routing algorithm frequently used in dynamic networks such a
s the Internet.

Non-adaptive routing algorithms:

Static routing decisions: Non-adaptive routing algorithms make routing de

cisions based on predetermined static routing tables or fixed routing metrics.
These decisions remain the same regardless of changes in the network or top
ology. Routes are configured manually and rarely updated.

Easy to use: Non-adaptive routing algorithms are easy to use and manage b
ecause they do not need to constantly monitor or update routing decisions. R
outing tables are set and managed manually by network administrators.

Limited adaptability: Non-adaptive routing algorithms cannot respond to c

hanges in the network. They may become invalid or useless when there are c
hanges in traffic patterns, link failures, or changes in network topology.

Example: Static routing and default routing are examples of non-adaptive ro

uting algorithms commonly used in small businesses or small businesses. Se
cure network environment with efficient traffic models and static topology.
Question 6. Explain the distance vector routing protocol through a suitable example.
Answer 6:

Distance vector routing is an algorithm used in computer networks to deter

mine the best route for a packet based on the distance or metric associated w
ith the network connection. The basic principle of distance vector routing is
that each router maintains a table called a routing table, which contains infor
mation about the distance or cost of reaching various destinations on the net
work.

Let's use a simple example with four routers (A, B, C, D) connected to a net
work:

Each router starts with its direct neighbors and their associated costs own ro
uting table listing For example:
Router A:
Destination | Next Hop | Cost
B |B |2
C |C |1
D |D |3
Initially, the router only knows its value to direct neighbors. The value repre
sents the hop count or some other metric representing the distance to a neigh
bor.
Exchanging routing information:
Routers regularly exchange routing information with their neighbors. They s
hare a conference table, and each router updates its own instructions based o
n the information it receives.
For example,
when Router A receives an update table from Router B, it checks if there is
a better route from Router B to the destination. If so, it updates the routing t
able accordingly.
Routing table update:

After receiving routing information from its neighbors, each router updates i
ts routing table according to the Bellman-Ford equation:
D(v, w) = min { c(v, x) + D(x, w) } for all neighbors x of v
WhereD(v, w) Where: Destination from router v The value of the shortest p
ath to w.
c(v,x) is the link value between router v and its neighbor x.
D(x, w) is the value of x's neighbor to digit w.
The router repeatedly uses this offset to update its conference until it conver
ges, meaning there are no further changes.
Routing table update example:

Assume Router A receives an update message from Router B:

Router B:
Destination | Next Hop | Cost
A |A |2
C |C |1
D |C |3
Router A updates its instructions according to this information. Since the co
st of getting from B to D (2 + 3 = 5) is higher than its current cost (3), it kee
ps the current route from D to D.
Router A:
Destination | Next Hop | Cost
B |B |2
C |C |1
D |D |3

Convergence
the process continues until all routers are joined in the conference, meaning
no further changes are made. Meanwhile, the router has determined the best
route for each part of the network.
Distance vector routing algorithms, such as the Bellman-Ford algorithm, are
easy to use and suitable for small and Medium
sized networks. But in large networks or networks with dynamic conditions,
they will suffer from slow connections and connections.

Question 7: Compare the headers of IPv4 and IPv6 in detail.

Answer 7:
IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4) and IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) are
network protocols used for packet switching connections. While IPv4 has be
en widely used since its inception, IPv6 was created to address the limitation
s of IPv4, specifically the exhaustion of IPv4 addresses and the need for add
itional features and improvements. The headers of IPv4 and IPv6 are very di
fferent in structure and content:

Header Length:
IPv4: The header length in IPv4 is different, for example 20 - 60 bit tuple. It
includes version, header length, type of service (ToS), total length, ID, flag,
fragment offset, time to live (TTL), protocol, header checksum, IP address a
nd address, our IP address and other fields.
IPv6: Header length in IPv6 is 40 bytes. IPv6 headers are simpler and more
useful than IPv4 because they eliminate many of the optional features found
in IPv4.
Addressing:

IPv4: IPv4 addresses are 32 bits (4 bytes) long and are expressed as decimal
numbers (for example, 192.0.2.1). IPv4 addresses are divided into network a
nd host locations, and subnetting is used to extend the address range and dist
ribute addresses efficiently.
IPv6: The IPv6 address length is 128 bits (16 bytes), expressed as a hexadec
imal number (for example, 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334). IP
v6 addresses are organized into various hierarchies, including network prefi
xes and interface identifiers, providing a larger address space than IPv4.
Fragmentation:

IPv4: Fragmentation and reassembly of packets is done at the network layer

in IPv4. Routers can corrupt IPv4 packets when the maximum transmission
unit (MTU) of the outgoing interface is smaller than the packet size. Fragme
ntation can lead to inefficient use of network bandwidth and operational ove
rhead.
IPv6: Fragmentation in IPv6 is reduced and routers are not allowed to fragm
ent packets. Instead, the base station performs segmentation based on the pat
h that the MTU discovers before transmission. IPv6 supports the use of pack
et sizes matching the network MTU to prevent bursts.
Security:

IPv4: IPv4 does not include support for IPsec (Internet Protocol Security), a
protocol for secure communication in an IP network. IPsec can be used as a
n extension on IPv4 networks.
IPv6: IPv6 includes native support for IPsec, which provides authentication,
integrity, confidentiality, and key services over the IP layer. IPsec is part of t
he IPv6 protocol suite and is often used to protect IPv6 communications.
Header Options:

IPv4: The IPv4 header contains optional fields such as options, padding, and
variable-length data fields. These options may include time logs, log files, a
nd security options.
IPv6: The IPv6 header does not include options as part of the main header. I
nstead, IPv6 specifies an extension to be placed after the main header. Exten
sion headers provide additional functionality such as segmentation, routing,
authentication, and encapsulation.
In summary, although IPv4 and IPv6 have the same basic purpose of transfe
rring packets between network devices, their header structure refers to the st
rategy, fragmentation process, security features, and header selection suppor
t. IPv6 solves many of the limitations of IPv4, including address fatigue, sec
urity, and complexity, making it the best choice for modern networking.

Question 8: Subnet the Class C IP Address 195.1.1.0 So that you have at least 2
subnets each subnet must have room for 48 hosts.

Answer 8:
To split the class C IP address 195.1.1.0 into two subnets with at least 48 ho
sts each, we need to borrow enough resources from the address's host to acc
ommodate the hosts required in each subnet amount.

Class C networks allow 8 bits for the network portion of the address and 24
bits for the host. To create a subnet with at least 48 hosts, we need to allocat
e enough resources to each member to support host addresses of at least 6 bi
ts (2^6 - 2 = 62 hosts, minus the network and broadcast address 2), because
48 is smaller than 62 'more than. This means we need to borrow 6 bits from
the host to create the subnet.

After borrowing 6 bits, the new subnet mask will store 26 bits for the net par
t and 6 bits for the net. Items reserved for the homeowner.
The subnet distribution is as follows:

Primary IP address: 195.1.1.0

Network partition: 195.1.1
Host partition: 0
New sub network mask: 255.255.255.192 (/26)

The first 26 bits are reserved for the network part, the remaining 6 bits are re
served for the host.
Subnet function:

Subnet 1:

Network address: 195.1.1.0/26

Available host range: 195.1.1.1 - 195.1.1.62
Broadcast address : 195.1 .1.63
Total hosts: 62 (2^6 - 2)
Subnet 2:

Network address: 195.1.1.64/26

Other hosts: 195.1. 1.65 - 195.1 .1.126< br>Broadcast address: 195.1.1.127
Total number of hosts: 62 (2^6 - 2)
So, class C IP address 195.1.1.0 optionally at least 48 each It is divided into
two subnets with hosts. subnet mask 255.255.255.192 (/26).

Question 9: Discuss how the browser communicates with the servers.

Answer 9:
Communication between web browsers and web servers occurs via Hyperte
xt Transfer Protocol (HTTP) or its derivative HTTPS (Secure HTTP). This c
ommunication follows the client-side model, where the browser acts as the c
lient and the web server handles requests such as web pages, images, text, a
nd information.

The following is an overview of the communication process between the bro

wser and the server:

URL resolution and URL resolution DNS resolution:

The user enters a link into the browser's address bar (Uniform Resource Loc
ator) When entering the URL or clicking a link, the browser checks the URL
to get the protocol (HTTP or HTTPS), domain name (). such as www.examp
le.com) and select the path to the specific resource.
The browser then performs Domain Name System (DNS) resolution to trans
late the domain name into an IP address. This involves querying the DNS se
rver to obtain the IP address associated with the domain name.
Establish a TCP connection:
After resolving the IP address, the browser will initiate a TCP (Transmission
Control Protocol) connection to DNS. Web server. TCP is responsible for re
liable data transmission between the client (browser) and the server.
The browser sends a TCP SYN (sync) packet to the server and initiates a thr
ee-way handshake to establish the connection.
HTTP request:
Once the TCP connection is established, the browser sends an HTTP request
to the server. The HTTP request contains the request data (e.g. web page, im
age) as well as incentive words containing information such as user agent, c
ookies, and context.
Depending on the type of request, the browser may also include other infor
mation, such as a query that does not have appropriate context or informatio
n for the POST request.
Server Processing:

When an HTTP request is received, the web server processes the request bas
ed on the request data and other things not included in the request headers.
The server can perform many tasks such as collecting requested data from th
e file system or database, executing server-side script (such as PHP, Python,
Ruby), creating good content, and using security controls.
HTTP response:
After processing the request, the server generates an HTTP response contain
ing the request information and additional metadata such as response status,
content type, and content length.
The server sends the HTTP response back to the browser over the establishe
d TCP connection.
Data distribution:
The browser receives the HTTP response from the server and starts downloa
ding resources (such as HTML pages, images) from the TCP connection.
The browser parses HTML content and may make additional HTTP requests
to retrieve resources such as images, links, JavaScript files, and other links.
Rendering the web page:
Once all the resources have been downloaded, the browser renders the web
page by interpreting the HTML, using CSS styles, and executing the JavaSc
ript code.
The browser allows the user to interact by displaying web pages provided to
the user
Decision:
After fully completing the connection process, the browser will keep the TC
P connection open for future requests (HTTP persistent) depending on the se
rver's response headers and browser settings depending on) or close the con
nection.
If the connection remains open, the browser can reuse the same connection f
or repeated requests to the same server, reducing latency and overhead.
Question 10:
Write short notes on the following
 RFC
 Socket Address
 Gateway
 Link State Routing Protocol
 Three-Way Handshaking Protocol
Answer 10:

RFC (Request for Reference):

RFCs are documents published by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IET
F) and other organizations that document specifications, standards, procedur
es, and best practices related to the Internet and computers.
RFC is the legal document for many Internet applications, including HTTP,
TCP/IP, SMTP, and other protocols.
The RFC process allows engineers, researchers, and practitioners from arou
nd the world to collaborate, review, and develop proposals for new protocol
s or modifications to existing systems.
RFCs are assigned unique numbers and are free for public use and reference
.

Socket Address:

Socket address is an IP address and port number that indicates the end of the
network connection.
In a TCP/IP network environment, sockets are used for communication betw
een processes running on different hosts. Each socket is associated with a sp
ecific protocol (such as TCP or UDP) and is identified by both its IP address
and port number.
Socket addresses allow processes to establish connections, send and receive
data, and communicate over the network.
In IPv4, the address is represented by the combination of the 32-bit IP addre
ss and the 16-bit port number. In IPv6 the address size is 128 bits and the po
rt number is still 16 bits.

Gateway:

A gateway, also known as a router or gateway, is a network device that acts

as an entry point and exit point between different networks or network segm
ents.
Gateways forward packets on networks by examining the IP address of each
packet and determine the appropriate route according to instructions and net
work rules.
Gateways are necessary to enable communication between different devices
such as local area networks (LAN) and the Internet.
In addition to routing packets, gateways can also perform functions such as
Network Address Translation (NAT), firewalling, and Quality of Service (Q
oS) management.

Link State Routing Protocol:

Link State Routing Protocol is a communication protocol used in computer

networks to calculate the shortest path to the destination according to the net
work topology.
In link-state routing, each router maintains a database (link-state database) c
ontaining information about its direct neighbors and the state of its network l
inks.
Routers exchange link state notifications (LSAs) to broadcast information ab
out changes in the network topology. LSA contains detailed information suc
h as router ID, proximity information, and connection cost.
Using a link state database and Dijkstra's shortest path algorithm, the router
calculates the shortest path to each destination and populates the routing tabl
e accordingly. Examples of link state policies are OSPF (Open Shortest Path
First) and IS-IS (Intermediate System to Intermediate System).

Three-way handshake protocol:

Threeway handshake is a communication protocol used in TCP (Transmissi

on Control Protocol) to establish a connection between the client and the ser
ver.
The handshake process consists of three steps:
SYN (synchronization): The client will send a SYN packet to the server, ind
icating
SYNACK (acknowledgment). After the server receives a SYN packet, it sen
ds a SYN packet. SYNACK packet to confirm the request and indicate readi
ness to establish a connection. The server will also generate its own commu
nications serial number.
ACK (Acknowledgement): Finally, the client sends an ACK packet to the se
rver to confirm the server's response and confirm the connection. The user al
so verifies the server's phone number.
The handshake method allows the client and server to agree on the starting n
umber and synchronize their connection states before sending data.
Once a connection is established, data transfer can occur in both directions a
nd the connection remains open until both parties decide to terminate it.
Question 11:
Differentiate between/among the following: (a) MAC and LLC (b) Classful and
Classless Addressing (c) Physical, Logical, and Port addresses (d) Framing and
Segmentation (e) TCP and UDP (f) FTP , TFTP, and SFTP (g) end-to-end delivery
and host-to-host delivery (h) Connection-oriented and Connection-less services (i)
HTTP and HTTPS (j) ARP and RARP
Answer 11:

(a) MAC and LLC:

MAC (Media Access Control):
MAC is a sublayer of the data link layer in the OSI model.
It is responsible for using special hardware to decode the hardware (MAC a
ddress) of the physical network.
The MAC address is provided by the hardware manufacturer and is usually
expressed as a 48-bit hexadecimal value.
MAC ensures that packets are sent to the correct device in the same segment
. LLC (Logical Link Control): LLC is another sublayer of the data link layer
in the OSI model.
Provides error detection and correction, flow control and packet framing.
LLC also manages the communication between the network layer and the M
AC sublayer.
LLC provides the best possible physical communication and can include pro
tocols such as HDLC (High Level Data Link Control) or Ethernet.

(b) Classful and Classless Addressing

Classful address:
Classful address is based on the original address scheme defined in IPv4, wh
ich converts IP location into three categories: A, B and C .
Each category has a fixed position. Part of it is for the network address and t
he rest is for the host address.
Allocation of addresses results in less effective addresses and less address us
age.
Classless Addressing:
Classless addressing, also known as Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR)
, is a more flexible protocol designed to solve the non-bounded addressing p
roblem.
CIDR allows IP addresses to be divided into blocks (prefixes) of different le
ngths and does not adhere to strict restrictions on the address of the unit.
CIDR enables better use of IP addresses and provides greater scalability and
flexibility in network design.

(c) Physical address, destination address and port:

Physical address:
Also called MAC address and provided by the manufacturer for the network
interface identifier.
The physical address is used at the data link layer (layer 2) to identify device
s in the local segment.
They are represented as 48-bit (12 hexadecimal) addresses.
Destination Addresses:
Destination addresses (such as IP addresses) are assigned to devices at the n
etwork layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model. It refers to the hierarchical structur
e that allows different devices in the network to communicate with each oth
er. communicate with each other.
Destination addresses are used to route and identify devices on the Internet.
Port:

The use of port is used to separate various communication endpoints (applic

ations) on the same vehicles during the migration process (Chapter 4).
Ports are represented as 16-
bit unsigned numbers and allow the device to have multiple network connec
tions at the same time.
The port address is used together with the IP address to establish end-to-end
communication between applications.

(d) Framing and Fragmentation:

Framing:
Framing is the process of encapsulating data packets with header and fragme
nt data to create a frame.
At the data link layer (layer 2), it contains a frame synchronization object, a
frame header (contains the MAC address), and a frame fragment (contains e
rror/correction information data).

Fragmentation:
Fragmentation It is the process of dividing data packets into smaller pieces f
or transmission in the network.
At the transport layer (Layer 4), segmentation is done to break large packets
into smaller pieces that can be transmitted efficiently across the network.
Sharding is required when the data size exceeds the maximum transmission
unit (MTU) of the central network.

(e) TCP and UDP:

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): TCP is a connection
oriented protocol that operates at the transport layer (layer 4) of the OSI mo
del.It provides reliable, efficient and error-free packet switching of applicati
ons. TCP uses a three-way handshake to establish connections, manage traff
ic and collision control, and ensure data integrity through aggregation and a
uthentication.
UDP (User Data Packet Protocol): UDP is a wireless protocol that operate
s at the transport layer (layer 4) of the OSI model. It provides a lightweight a
nd low-cost solution for transferring data packets between applications. UD
P does not provide reliability, regularity, or error recovery like TCP. UDP is
mainly used in real-time applications where low latency is more important t
han data integrity, such as VoIP (Voice over IP), video streaming, DNS (Do
main Name System), and online gaming.
(f) FTP, TFTP and SFTP:
FTP (File Transfer Protocol):
FTP is a standard network protocol used to transfer files between clients and
servers in a computer network. It operates over TCP/IP and uses separate co
ntrol and data connections for data transfer. FTP supports user authenticatio
n, directory listing, file upload/download, file permission management and o
ther functions.
TFTP (Terrible Data Transfer):
 TFTP is a simpler version of FTP that works over UDP instead of TCP. It is
used for light data transfer, such as booting a device or changing configurati
on data in a network environment. TFTP is less secure and reliable than FTP
as it lacks features such as user authentication, registration, and error recove
ry mechanisms.
SFTP (SSH File Transfer Protocol):
SFTP is a secure file transfer that uses SSH (Secure Shell) for encrypted file
transfers. Unlike FTP and TFTP, SFTP ensures confidentiality and integrity
by providing secure authentication and encryption of data during transmissio
n. SFTP is often used to secure untrusted data transfers such as the Internet.
(g) End-to-end and host-to-host transmission:
End-to-end:
Endtoend refers to the process of sending packets from a host to a station, re
gardless of the number of mediums. It ensures that packets are successfully r
outed from application source to application source even if they pass throug
h multiple segments and routers. Host-to-host handover: Host-to-host hando
ver refers to the process of sending packets across network interfaces (IP ad
dresses), specifically between two hosts in a network. It focuses on commun
ication between host and host without considering the details or media invol
ved in data transfer.

(h) Connection-oriented and connectionless services:

Connection-oriented services:

In communication services, communication is established by communicatio

n before data transmission.
The connection process consists of several steps, including connection creati
on, data transfer, and connection.
Examples of connection-oriented protocols include TCP (Transmission Cont
rol Protocol), which establishes connections to ensure data transmission is re
liable and efficient Connection less Services:
Connectionlesservices require a high connection level before sending data.
you need to install it.
Each packet is processed independently and follows multiple paths to its des
tination.
Wireless services are generally faster and more capable than wired services,
but may lack reliability and resolution.
Examples of wireless protocols include UDP (User Datagram Protocol), whi
ch is used in applications where real-time low latency is important, such as v
ideo streaming and online gaming.
(i) HTTP and HTTPS:

HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol):

HTTP is used to transfer hypermedia files, such as web pages, over the Inter
net.
It works on TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and usually uses port 80 f
or communication.
HTTP is plain text; This means that data sent via HTTP is not encrypted and
can be intercepted or modified by an attacker.
HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure):

HTTPS is a secure version of HTTP that uses encryption to protect the secur
ity of information transmitted between the client (browser) and the person u
sing the products.
It works via the SSL/TLS (Secure Terminal Layer/Transport Layer Security)
protocol and ensures data confidentiality, integrity and authentication.
HTTPS uses port 443 for communication and is mainly used for secure com
munication on the Web, online banking, e-commerce and other sensitive tra
nsactions.

(j) ARP and RARP:

ARP (Address Resolution Protocol):

ARP is a protocol used to assign IP addresses to MAC address on a local are

a network (LAN).
When a device needs to communicate with another device on the same netw
ork, it uses ARP to resolve the target MAC address based on the IP address
of the target device.
ARP operates at the link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model and uses broadcas
t messages to find the MAC address corresponding to the IP address.
RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol):
RARP is a method used to map MAC addresses to IP addresses on a local ar
ea network (LAN).
RARP allows a computer without a disk or network device to obtain its IP a
ddress from a RARP server by sending its MAC address in a broadcast mess
age.
RARP operates at the link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model and is considered
obsolete due to the widespread use of DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol) for IP address allocation.