What is a mixture?

Types of mixture
Imp terms with symbols

Molarity
Molality
Mole fraction

Classification of elements
Concepts of Chemistry Physical
Chemical

Significant Figures
Laws of Chemical Combination
Mole Concept

Limiting Reagent
Empirical Formula
Important Questions
 Concepts of
Chemistry

WHAT IS A MIXTURE?
When two or more than two non-reacting substances are taken in a container, a
mixture is formed.

Types of Mixtures:-

1. Homogeneous mixture - A mixture in which all the components are present in

one phase is called a homogenous mixture.
2. Heterogenous mixture - A mixture in which two or more two phases are
present, is called a heterogeneous mixture.

Solution – It is a homogenous mixture of two or more two non-reacting

substances.

Binary solution – A solution that contains two components is called a binary

solution.

Components of Binary solution – Solvent and Solute A component of a binary

solution that is present in large quantity is called a Solvent and another
component of the solution is called the solute.

Aqueous Solution – A solution in which Solute dissolves in water is called an

Aqueous Solution.

Non-Aqueous Solution – A solution in which liquids like benzene, ether ,

alcohol , acetone etc act as solvent is called Non Aqueous solution.
 SOME IMPORTANT TERMS WITH SYMBOLS

Solvent + Solute = Solution

‘1’ ‘2’ ‘S’

1. MASS OR WEIGHT (W)

W1 + W2 = WS
Unit - kilogram

2. VOLUME (V)
V1 + V2 = VS
unit - litre

3. DENSITY (D) ( ALSO CALLED SPECIFIC GRAVITY )

d1 = W1/V1
d2 = W2/V2
dS = WS/VS
Density = Mass / Volume
only used for conversion.

unit – kg/l = g/ml

Density of water = 1kg/l

4. MOLECULAR MASS – MASS OF ONE MOLECULE

unit of molecular mass = ‘U’ = g/mol

EXAMPLES :
(i) Molecular mass of CO2 = 1 x 12 + 2 x 16
= 44 ‘u’
(ii) Molecular mass of NH2CONH2 = 1 X 14 + 2 X 1 + 1 X 12 + +1 X 16 + 1 X
14 + 2 X 1
= 60 ‘u’

5. NUMBER OF MOLES (N) –

n = Given mass in grams /Molecular mass

n1 = W1/M1 n2 = W2/M2 ns = n1 + n2
unit – mole or mol
MOLARITY

It is defined as the number of moles of solute present in one litre of solution. It is

represented by ‘M’.

Molarity (M) – n2/VS (in litre)

unit – mol/litre

Note – with an increase in temperature, the volume of the solution increases, as a

result, the molarity of the solution decrease.

MOLALITY

It is defined as the number of moles of solute present in one kilogram of solvent. It is

represented by ‘m’.

Molality (m) – n2/WS(in Kg)

unit – mol/kg

Note – Molality involves masses that do not depend on temperature. Therefore no

effect of temperature on the Molality of the solution.

MOLE FRACTION
The mole fraction of a component is the fraction obtained by dividing the number
of moles of that component by the total number of moles of the solution.
Suppose in binary solution, the number of moles of solvent and solute are n1 and
n2 respectively.
Then x1 = n1/n1 + n2
x2 = n2/ n1 + n2
x1 + x2 = 1
PHYSICAL CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

On the basis of physical state , matter is classified into three types

Solid – A substance that has a definite shape and definite volume.

Liquid – A substance that has a definite volume and indefinite shape.
Gas – A substance that has an indefinite volume and indefinite shape.

CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

Matter can be classified into two types

Homogenous – A material is said to be homogenous if it has uniform composition

and identical properties throughout.(One Phase)
Heterogenous – A material is said to be heterogenous if it consists of a number of
phases.

ATOMS

An atom is the smallest particle of an element which may or may not be capable of
independent existence.

MOLECULES

A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or a compound which can exist

free. Eg ; N2 , O2 , CO2 etc.

TYPES OF MOLECULES:
There are two types of molecules:
1. Homoatomic Molecules – Molecules that contain only one kind of atom are
called homoatomic molecules. Eg O2 , N2 , P4 etc.
2. Heteroatomic Molecules – Molecules that contain more than one kind of
atom are called heteroatomic molecules. Eg CO2 , MnO2 , NH3 etc.
 Significant figures

The total number of digits in a number including the last digit whose value is
uncertain is called significant figures .

Rules to determine Significant Figure ;

1.) All non-zero digits are SF

eg – (a)1.256 4SF
(b)2.16 3SF

2.) For zero-

Before non-zero digits – not SF
eg – (a)0.0018 2SF
(b)0.000621 3SF
Between non-zero digits – SF
eg – (a)502 3SF
(b)6.022 4SF
After non-zero digits
1. With point – SF
Eg – 5.00 3SF
71.00 4SF
Without point – Infinite SF
Eg – 126000 Infinte SF
For calculating this we have to convert this into scientific notation

In addition and subtraction of significant figures:

Reported answer = least number of places after the point
Eg 10.251 3SF
100.12 2SF
+ 52.3 1SF
162.671
Reported answer = 162.7

In multiplication and division of significant figures :

Reported answer = least number of SF with point
Eg 7.50 3SF
x 1.5 2SF
Actual = 11.250
Reported answer = 11
 Laws of Chemical Combination

1.) Law of Conservation of mass – This law was given by Antoine Lavoisier. In all
physical and chemical changes, the total mass of the reactants is equal to that of
the product.

Matter can neither be created nor destroyed.

Eg - CaCO3 ---- CaO + CO2
100g ---- 56g + 44g
Total mass of reactant = 100g = total mass of products

2.) Law of constant proportion OR Law of definite proportion – This law was given
by Joseph Proust. A given compound always contains exactly the same proportion
of elements by weight.

Eg – Pure water obtained from any source will always be made up of only
hydrogen and oxygen elements combined together in the same fix ratio of 1:8 by
mass.

3.) Law of Multiple Proportion – This Law was given by Dalton. If two elements can
combine to form more than one compound, the masses of one element that
combine with a fixed mass of the other elements are in the ratio of small whole
numbers.

Eg Hydrogen combines with oxygen to form two compounds. H2O and H2O2 . In
H2O 2g of hydrogen reacts with 16g of oxygen and in H2O2, 2g of hydrogen
reacts with 32g of oxygen.

4.) Avogadro’s Law – An equal volume of gases at the same temperature and
pressure should contain an equal number of molecules.

5. Gay Lussac’s Law of gaseous volume – when gases combine or produce in a

chemical reaction, they do so in a simple ratio by volume provided that the
temperature is same for all gases.
MOLE CONCEPT

Relation between mass and number of particles.

1 mole atom = gram atomic mass = 1 gram atom = 6.023 x 10 to the power 23
atoms

1 mole molecule = gram molecular mass = 1 gram molecule = 6.02 x 10 to the

power 23 molecule for gas ,
1-mole gas = 22.4 liters at NTP
1-mole gas = 22.7 litres at STP

Stoichiometry of a chemical reaction; When the mole concept is applied to

a chemical reaction, the following relations are observed

1. Mole-mole relation
2. Mole–mass relation
3. Mole–volume relation
4. Mass–mass relation
5. Mass–volume relation
6. Volume – volume relation

Q. Calculate the mass of CO2 produced by the combustion of 20g of carbon.

Solution :

C + O2 ------ CO2
Standard 12g 44g
Given 20g ?

12g carbon -------------- 44g Carbon Di Oxide

20g Carbon --------------44/12 x 20 g Carbon Di Oxide
= 73.3g
LIMITING REAGENT
A Reactant that reacts completely in the reaction is called the limiting reactant or
limiting reagent. The reactant which is not consumed completely in the reaction is
called excess reactant . Excess reactant is left unreacted .

EMPIRICAL FORMULA (EF)

An empirical formula represents the simplest whole-number ratio of various
atoms present in a compound.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. What is the effect of temperature on the molarity of a solution?
2. Why is Molality preferred over molarity in handling solutions in
chemistry?
3. Which is more concentrated 1 molar aqueous solution or 1 molal
aqueous solution?
4. For the reaction , N2 + 3H2 ---------2NH3
5. Calculate the mass of NH3 produced if 2000g of N2 reacts with
1000g of H2.
6. Will any of the two reactants remain unreacted?
7. If yes, which one and what would be its mass?
8. Calculate the number of molecules of urea in 100ml of 0.1M solution.
( urea – NH2CONH2)
9. Find the number of moles of carbon in 3 mole of ethane .
STRUCTURE of ATOM
HANDWRITTEN NOTES
- I
/

-
-

- s

Designed with Baa

.

Shobhit Nisman
 -

Thomson 's Model ( Plum pudding Model )

-

uniformly distributed in
-0
o
e are atom
°
atom is neutral
charge on atom net -0 charge
0
°
net ⑦ve - ve on e- .

mass of atom is uniformly distributed

°
.

-0
Drawback around nucleus
-
e are not stationary they are
revolving .

311T IT IS Thomson HIEI fall GT tf Rutherford Chacha story tf 3¥ Fg

Rutherford 's Model

§ scattering experiment :
-
-

observation :
°
Most of L particles pass undeflected
-
.

A few particles deflected at some angle

g A few ( t
.
.

out of 2000) deflected at 180?

as Helium Cueey

Conclusion :
°
Most of the part of atom is vacant .

°
Atom has some ④ve charge in it .

④ re is concentrated in nucleus
charge of atomaround
°
.

-0
o
e are
revolving nucleus .

o
protons + Neutrons =
Nucleons

Drawback -

He explain stability of atom

could not .

HI Rutherford Chacha 2A fail Ef tht , HI story tf 34K¥ Bohr -914T but

Bohr 919T tit model tTHfH FIAT Etf BUT comets tTH£H ETI l # 318ft
419117 tit model hold YT 2244T the con ceps HIETT E : -

Electromagnetic Radiation
↳ when electrically
charged particle moves under acceleration , alternating
electrical and
magnetic fields generated and transmitted in form of are
called
waves
electromagnetic waves
, electromagnetic radiation FEMA) or

( L) wave Nature of E. M R .

°
According to Maxwell , a accelerated charge particle
produce electric and
magnetic field .

o f and Meg are perpendicular to each other

E -
.
and also
I to direction of
do not
propagation .

o E m R - . .

require any medium and they can

travel in vacuum with speed 3×108 m/s )
of light ( C =
 crest → crest
→ crest →
topmost
bottommost
trough
→

K3B
trough ← →
trough
CB wavelength Cd) -

linear distance b/w two consecutive crest or b/w two

consecutive trough It Is generally expressed in terms of
.

Angstrom CA)
[
.

LAO "
)
frequency Ii )
-

Lo
-

% -

No of waves passing through

. a
point in one second .

SI unit is hertz (Haz) speed velocity

µ= →
.
or

-
t
S
-

fig velocity Cc ) -
linear distance travelled by ware
per second
17=47
.

Cvs wave number

.GE! Number of
wavelengths per unit length
-
.

-
s

When the
electromagnetic radiations are
arrangedobtained
in order of their increasing
wavelengths decreasing frequencies
or ,
the spectrum is called
Electromagnetic spectrum .

IP : for the 5000 Ao g calculate wave number and

frequency .

Eod: Given ,
DE 5588890 ( staff qhafter E units AT HHT eat
)
-

,o m ,
I guide calculation ET et HHT
wave number (J )
tf Lost
' t

gtfo
-
2
-

m
tf units III St solve th
-
=

,
M

frequency ( Jk
"

3f?→m/q
t

I
6×20
6×10112
-

= s or

Drawbacks of wave nature of EMR : -

° It cannot explain black body radiation and photoelectric effect .

(2) Particle Nature of Erm R : Planck 's Quantum Theory . .

energy absorbed are emitted from body not continuously

↳ The gradient but
discontinuously in form of Energy packet or quantum .

In case of
light these packets are called Photons
,
.

Energy Fof photon 9 frequency

**E#
e
-
.

'
plank 's constant 6.62×10-34 Is
org /E=hV_ his =

:.*fE=h§#
as we know
,
HI , These are energy of L photon
for n' photons
g)E=nhV=nh£M
'
so ,
-

-
 K'B
Is Black Body Radiation : The ideal body that emits and absorbs radiations of all frequencies ,
is black body and the radiation emitted
called
a
by such body is called black body
radiation .

%
BEEKmission of radiation from black body at diff Temp I
. .
472

At given temperature intensity of radiation emitted to

a
,
%
with decrease of
wavelength reaches the maximum valve at a given ,

wavelength and then starts decreasing with further decrease of

wavelength as shown in graph given below
,
.

4% Photo -
Electric Effect :

° When ofsufficient energy hits the metal surface

photons
-0
then e comes out of the metal surface .

° There is no time lag b/w striking of photon and emission

of e-0 .

° There is a characteristic minimum

frequency required called threshold frequency HoH
,

required
Min -0 is called work function two)
energy of photon
tyre
°
.
more an e

|Wo=h#
kinetic frequency of photon
energy of -010 with increase in
° e .

*
*
E =
Wo t KE
org hv h Vo t
Iz me v2
=

EP : when radiation of wavelength of 3.10 nm fall on the surface of

electromagnetic
sodium ,
the electrons are em mi Hed with RE Loser Calculate the work function . = .

of sodium in terms of e. v .

Sof's Given g
A = 310 n -
m g
KE = In 5 ev i Wo =
I?
We know ,
E =
No + KE

HU =
Wot KE No =
hV -
KE

No =
h
II ) -
KE

124300*219
=
-
tis er 4 Iser
-

25¥
⑦ Dual Nature of ein r ; .

To
explain reflection g refractions diffraction etc g light has been considered . as
a wave whereas to explain the
photoelectric effect , Einstein considered it to be
made up of tiny particles
called photons .

In other words , light is a kind of radiation exhibits dual behaviour ie wares as well .

as particle behaviour Such a ware like as well as particle like nature of radiation
.

is known as dual nature of radiation .

 4313
4) The splitting of light into series of colour bands is known as
dispersion and the series
of colour bands is called a
types spectrum Two of spectrum
: B
.
.

Emissions
Hea the radiations emitted from
: when some source ego from
. the sun

or by passing discharge through gas at low pressure or by

electric a

heating some substance to high temperature is passed directly

through the prism and then recite red on the photographic
plate , the spectrum obtained is called emission spectrum .

Depending upon source of radiation , the emission spectra

are of two types : continuous and line spectra .

E) Absorption
spectrum : is like the
It negative photographic
of an emission spectrum A continuum of .

radiation is passed through a sample

which absorbs radiation of certain
wavelength The missing wavelength .

which corresponds to the radiation absorbed

by the matter leave dark
, spaces in the

bright continuous spectrum .

Spectral lines of H atom : -

-

when hydrogen gas at low pressure is taken in

the discharge tube and the light emitted on
is examined with a
passing electric discharge
spectroscope , the spectrum obtained is called
the emission spectrum of hydrogen .

Simple equation for calculation of wavelength of

lingmp
these

In Int
=
= Re -

er =L oat x 107M"
.

forego
-

Rs lyman series : 1st line 2 ton =L

f
.
-
n-

2nd line -
n =3 to n =L Fe .

Nt =L fixed tent
'

;
hi =
2,3 Y
.
,
- - -
-
D
.

last line → A- a ton =L

balmer series : 1st line n =3 to n=2

)
→

2nd line → n = 4 to n 2
(fixed)
-

ng =L
-

,
t ni - 3
,
Y ,
5 - - - •

last line →
n
-
- a ton =L

Similarly for all series . . .

III The diff b/w the T of 1st line of Balmer series and the last line of Paschen series
-

Pen is how much ?

-12
for Li
Self Bodmer : 1st line Ln =3 to n =D
F-
I = Rl 35
( ¥ ¥) - R ca)
19¥ ) RE) -

②
Paschen : last Crea lo n =D
Rl R ⑤
it
=L 3M¥
-
= -

difference ② -

⑤
5yd -
R
Aye
HI finally Ett
#
III MH TT af F Bohr 919T F model F asf tf I
BOHR Model ( Applicable for single electronic species of H, teething Be ete )
postulates :
% Electron revolve around the nucleus in a fixed circular path of definite energy called
stationary orbits .

Is Electron revolve
only in those circular paths for which the value of angular momentum
is equal to
integral multiple of hat radius
i.
-0
e .

of e .

*R -
MeV 8 =
n I
✓
velocity -04 orbit
2 IT
man
! of e no .

Iii Energy exchange takes place only when electron jumps b/w the orbits .

Irs The frequency of radiation absorbed or emitted when transition occurs between two
States that differ in
stationary energy by AE is given by
|V=fnI=EEh/ of lower state
El
Energy
→

Ez → Energy of
higher state .

RB Rutherford Chacha stability explain act at UT Ut but Bohr Hat ¥ that : -

Bohr suggested that an electron revolving in a particular orbit cannot radiate

energy Therefore emission of radiation is not possible as long as the electron
.

remains in one of its

energy levels and hence , there is no cause of instability in
his model .

# Calculation of Boho Radius :

According to Bohr 's Model g radius of nth orbit is given by
z→
:

mud
/Vn=OO52z9#n#/
Bohras :
-
for hydrogen 6=1) ,
the radius of first
stationary state is called as
Bohr Radius .

Fe .
8=0.0529 n -
m is value of Bohr radius .

#
Energy of an electron :
E = -
13.6
(Zzz ) eV
-

od
-

2.18×10+8
(qf ) J
HB Why energy of
possibleorbits !
the electron in a
hydrogen atom has negative sign for all
and This is because the
energy of
electron in the atom is lower than the
energy
-

of free electron at rest A free electron at rest is an electron that is infinitely

.

far away from the nucleus i. c free from influence of nucleus and is assigned .

the energy value of zero Mathematically g n and thus EEO In this state
.
= .

hydrogen atom is called ionised H atom As the electron

gets closer to the nucleus
in absolute valve and more and more
-
.

( as n decreases) g En becomes
larger negative .

The most
negative energy valve is given by n =L which corresponds to the most stable
orbit We call this the
.
slate
ground .

# Calculation of frequency for a transition : -

↳ The frequency ( ) associated with the absorption

v and emission of the photon can

be evaluated by
using equation : -

(÷
's
f 3.29×10 -

He

and I R2
Hp ht)
'

I (calculated above )
=
= -

K' B •
In
general ,
the number of emission lines when an electron jumps from
Nz level tons level are
given by the expression : -

Mz ND Cns
- -
)
n,t t
-

(2 .
E .
)
/
•
Ionisation Energy :
Energy required to
-

remove the eo completely from the atom

so as to convert it to Pon a positive .

state In =D
Simply , The
energy absorbed by electron in
ground so as to jump to infinity
(read .

forty g for H If =
Eo Es
-

÷
-
.

t ft NY f MY
"
a s
-
- -
-

Litt ate affair at sit

I. E .
¥17 HH ¥1 248×10-18 T
•
Velocity of an electron in any Orbit
: -

V -

Zitlnehze mlsec = 218×106

(F) mlsec

frequency of revolutions / Number of revolutions

¥
• =

substituting valve of r g
-

2ITm#2
2
n 2h

LIF Radius of two different orbits in H like sample is 4 R 416 R

respectively .

find the ratio of

frequency of revolution of electron in their 2 orbits .
sod :
.

t÷= VIKKI
42482
=

#¥
-

②
""
¥=÷i:¥%:x%T nn÷ ④ ÷=oszaxc
2/2Oo 529 X 2)
= MI
(he )
2

Are !
, ¥=Y#r that tu
# =L
these valves in ②
putting ¥ # IT= x.

#Hand they
'
=

I = 18:17
F

LI: Calculate energy ratio for 3rd orbit of ion 4 2nd orbit of Betton
"
-

Li .

Er
e÷÷ :::¥÷÷, ¥ "
'
¥
.

LIE what are the

frequency and
wavelength of a photon emitted during a transition
from n= 5 state to the n=2 state in
hydrogen atom ?
5017 .
AE -

218×10-1851 ÷ ¥) .
-

= 218×10-185
(¥2 -

Iq )
-4.58×10-194 magnitude
taking only
=

-
458×10--193 6.91 X 10MHz
F-
the 6- 6261110 -34g,

de 3.0×108 m/s 434

Cy
n m
-
.

6.911110¥

# limitations of Bohr 's Atomic Model : -

apb liable on single e species-0

-0
Only
°
.

°
Doa not explain wave nature of e
-

o could not explain the ability of atoms to form molecules

by chemical bonds .
 de -

Broglie Equation
↳ Every associated with it
party has a wave ,
the
wavelength of which is
de Broglie
called -

wavelength given by :

D=
Imu tp = ( p mm ntfudm) -
-

Heisenberg 's Uncertainty Principle .

↳ We can 't measure exact

simultaneously
-0
position and velocity of e .

Mathematically , Dr xD the
7h44
org DX XD MVD I
41T
DH Dvr
7h44
x
org
M

K' B The effect of Heisenberg uncertainty principle is significant only

for motion of microscopic objects and is negligible for that of
macroscopic objects .

LPI A
golf ball has of and a speed of 45 Mls If the speed can be
mass
40g
-

measured within
accuracy of 2% , calculate the 'uncertainty in the position .

seen uncertainty in velocity, DK 45 x

Foo = 0.9ms

from heisenberg 's principle ,

ya = he €Ykgm's
"

HIT M DV -

UX 314×40×10-3 kg XO 9 .

46 X IO 33M
-

L .

# Reasons for failure

of the Bohr Model :
° It did not consider the dual behaviour of matter .

°
It contradicts Heisenberg uncertainty principle
Quantum Mechanics .

G The branch of science that deals with dual behaviour of matter ie .

nature, is called Quantum mechanics

wave as well as
particle .

# Schrodinger Ware Equation : -

On the basis of quantum mechanics , Schrodinger

proposed quantum mechanical model of an atom He gave Schrodinger
a .

wave equation to describe the wave motion of the electron in three dimensional

space around the nucleus .

Hay =
EY Ha is called Hamiltonian operator , E and Y are obtained from solution
of Schrodinger wave equation .
K' B when Schrodingerlevels
equation Is solved for hydrogen atom gives ,
the solution
the possible energy the electron and the can
occupy corresponding ware

function of Y of election associated with each

energy level These quantized .

States and corresponding wavefunctions which are characterized by

energy
a set of three quantum numbers principal quantum number n , azimuthal
-

number I and
quantum magnetic quantum number m .

Atomic Orbitals : Ware functions of hydrogen hydrogen or like species with

one ( wave function is a
electron .
mathematical function whose valve
depends upon the coordinates of the electron in the atom and does
not carry any physical meaning .

⑨ An orbital Ps a region in space around the nucleus where the prob .

of finding the electron is maximum .

ORBIT ORBITAL
°
It is well defined circular path around the o It shows the 3 dimensional space around
nucleus in which electron revolve . the nucleus within which the probability
-0
o Maxim no of e-0 that an orbit can have is
.
of finding an e is maximum .

given by 2n where n is the no of orbit Max no of electrons that can be occupied by

' m
.
.
o .

an orbital is always two .

Quantum Numbers
↳ set
of 4 numbers which is used to define an electron completely -

ng l , me , s
n
principal quantum number
→

l→ Azimuthal quantum
number .

Me →
Magnetic quantum number
S -
spin quantum number .

K' B orbit tf sich subs hell giant stfu zigs orbital .

circular path around nucleus A

Orbit no . ( max m
no .
of
-0
e in any orbit is 2n2)
in which e
-0
revolve .

Sub shell

A
orbital (orbital have maxm of 2e-0)
Region or space around nucleus can

where
probability of finding an
E Ps maximum .
 lobe @ density
→

# Shape of Orbitals : -
it
,

"
° S -

orbital -

spherical shape

o P orbital
-
-

dumb bell-

shape
Be

¥4, 78 .
.

o d- orbitals : double dumb bell - -

&

88 88
ay

*
. ,

dry dyz dxz

density is along
-0 the
e plane
n
't I

⑧ x
800 x

da
' '
de
y
-

density is along axis .

o
f -
orbital -

complex or deaf type .

#
# Quantum:
(a) Principal Quantum Number In) : -

°
It describes shell or orbit .

n= I 2 3 4 - - -
-

shell =
K L M N -
- -

°
no .
of sub shell =
n
° no .
of orbitals =
na
-0
° NO .
Of e =2n2

(b) Azimuthal Quantum Number (d)

°o°
It describes subshell .

°
Valves d 0 to
of n I
' '
= -
1=0 → s
I =L
°
gives info about shape of orbital
IT shape IA at Ffi )
.
→
p
( 4TH Sep d. f TMNT ,
1=2 → d
1=3 →
f
°
Orbital Angular momentum 1=4 →
g .

14
# ere
=

(c) Magnetic Quantum Number :-( Me)

° It describes and orientation shell
shape of .

valves l Sm Stl
o
of m: -

including zero .

II
"

b- O -
m=0
↳⑤ S ( because l)
m

f- L → m = -

I O, I 1-1
Ix ! ¥
,
↳
cps p

me -2 -
I O d 2

F- Yd -2, -40,42 It
→
M=
, !y dtdtxzdxtya La
d

Mes -
3 -
2 -

I O L 2 3

1=3 → m =-3 ,-2 , -40,1 , 2,3 _l

-
↳ CH

(d) spin Quantum Number : Cs ) -

°
describes the spin of an E (clockwise .
or anticlockwise)
NE Atx Mex
o
spin angular momentum =

¥+1
# Energy of orbitals :
-

Mono electronic
'

species Multi electronic species

There is nuclear attractive force is nuclear attractive force

only It well
° 0
as
as inter electronic forces .

oops
•
•

Tip .

•
: .tn

of all orbitals in of different orbitals is different

Energy shell Energy
°
same o

is same in same shell due to inter electronic

repulsion .

Energy only depends principal Energy depends upon n' well

'
°
on o
as as
Quantum number
' '
.
d .

1st ( 3s s Us < 3d
25
2ps 3ps
Iss Is ⇐ 2ps 3s=3p=3d
# Zeff ( effective Nuclear charge ) : -
.

↳ Due to
shielding of outer shell e
-0
from nucleus by inner shell e
-0
,
net
④ ve
charge experienced by outer shell e-0 from nucleus .

Zettle lT
Shielding Power s >
p > d >f

Foo same sub shell

Energy t as atomic no . Kett )
:
fzs 1H ) 7 Ezs ( Li ) 7 Eas (Na) > Ez ( k)
ef ,

here n→ const
, ding
Y '

meanings Ex -
za

TM
Aufbau Principal
s .
29 Et

o Acc to Aufbau principal , e

-0
are filled in orbitals in increasing
order of
energy .

° Lst e
-0 are
filled in lower energy orbitals and then e-0 are filled in
higher energy orbitals .

Energy : -

Lss 2sc2pC3s
7-s
C
3ps Us a 3d <
4ps 5s cads 5ps 655 4fC5d
< 6ps
Pauli exclusion Principle
6 It States that no two e-0 can have same quantum number ⑧ Two .

can be filled in orbitals but they must have Opp

-0
e
spin .
.

Magnetic moment or
Paramagnetism : -

µ =
14¥ ⇐ total spin =
42
µ 1¥ n → no of unpaired of
-

SI Unit → B. m .
(Boho magneton)

1dB substance having unpaired

Paramagnetic
-0
→ e

Diamagnetic substance s
no unpaired
-0
e In
-

-
o)

Hund 's Maxm Multiplicity Rule

↳ Pairing of e-0 in orbitals of same subs hell does not take

until each orbital subs hell is
place that of singly occupied or
half filled .

Electronic configuration of Atoms

↳ Distribution of electrons into orbitals of an atom is called
its electronic configuration . Two
ways to assign electronic
configuration of different atoms : -

CB sapbd
'
- - -
notation : In it , the letter
symbol shows subshell
and the superscript such as agb , c , ete , shows the number of
- - -

electrons present in the subs hell .

IB Orbital diagram : In this

,
box is used represent each orbital of
to
the subs hell and an arrow [ with positive (9) or negative H ) spins)
represents the electron
I
Is ill I
.

ego
.

d
LI: write E c of
:(
-
- .

is My ↳
=
↳2 25
2ps 352

ID •
At =
15 252 2ps 35 3ps
Iii ↳
Me =
152 252
2ps
Qb zoca =
Ls' 25
2ps 352 3ps 452
4479
273M
(
etgfnfumlf.fi#In5LvBzgNP--Ls22s22p63s23p6
d
CAN,s4s23d4X
.
X 248 = →
CAB s4sd3d5 ,

453 d FAI , Ys23d8

'
⑧
*
"
aid FAI 4523019 X [Arbus 3d
'
zgcu →
=

K3B for Ions → lower

energy tf tf yet AIET IGHT →
for cation
for anion - last # A- Heft
G- ate =
CAN ,s4s23d6
80=42252,04
✓\ G 's
( go -2=15252136
fe
-12
feT3
CAN ,g3d6Ys° ( A%3d54s°

Node and Nodal planes

↳ The
region where the probability of finding an electron is minimum
or nearly zero is called as node
.
.

Radial Node :
spherical region where probability of finding @ is zero .

formula : (n -

d- L)

Angular Node : plane where

probability of finding is zero .

formula : Il)
Radial node n l I =L o L
Is →
-

= -
- -

ey →
Angular node =
l O

-
Radial =
nd I -

=3 -

o -
L 2
zg
\ l
Angular o
=
 Development of the Periodic Table
Dobereiner's Triad
Newland's Laws of Octaves
Lother Meyer's Arrangement
Mendeleev's Periodic Table

Importance of Mendeleev's Periodic Table

Defects of Mendeleev's Periodic Table
Modern Periodic Table
Imp Properties and Periodic Trends

Classification of Elements Ionisation Enthalpy

Factors Governing Ionisation Energy
and Periodicity in Properties Variation of Ionisation Enthalpy

Electron Gain Enthalpy

Factors Affecting Electron Gain Enthalpy

Periodic Trends
Valency
General Characteristics of Block Elements
Mendeleev's Periodic table

On the basis of this periodic law, Mendeleev arranged all the known elements in the
form of a table known as the periodic table.
(Mendeleev's periodic table: see in NCERT)

The horizontal rows in the periodic table are called periods and the vertical columns
are called groups. The original periodic table by Mendeleev had six periods and eight
groups. In his table, each group is further subdivided into two sub groups, are marked
A and B groups except eight.

the Mendeleev's classification gave him so much confidence that he boldly left certain
spaces or gaps for undiscovered elements. Later on when these elements were
discovered their properties were found to be exactly similar to those predicted by
Mendeleev, eg. gallium and germanium were not discovered

Eka Aluminum Gallium Eka Silicon Germanium

Property

Atomic Mass 68 70 72 72.6

Density (gm/cm3) 5.9 5.94 5.5 5.36

Melting Point (K) Low 30.2 high 1231

Formula of Oxide M2O3 Ga2O3 MO2 GeO2

Formula of Chloride Mcl3 GaCl3 MCl4 GeCl4

Importance of Mendeleev's Periodic table

Mendeleev's periodic table was one of the greatest achievements in the

development of chemistry. Some of the important contributions of his periodic
table:

1.) Systematic study of the elements- Knowing the properties of one element in a
group, the properties of others can be easily guessed

2.) Correction of atomic masses- e, Beryllium was corrected from 13.5 to 9

3.) Prediction of new elements- At the time of Mendeleev only 56 elements were
known, while arranging these elements he left some gaps.
 DEFECTS OF MENDELEEV'S PERIODIC TABLE

1.) Position of hydrogen

2.) Anomalous pairs- In certain pairs of elements, the increasing order of

atomic masses was not obeyed, in these cases Mendeleev placed metals
according to similarities in their properties and not in order of their atomic
masses eg, CO (58.9) is placed before NI (58.0)

3.) Position of isotopes- According to Mendeleev's classification, these should

be placed at different places depending upon their atomic masses, but
isotopes have not been given separate places in the periodic table. eg.
(hydrogen)

4.) Some similar elements are separated and some dissimilar elements are
grouped together:-
eg. Cu and Hg - different group
Li,Na,K - Cu,Ag,Au - same group

5.) Position of lanthanides and actinides- not given

MODERN PERIODIC TABLE

Mosley by X-ray experiment he observed that the frequency which are

emitted by elements is proportional to their atomic no not on atomic mass.

Through this experiment, Mosley

concluded that atomic are the
fundamental property of the atom.

The Physical and chemical properties

of these elements are periodic
functions of their atomic numbers.
 THE LONG FORM OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

The long form of periodic table consists of horizontal rows called periods
and vertical columns turned as groups.

1.) Periods- A horizontal row in a periodic table is called a period. There

are 7 periods and each period starts with a different quantum number.
First period- 2 elements
Second Period- 8 elements
Third period - 8 elements
4th period- 18 elements
5th period- 18 elements
6th period- 32 elements
7th period- Incomplete containing only 19 elements

The periodicity occurs at regular intervals of 2,8,8,18,18 and 32 these

numbers are called magic numbers.
First three periods- Short period
Next three- Long periods

2.) Group- A vertical column in a periodic table is called a group.

18 groups- 1 to 18

SOME IMPORTANT PROPERTIES AND THEIR PERIODIC TRENDS

1.) Atomic radii - The size of the atom is significant because many physical and
chemical properties are related to it. Atomic radius means the distance from
the center of the nucleus to the outermost valence shell.

However, it is difficult to determine the exact radius of the atom, for the
reasons are:
an atom does not have a well-defined boundary
It is not possible to isolate an atom and measure its radius
size of the atom also changes from one bonded state to another.
So atomic radius is defined as the distance of the closest approach of one
atom to another in a given bonding situation
 Covalent Radius- half of the distance between the centers of the nuclei
of two similar atoms bonded by a single covalent bond
For Homonuclear: covalent radius= (internuclear distance)/2

VARIATION OF ATOMIC RADII IN THE PERIODIC TABLE

i.) Variation in a period: In general atomic radii decrease with an increase

in atomic number (going from left to right) in a period.

Reason- increasing nuclear charge along a period

Li Be B C N O F Ne
order Ne>Li>Be>B>C>N<O>F
in the case of Ne ( noble gas elements ), the atomic radius
abruptly increases this is because of the reason that the values
for other elements are covalent radii while the value for Ne is
Van der waal's forces.

ii.) Variation in a group: The atomic radii of elements increases from top to
bottom down the group. When we move down the group no of shells
increases as well as the nuclear charge The no shells is dominant over
nuclear charge so the size increases

2.) Ionic radii - The ions are formed as a result of the addition or removal of
electrons from the outermost shell of atoms.
Ions formed by the loss of electrons acquire a positive charge called
cations while the ions formed by the gain of electrons get a negative
charge and are called anions.
The effective distance from the nucleus of the ion up to which it has an
influence on the ionic bond.

Two Important generalization

1. The radius of the positive ion (cation) is less than the parent atom.
2. The radius of negative ion (anion) is larger than that of the parent atom
 The radius of cation is less than that of atoms

e=12 e=10
p=12 p=12

The effective nuclear charge per electron increases and the electron
are more strongly attracted and are pulled towards the nucleus. This
causes a decrease in the size of the ion.

The negative ion is always larger than that of corresponding atom

Cl Cl -
e=17 e=17
p=17 p=18

Q. N -3 O
-2 F -1 Na
+1
Mg
+2
Al
+3
(isoelectronic)
Order

Solution:

p=7 p=8 p=9 p=10 p=11 p=12

e=10 e=10 e=10 e=10 e=10 e=10

Order:
+3 +2 +1 -1 < -2 -3
Al < Mg < Na < F O < N
 IONISATION ENTHALPY
The energy required to remove an electron from an isolated gaseous atom
in its ground state.
The first ionization energy,IE is the energy required to remove the most
loose electron of the neutral atom and the second ionization enthalpy, IE2 is
the energy required to remove the second electron from the resulting
carbon and so on.

IE2>IE1

FACTORS GOVERNING IONISATION ENERGY

Size of the atom- Ionization energy decreases with an increase in atomic

size
Charge on nucleus- With the increase in nuclear charge, it becomes more
difficult to remove an electron, and the ionization energy increases.
Screening effect of the inner electron- The outermost electrons are
shielded or screened from the nucleus by the inner electrons, this is
known as the shielding or screening effect. The actual charge felt by an
electron is termed an effective nuclear charge (Z+)
Z+= Z – S
the increase in the number of inner electrons tends to decrease the
ionization enthalpy

Penetration effect of electrons- electrons in the s-orbital have the

maximum probability of being found near the nucleus and the probability
goes decreasing in the case of p,d, and f.
Penetration power: s>p>d>f
For the same shell, the ionization enthalpy would be more to remove a
s-electron than the energy required to remove a p-electron, which in turn
will be more than that for the removal of a d-electron and so on.
 Electron arrangement- half-filled and completely filled shells have extra
stability associated with them

VARIATION OF IONISATION ENTHALPY IN THE PERIODIC TABLE

Along a period - The ionization enthalpy increases with increasing atomic

number in the period, however some irregularities in the general trend
have been noticed.. These are due to half-filled and completely filled
configuration which have extra stability.

Li Be B C N O F Ne

Ne> F> N> O> C>Be> B>Li

Variation down a group- The ionization enthalpy decreases down the

group. It can be explained in terms of net effect of the following factors.

Size increases (no. of shells increase)

shielding effect increases
 ELECTRON GAIN ENTHALPY

The enthalpy change when an electron is added to an isolated gaseous

atom.
It may be exothermic or endothermic
In many elements, energy is released when an electron is added to the
atom therefore H is -ve but the second is always positive.

(EA1)

(EA2)

FACTORS AFFECTING ELECTRON GAIN ENTHALPY

Nuclear charge- The electron gain enthalpy becomes more negative as

the nuclear charge increases. This is due to the greater attraction for the
incoming electron if the nuclear charge is high.

Size of the atom- With the increase in the size of the atom, the distance
between the nucleus and the incoming electron increases, and this
results in lesser attraction. The electron gain enthalpy becomes less
negative with an increase in the size of the atom of the element.

Electronic configuration- The elements having a stable electronic

configuration of half-filled and completely filled valence subshell shows a
very small tendency to accept additional electrons and thus electron gain
enthalpies are less negative.
 PERIODIC TRENDS

Variation down a group- On moving down a group the size and nuclear
charge increase but the effect of the increase in atomic size is much more
pronounced than that of nuclear charge and thus the additional electrons
feel less attraction by the large atom

Variation along a period- On moving across a period, the size of the atom
decreases, and nuclear charge increases. Both factors favor increasing the
electron affinity. However certain irregularities are observed in the general
trend which is mainly due to the stable electronic configuration of certain
atoms.

IMPORTANT TRENDS

Electrons have the highest negative electron gain enthalpies which is due
to the fact that halogens have the general electronic configuration ns2
np5 and have only one electron less than the stable noble gas (ns2 np6)
configuration

Electron gain enthalpy values of noble gases are positive while those of
Be, Mg, N, and P are almost zero.
Noble Gases are having a stable configuration of ns2 np6 and thus they
have absolutely no tendency to take an additional electron.
Similarly, the low ( almost zero) electron affinity values for Be,Mg, N, and
P can be explained due to the extra stability of completely filled 2s and
3s orbitals in Be(2s2) and Mg(3s2) respectively.

The electron gain enthalpy of fluorine is unexpectedly less negative than

that of chlorine. The less negative electron gain enthalpy value of F is due
to the very small size of the F-atom and thus repulsion takes place
between the valence electron and the incoming electron.
 VALENCY
The electrons present in the outermost shell are called valence electrons
and these electrons determine the valency of the atom.
D-block elements show variable valency.
Alkali metal: +1
Nitrogen family: +3,+5,-3
Alkali earth metals: +2
Oxygen family: +2,-2,+6
Boron Family: +1,+3
Halogens: -1
Carbon family: +2,+4

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF S-BLOCK ELEMENTS

1. Electronic configuration- ns^(1-2)

2. They are soft metals having low m.p and b.p
3. They have low ionization energies.
4. They are very reactive and readily form univalent (alkali metals) and
bivalent (alkaline earth metals) ions by losing one or two valence
electrons respectively.
5. They act as strong reducing agents.
6. Most of them impart characteristic color to the flame.
7. They mostly form ionic compounds except beryllium.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF P-BLOCK ELEMENTS

ns^2 np^(1-6)

1. They include both metal and non-metals. Left to right metallic character
decreases.
2. Their ionization energy is high as compared to s-block elements.
3. They form mostly covalent compounds.
4. Some of them show more than one oxidation state in their compounds.

The elements of s-block and p-block are collectively called representative

elements. The elements of the last group are called noble-gases.
D-BLOCK ELEMENTS

The elements in which the last electron enters the d-orbitals of their last but
one energy level constitute d-block elements.

Electron configuration: (n-1)d^(1-10) ns^(1 or 2), also called transition

elements except for Zn, Cd, Hg

First transition series: Sc-21 to Zn-30 (3D series)

Second transition Series: Y-39 to Cd-48 (4D series)
Third Transition Series: La-57 to Hf-72 to Hg-80 (5D series)
Fourth Transition Series: Ac-89, Rf-104 to 112 (6d series)

1. General Characteristics of D-block elements:

They are metals having high m.p and b.p

Most of them form colored compounds.
Good tendency to form colored compounds
Generally paramagnetic
They exhibit several oxidation states.
Most of the transitional metals such as Mn,Ni,Co,Cr,V,Pt, and their
compounds are used as catalysts.

F-BLOCK ELEMENTS

The elements in which the last electron enters the f-orbitals of their atoms
are called f-block elements.

The first series follows Lanthanum, La(57), and the elements present in
the series Cu(58) -Lu(71) are called Lanthanoids and are also called Rare
Earth Metals.
The second series follows Actinium and the elements present in the
series (Th-Lr) are called Actinoids. They are radioactive in nature.

Electron Configuration (n--2)f^14 (n-1)d^0 or 1 ns^2

The elements included in these two series are called inner transition series.
General Characteristics of F-block elements:
They are heavy metals.
High m.p and b.p
exhibit variable oxidation no.
colored ions
form complex compounds
Actinides- Radioactive in nature
The Force of attraction which holds various constituents (Atoms or ions) together in
different chemical spaces is called Chemical Bond.

Types of Chemical Bond

Ionic Bond
Covalent Bond
Coordinate Bond
Metallic Bond
Hydrogen Bond

To understand these concepts of Chemical Bonds, some theories were proposed by

different scientists from time to time. In this chapter we’ll study those theories only !!
Easy Right ??

Kossel - Lewis Approach

Kossel's Approach: Lewis pictured the atom in terms of a

positively charged 'Kernel' (the nucleus
plus inner electrons) and outer shell,
which is called Valence Shell. The
electrons present in this shell are called
valence electrons and are responsible
for reactivity of atoms.
He postulated that every atom tends to
attain configuration of nearest noble
gas.

Octet Rule:
Simple notations to represent the According to this, atoms of various
valence electrons of an atom are elements can combine either by
called Lewis Symbols. In these transference of valence electron
symbols, the valence electrons are from one atom to another (gaining or
represented by placing dots (.) or losing) or by mutual sharing of
crosses (x) around the symbols. valence electrons in order to have to
Example: attain the configuration of eight
electrons in outermost shell. This is
called octet rule.
 Covalent Bond
The bond formed by the mutual sharing of electrons.

Depending upon the number of electrons 2,4 or 6 shared between 2 atoms, a

covalent bond is called single, double, or triple bond respectively.

Lewis Dot Structures:-

Step 1: Count total number of electrons required for writing the structures by
adding the valence electrons of combining atoms.
Step 2: In case of anions, add one electron to the total number of valence
electrons for each negative charge and for cation, subtract one electron from total
number of valence electrons for each +ve charge.
Step 3: Recall the chemical symbols of the combining atoms and skeletal structure
of the compound (known or guessed intelligently), and try to distribute the total no.
of electrons as bonding shared pairs b/w the atoms in proportion total bonds.
Step 4: Generally the least electronegative atoms occupy the central position in
the molecul/ion and is called central atom.
Step 5: After distributing the shared pair of electrons for single bonds, the
remaining electron pairs are either utilised for multiple bonding or remain as such in
form of lone pairs, provided that each combinig atom gets an octet of electrons.
 FORMAL CHARGE:-
F.C= no. of valence e - no. of unpaired e - 1/2[no of bonding
(shared) e]
Q1. Calculate the formal charge on each atoms of:
(i) Carbonate ion (ii) SO2

Limitations of Octet Rule:-

(i) Electron deficient molecules: There are some molecules in which the central atom is
surrounded by less than eight electrons, i.e their octet is incomplete, but they exist. eg:-
BeCl2, BeH2 etc.
(ii) Odd electron molecules: In molecules with an odd number of electrons like nitric
oxide, NO and nitrogen dioxide, NO2, the octet rule is not satisfied for all the atoms.
(iii) The Expanded Octet: Elements of the third and higher periods of periodic table,
because of availability of d-orbitals can expand their covalency and can accomodate
more than eight valence electrons around central atom.
(iv) It does not tell anything about the shapes of molecules and their relative stabilities.
(v) It is based on inertness of noble gases but some noble gases like xenon and krypton
form several compounds with oxygen and fluorine like XeF2, XeF6, XeOF4, XeO2F2, KrF2
etc.
(vi) It fails to explain paramagnetic behaviour of oxygen (which should be diamagnetic
according to this rule but it is infact paramagnetic).
Diamagnetic ---> no unpaired electron
Paramagnetic ---> at least one paired electron

IONIC OR ELECTROVALENT BOND

The bond formed as a result of electrostatic force of attraction b/w two
oppositely charged ions, i.e positive and negative ions together is termed as ionic bond.
Complete transfer of electrons takes place here.

Ionisation Energy: The amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bond
electro from an isolated gaseous atom to form a positive ion.
Electron Gain Enthalpy: The amount of energy released when an electron is added to
an isolated gaseous atom to form a negative ion.

Now, for Ionic Bond:

Lesser the Ionisation energy, more tendency to lose electron and hence greater
tendency to form ionic bonds.
Higher the value of negative electron gain enthalpy greater will be the case of
formation of ionic compound.
 LATTICE ENTHALPY:
The amount of energy required to completely separate one mole of a solid Ionic compound into
gaseous ions.

BOND PARAMETERS

BOND LENGTH BOND ENTHALPY

The amount of energy required to break one
The equilibrium distance between the nuclei of
mole of bonds of a particular type between two
two bonded atoms in a molecule is called
atoms in gaseous state. Unit of bond enthalpy is
bond length. KJ/mol.

BOND ANGLE BOND ORDER

The number of bonds formed b/w the two
Angle between the orbitals containing atoms in a molecule is called the bond order.
bonding electron pairs around central atom
in a molecule/complex ion is called the
bond angle. Expressed in degrees.

DIPOLE MOMENT: POLARITY OF BOND

In reality no bond or compound is either completely covalent or ionic. Even in case of
covalent bond between two hydrogen atoms, there is some ionic character.

Dipole moment is the measure of degree of polarity and is defined as the product of the
magnitude of the charge and the distance between the centres of positive and negative
charge.
 In case of diatomic molecules, the dipole moment if the molecule is equal to the
dipole moment of polar bond. eg the dipole moment of HCl molecule is same as that
of H---Cl bond
In case of polyatomic molecules, dipole moment not only depends upon the dipole
moment of individual bonds but also upon the arrangement of bonds present in the
molecule. In such molecules, net dipole moment is the vector sum of the dipole
moments of various bonds.
In case of symmetrical molecules like BF3, CH4, CCl4, etc the molecular dipole
moment is zero.

However, if all bonds are not identical, the molecule may have net dipole moment. eg:
NF#, NH3 etc.
FAJAN'S RULE:

Just as all covalent bonds have some partial ionic character, the ionic bonds also have
some partial covalent character and this is what is discussed by FAJAN bhaiya:-

Small size of cation, greater covalent character of ionic bond.

Large size of anion, greater covalent character of ionic bond.
Greater the charge on cation, greater the covalent character of ionic bond.
In case of two cations having same size and charge, the one with pseudo noble gas
configuration (with 18 e in outermost shell) has greater polarising power as compared
to the other with noble gas configuration (with 8 electrons in outermost shell).

RESONANCE
Only one lewis dot structure cannot explain the properties of the molecules as more than
one lewis structure may be possible for a molecule, these lewis dot structure are known as
Resonating Structures or Conical Forms. The actual structure is in between of all these
contributing structures and is known as Resonance Hybrid. This phenomenon is called
Resonance.

The canonical forms are only imaginary structures i.e do no exist in real.
The molecule does not exist for a certain fraction of time in one canonical form and for
other fractions of time in other canonical forms.
The difference between. energy of most stable resonating structure and Resonance
Hybrid is known as Resonance Energy.
 Explain structure of ion in terms of resonance.

Ans. Single lewis structure based on the presence of two single bonds and one double
bond between carbon and oxygen atoms is in adequate to represent the molecule
accurately as it represents unequal bonds.
According to experimental findings, all carbon to oxygen bonds in
are equivalent. Therefore the carbonate ion is best described as resonance hybrid of
canonical forms:-

VSEPR THEORY

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory explains the shape of molecules. Main
postulates of this theory:-
The number of valence shell electron pairs (bonded or non-bonded) present around the
central atom decides the shape of the molecules. (The shared electron pairs are called
bond pairs and unshared or non-bonding electrons are called lone pairs.
Electron pairs of valence shell repel one another because their electron clouds are
negative charged.
These electron pairs arrange themselves in such a way so that there is minimum repulsion
and maximum distance in between them.
Valence shell is considered as sphere in which electron pairs are localised on spherical
surface at maximum distance from one another.
A multiple bond is treated as, if it is a single electron pair and the two or three electron
pairs of a multiple bond are treated as a single super pair.
A lone pair occupies more space than a bonding pair, since it lies closer to central atom.
[LP--> Lone Pair, BP--> Bond Pair].
Order of Repulsion: (LP-LP) > (BP-LP) > (BP-BP)

Shape of Molecules on basis of VSEPR Theory:

It depends on (LP + BP) present around the central atom of a molecule as given in the table on
the next page:-
 Q. Predict the shape of on the basis of VSEPR theory.
Ans. Steps for doing these type of sawals:
(i) Identify central atom.
(ii) Calculate total number of electron pair around central atom.
N= [No. of valence e of central + no. of atoms linked to central]/2
(iii) No. of bond pairs = no. of atoms attached to central atom.
(iv) No. of lone pairs = no. of electron pairs - no. of atoms linked to central.
(v) If multiple bonds are present ---> consider as equivalent single bond.
(vi) Now use table.

Sol: For , no. of valence e on central atom (N) = 5+1

No. of atoms linked = 2
>>> N = [6=2]/2 = 4
No. of bond pairs = 2
No. of lone pairs = 2
>>> It is of type AB2E2 ---> Bent Shape (V-Shape).

VALENCE BOND THEORY

(VBT)
It is based on the knowledge of atomic orbitals, electronic configuration of elements , the
criteria of overlapping of atomic orbitals and the hybridisation of atomic orbitals and the
principles of variation and superposition.
Bond Enthalpy: The energy released during formation of a bond.

Orbital Overlap Concept

According to this concept , a covalent bond is formed by the overlapping of two
half- filled atomic orbitals , of valence shell having electrons with opposite spins.
Greater the overlapping of atomic orbits, stronger is the bond formed b/w two
atoms.
Types of Overlapping and Nature of Covalent Bonds:

Sigma Bond:- This typeof bond is formed by end to end (head-on) overlap of
bonding orbitals along the internuclear axis. It is also known as head on
overlap or axial overlap. This can be formed by any one of the following types
of combinations of atomic orbitals:-

s-s overlapping: Overlap of two half-filled s-orbitals along the internuclear

axis.
 s-p overlapping: This overlap takes place between half-filled s-orbitals of one atom
and half-filled p-orbitals of another atom.

p-p-overlapping: Occurs between half filled p-orbitals of the two approaching atoms.

pi bond: Atomic orbitals overlap in such a way that their axes remain parallel to each
other and perpendicular to internuclear axis. The orbitals formed due to side wise
overlapping of two saucer type charged clouds above and below the plane of
participating atoms.

### Pi bond is a weaker bond as compared to sigma bond due to smaller extent of
overlapping. In the formation of multiple bonds (double or triple bonds) between two
atoms of a molecule, pi bond(s) is formed in addition to a sigma bond. eg: a double bond
contains one sigma and one pi bond, whereas a triple bond contains one sigma and two
pi bonds.

HYBRIDISATION:
The atomic orbitals mix together to generate a new set of equivalent orbitals, called the
hybrid orbitals or hybridised orbitals. These orbitals are used in bond formation. The
phenomenon is called Hybridisation.
Salient Features of Hybridisation:
The number of hybrid orbitals generated is equal to the number of the atomic orbitals
that hybridised.
The hybridised orbitals are always equivalent in energy and shape.
The hybrid orbitals are more effective in forming stable bonds than the pure atomic
orbitals.
These hybrid orbitals arrange themselves in space in such a direction so that there is
minimum repulsion between electron pairs and thus a stable arrangement is obtained.
Therefore, the type of hybridisation indicates the geometry of the molecules.

Important Conditions for Hybridisation:

Only valence shell orbitals of an atom take part in hybridisation.
The orbitals undergoing hybridisation should have almost equal energy.
Promotion of electron is not essential condition prior to hybridisation.
It is not necessary that only half filled orbitals involve in the hybridisation In some cases
, even filled orbitals of valence shell can also involve in hybridisation .

*Read MOT from NCERT (As each and every line of that topic from NCERT is important
 Intermolecular Force
Thermal energy
Measurement of volume
Measurement of Temperature

Boyle's law [significances]

Charle's law [ application]
Gay Lussac's law
Avogadro's law

Ideal gas equation [ derivation]

Dalton's Law of partial Pressure
States Of Matter Kinetic molecular theory of gases
Compressibility factors

Cause of deviation from ideal

behaviour
Van der Waals equation
[significance ]
Liquefaction of Gases
Difference between vapour and gas
Continuity of gas
vapour pressure of a liquid
Boiling point [application]
surface tension
viscosity
 States of matter

Intermolecular force: The forces of attraction existing among the molecules of

substances are called Intermolecular forces

The intermolecular forces arise due to any one of the following interactions:
a) Dipole-dipole interaction
b) Ion-dipole interaction
c) Ion-induced dipole interaction
d) Dipole-induced dipole interaction
e)Dispersion forces
f) Hydrogen bonding

Dipole-dipole interactions = These forces of attraction occur among the polar

molecules. eg: SO2 molecules, HCL molecules.

Dipole-induced dipole interactions = A non-polar molecule may be polarized by

the presence of a polar molecule near it, thereby making it an induced dipole.
The interactions between them are called dipole-induced dipole interactions
eg: HU & I2
Dispersion force or London forces: These forces of attraction occur among
nonpolar molecules like Ne, Ar, N₂, T₂, etc. It is believed that at any instant of
time, the electron cloud of the molecule" may be distorted so that an
instantaneous dipole or momentary dipole is produced in which one part of the
molecule is slightly more negative than the rest. The momentary dipoles
induce dipoles in the heigh- Lousing molecule. "Then, there is an attraction
between the induced momentary dipole forces is called dispersion forces.

It is the weakest intermolecular force. Their magnitude depends upon the

following two factors.
1.)size of molecules - Larger the molecule greater the magnitude of London
forces.
2)Geometry of the molecules: In straight chain compounds due to large
surface area, greater is the magnitude of London force.

Increasing order of intermolecular force. →

Gas < Liquid< Solid

Thermal energy The energy possessed by the molecule due to temp. is called
thermal energy. It results in the movement of the molecules and hence tries to
keep them apart

. The increasing order of thermal energy-

Solid < Liquid < Gas

Gaseous state

Measurement of mass: The mass of a gas can be determined by weighing the

container containing the gas, and then weighing the empty container again.
The difference between the two masses gives the mass of the gas. It is
expressed in terms of moles;
moles- no of moles (n) = Mars in grams W) /Molar mass (M)

Measurement of volume (V) = The volume of gas is equal to the volume of its
container. Units are:
Im³ = 1000 litre
litre = 1 dm³ = 1000 ml or cc or Cm³

Measurement of Pressure (p): The instrument. used for the measurement of the
atmospheric press. is called a barometer
The instrument used for the measurement of the pressure of a gas is called a
5 2
manometer.
5

Pressure (P) = hg

1 atm = 76cm = 760 mm or 760 torr

1 atm = 1.01325 bar = 1.01325 x10 Pa or Nm
1 bar = 10 Pa 0.987 atm

Measurement of temp: It is a measure of the extent of hotness or the

coldness of a body.
K = °C + 273.15
°F =9/5 (°C) +32

Gas Law's

Boyle's Law

Boyle's Law: Temperature remaining constant, the volume of a given mass of a

gas is inversely proportional to its pressure

ie, V 1/p [At constant Temp.]

or V= K × 1/p or [PV=k]

where k = constant whose value depends upon the mass of the Gas and temp.
This constant is called the Boyle constant.

Boyle's Law may also be stated as follows:

"Temp. remaining constant, the product of pressure and volume of a given mass
of a gas is constant"
Isotherm; A P-V curve at constant temp. is called an isotherm.

Significance of Boyle'sLow = if m is the mass of the gar and V is its volume,

then density (d) = m/v

Acc. to Boyle's Law - PV =k v=k/p

or d=m×p/(k) = m×p/k
At constant temp., for a fixed mass of the gas,
d p

At constant temp, for a fixed mass of the gas, demit is directly proportional
to pressure.

At altitude, as the atmospheric pressure is low, the air is less dense. As a

result, less oxygen is available for breathing. The person feels" weakness.
This is called altitude sickness or anoxia. That is why mountaineers have to
carry oxygen cylinders with them.

Problem
1. A vessel of 120ml capacity contains a certain mass of a gas at 20°C and
750 mm press. The gas was transferred to a vessel whose volume is 180 ml.
Calculate the press. of the gas at 20°C.

2. A balloon is filled with h2 gas at room temp. It will burst if pressure

exceeds 0.2 bar. If at 1 bar pressure, the gas occupies a 2.27-litre volume,
up to "What volume can the balloon be expanded?

1. ans= 500mm 2. ans= 11.35 liter [beyond]

Charle's Law

Charle's Law: Pressure remaining constant, the volume of a given mass of a

gas increases or decreases by 1/273 of its volume at O°C for every 1°C rise or
fall in temp.
if we extrapolate this straight line, it will meet the temp. axis at -273°C. Thus,
at -273°C, a gas occupies zero volume.
Isobar: At constant pressure, each line in the V-t plots is called an isobar.

Acc. do Charle's laws Vt = Vo (273+t/273)

Putting 273+4= T The corresponding temp in the Kelvin scale, we get
Vt = Vo (T/273)

As Vo & 273 are constant, Hence Vt T or V T or V=KT

V/T = K (constant)
where k = constant depends upon the amount of the gas and pressure.
Charles Law may also be stated as follows: "Pressure remaining constant,
the volume of a given mass of a gas is directly proportional to its
temperature in Kelvin."
For numerical = V1/T1 = V2/T2

Application of Charles's law: Air expands on heating and hence its density
decrease. Thus, hot air is lighter than atmospheric air. This fact is made use of
in filling hot air in the balloons which rise up for meteorological observation

Absolute zero - The Lowest possible hypothetical - temp. of -273°C at which

gas is supposed to have zero volume is called absolute zero.

Gay-Lussac's Law or Amonton's Law:- Volume remaining constant, pressure of

a given mass of a gas increases or decreases by 1/273 of its pressure at 0℃
for every 1°C rise or fall in temp.

ie Pt=Po(1+t/273) = Po(273+t/273) = Po(t/273)

where Pt= press.of gas at t°C
Po=Press.of a gas at 0°C

As Po and 273 are constant Hence Pt T or p T or P=kt or P/T = k

[constant] depends on mass volume

"Volume remaining constant, and the pressure of a given mass of a gas is

directly proportional to its temp. in degrees Kelvin"

for numerical P1/T1 = P2/ T2

Avogadro's Law - Equal volumes of all gases under the same conditions of
temp and pressure contain equal no of molecules
ie V N at same temp and pressure

STP (Standard temp. & press) !== T=273K, P=1bar Vn = 22.7 litres.
NTP (Normal temp. & Press) T=273k P=1atm Vm = 22.4 litres
SATP (Stemdard ambient temp. and press.) = T=298 P=1bar Vm = 24.789 litres

Problem
1) 20 ml of Hydrogen measured at 15°C are heated to 35°C. What is the new
volume at same pressure? Ans = 21.3
2) On a ship sailing in pacific ocean where the temp is 23.4°C) a balloon is
filled with 2 litres air. What will be the volume of the balloon when the ship
reaches indian ocean where temp. is 26.1 °C ?" (Ans 2.01ttres)

Ideal gas equation: The equation which gives the simultaneous effect of
pressure and temp. on the volume of a gas is known as ideal gas equation. or
equation of state for an ideal gas
Derivation of ideal gas :
Acc to Boyle's law V 1/p at constant T---(i)
Acc to Charle's Law V T at constant P----(ii)
Acc to Avogadro's law V n at constant T & P
Combining (i) (ii) (iii)
V nT/p
V = RnT/ p
PV = nRt
where R = universal Gas constant For 1 mole of gas constant
for 1 mole of gas PV = RT

Ideal gas equation in terms of density :

We know that PV = nRT
if W is the mass of the gas in grams and M is the molecular mass of the gas
then n=W/m
pv = w/m RT
or PM = dRT W/V = d [ density ]
P d or d p
Thus at constant temp, density of a gas is proportional to the pressure of the
gas
-1 -1
value of R = 0.0821 Latm k mol
-1 -1
0.083 Lbar K mol
-1 -1
8.314 JK mol
-1
-3 -1
8.314 x 10 KJ k mol
Problems
1) At 25°C and 760mm of Hg pressure, a gas occupies 600ml volume. what will
be its pressure at a height where the temp is 10°C and the volume of the gas is
640ml? (Ans = 676.6 mm)

2) 35 ml of oxygen was collected at 6°C and 758 mm pressure. Calculate its

volume at NTP. (Ans =34.16ml)

3) 8 g of methane is placed in 5 litre container at - 27°C Find Boyle constant.

(ans = 12.315)

4) calculate the volume occupied by 8.8 g of CO2 at 31.1°C and I bar.

(ans = 5.05 litre)

5) 2.9 g of a gas at 95°C occupied the same volume as 0.184 g of Hydrogen at

17°C at the same pressure. what is the molar mass of the gas? (Ans = 40 gmol")
-
-3
(6) Calculate the temp. of 4 moles of a gas occupying 5dm at 3.32 bar.
(ans = 50k)
(7) A student forgot to add the reaction mixture to the round bottemed flask
at 27°C but instead, He/she placed the flank on the flame. After a lapse of
time, he realized his mistake, and using a pyrometer, he found the temp. of
the fast was 477°C. What fractions of air would have been expelled out?
(Ans 3/5}

8)Density of a gas is found to be 5.46 g/dm³ at 27 °C and at 2 bar pressure,

what will be its density at STP? (An=3)

9) 34.05 ml of phosphorous vapor weighs 0.0625 g at 546°C and I ban

pressure what in the molar mass of Phosphorous? (Ans-125)

10) At 0°C, the density of a gaseous oxide at 2 bar is the same as that of
nitrogen at 5 bar. what is the molecular mass of the oxide? (Ans=70gmol)

11) Pressure of 1 g of an ideal gas A at 27°C is found to be 2 bar when 2 g of

another ideal gas. B is introduced in the same flask at the same temp., the
pressure. becomes 3 bar. Find the relationship between their molecular
masses. [Ans:- Mb = 4MA].

(12) The density of gas is found to be 3.43.g/l at 300k and 1 atm pressure.
Calculate the molar mass of the gas. (Ans=84.54)

Dalton's Law of partial pressures:

Dalton's Law of partial pressures: If two or more non-reacting gases are

enclosed in a vessel, the total pressure of the gaseous mixture is equal to the
sum of the partial pressures of each gas at the same temp. Let PA-PB and Pc
are the partial pressures of the gases A, B, and C respectively. • The total
pressure of the gaseous mixture (P) is given as.

P = Pa + Pb + Pc
Aqueous tension: The pressure due to water vapours is called aqueous
tension.

Pdrygas = Pmoistgas - Aqueos tension

Problems

1) 38 ml of moist N₂ gas were collected at 27°C and 746.5mm pressure,

calculate the volume of the gas at 0°C and 760mm pressure. (Aqueous tension
at 22°C is 26.5 mm) (Ans: 32.76 ml)

2) Calculate the total pressure in a mixture of 8 g of oxygen and 4g of hydrogen

confined in a vessel of 1 dm³ at 27°C [ans = 56.025]

3) what will be the pressure of the gas mixture when 0.5L of the at 0.8 bar and 2
litres of oxygen at 0.7 bar are introduced in a 1 litre vessel at 27°C?
(Ans 1.8 bar)

The partial pressure of gases interns of mole fraction :

Suppose at the temp T three gases, enclosed in the volume Vg exent partial
pressure p1 p₂ and p3 respectively. then,

p1 = n1RT/V ----(i)
p2 = n2RT/V---(ii)
p3 = n3RT/V---(iii)

where n1, n2 and n3 are no of moles of these gases. Thus the Total pressure
will be
Ptotal = p1+p2+p3
Ptotal = n1 RT/V + n2 RT/V + n3RT/V
Ptotal = (n1 + n2 + n3 ) RT/V ---- (iv)
 Kinetic mokalar theory of gases?

This Theory has been put forward by Clausius in 1857. The main points of
this theory are as follows

Every gas is made up of a large so of small particles called molecules. All

the molecules are identical in mass and size for particular gas and differ in
these from gas to gas.

The molecules of a gas are separated each other, by large distances to

read the actual Volume of the molecules is negligible as compared to the
total volume of the gas.

The distance of separation between the molecules are so large that the
forces of attraction or repulsion between them are negligible

The force of gravitation on the molecules is negligible.

The molecules are moving continuously in different directions with

different velocities. Hence They keep on colliding with one another, as
well as on the walls of the container.

The pressure exerted on the walls of the Container is due to the

bombardment of the molecule on the walls of the container

The collisions between molecules are perfectly elastic.

Since the molecules are moving with different velocities, they possess
different Kinetic energy. However, the average Kinetic energy of the
molecules of a gas is directly proportional to the absolute temp, of the
gas

Justification for the above postulates! -

1) Postulate (1) is in accordance with the particle nature of matter
2) Postulate (2) is justified that gases. highly are compressible
3) Postulate (3) is justified that gases expand and occupy the whole space
available to them
4) Postulate (4) a true because Gases will not be settled down in the
container
5) Postulate (5) is true because Gases will not be settled down in the
container
6) Postulate (7) is true because if there were force of friction among coll iding
molecules, they would have slowed down during every collision and
ultimately the molecules should have settled down which never happens
Extra
Kinetic gas equation PV = 1/3mnu²
where m = mass of each molecule of the gas
n=Totalno. of molecules present in volume V.
U= Root mean square speed of the gas

Ideal gases and Real gases: A gas that Obeys the ideal gas equation Pv = nrt
Under all conditions of temp and pressure is Called an ideal gas equation,
However, there is no which obeys I conditions of temp.. gas equation
under all c and press.
The gases are found to obey the gas laws fairly well if the pressure is low or
temp. is high. such gases. are known as real gases all gases are real gases

Compressibility factor (Z) its depends as Z = Pv/nrt

For a real gas Z is not equally to 1 [pv = nrt ]
For a real gas Z is not equal Hence two cases arrives

A]when Z<1 ( eg for Ch4 co2, etc) the gas is said to show negative deviation.
The gas compressible than expected from ideal behavior." It is due to
attractive force among the molecules. of gases.

when Z<1 (eg. for He, th) the gas is said to show positive deviation. The than
expected from ideal behaviour. gas S less compressible It is due to strong
repulsive forces among the ! molecules.

Greater the value of Z from unity, the greater the deviations from ideal
behaviour.
Significance of compressibility factor [z]
Z = PVreal / nRT
For ideal gas PVideal = nRT Videal = nRT /p
Z = Vreal/ Videal

Boyle temp. The temp at which a real gas like an ideal gas over a press range is
called boyle temp or boyle point

Q) why is mercury used in thermometers?

ans) 1) Mercury is a liquid that can flow but does not stick to glass.
2) It has a high coefficient of expansion so that even a small rise in temp.
brings about sufficient. expansion.

Q)Why is mercury used as a barometric liquid?.

1)Mercury is non-volatile at room temp. Hence, the vapour pressure due to
Mercury is negligible
(2) The height of the column in a barometer is inversely proportional to the
density of the liquid. as mercury has a very high density, the height of the
column setup is very convenient for study.

Cause of Deviation from the ideal behavior:

The real gases obey the ideal gas equation (PV=nRT) only if pressure is low or
temp is high. However, if the pressure is high or the temp is low, the "real"
geses show deviations due to the following reasons

The force of attraction on repulsion between the molecules may not be

negligible.
The volume occupied by the gas may be so small that the volume occupied
by the molecules may not be negligible.

Van der Waals equation or Equation of state for the real gases

To explain the behaviour of real geses, J.D. Van der Waals put forward the
modified equation, known after him as Vander wadly equation. The equation is

(P+a/v2 ) (v-b) = RT For 1 mole of the gas

2 2
(P+an /v (v-nb) = nRT For n mole of the gas

where a and b are called van der Waals constant their values depend upon the
nature of the gas.
Correction for volume: suppose the volume occupied by the gas molecules is v.
when the molecules are moving, thein effective volume is four times the actual
volume i.e. b = uv. Let us call it b. i.e. b=uve called excluded valume on co-
Volume). Thus, the free volume is available to the gas. molecules for movement,

Connected volume = (V-b) for one mole

corrected volume (v-nb) for n moles

Correction for pressure: A molecule (A) Lying Within the vessel is attracted
equally by other molecules on all sides but a molecule near the wall (B) is
attracted by the molecules inside. Hence it exerts less pressure. In other words,
the observed pressure is less than the ideal pressure.

Hence, corrected pressure P + p Evidently, the correction term p is proportional

to the density of the gas near the wall and the density of the gas inside. ie
p d²
But d 1/v for 1 mole
d n/v for n moles
Hence , p 1/v 2 for one mole p = a/v2
p n/v2 2
for n moles p = an2/ v 2

Corrected pressure = ( p + a/v2 ) for 1 mole

or corrected press = ( p + an2 / v2) for n moles
where 'a' is a constant depending upon the nature of the gas

Significance of Van der Waals constants:

1)Van der Waals constant "a" = Its value is a measure of the magnitude of the
attractive forces among the gas molecules. Greater the value of a larger are
the intermolecular forces of attraction
2
6 -2
units of a = atmL or bar dm mol
2) Van der Waals constant 'b' = Its value is a measure of the effective size of the
gas molecules. its value is equal to four times the actual volume of the gas
molecules

Extra
Explanation of the behavior of real gases by Vander Waal's equation

(i) At very low Press.) V is very large Hence a / v2 is so small that it can be
neglected similarly, b can be neglected. PV = RT. Therefore at very low press
real gases behave like ideal gases
(ii) At moderate pressure = V decreases Hence a/v increases and cannot be
neglected however V is large in comparison to 'b' can be neglected thus vander
waals equation becomes

( P + a/v 2 ) V = RT or Pv + a/v + RT
or, PV = RT - a/v
or PV / RT = 1- a /VRT or Z = 1- a /VRT
Z<1

2
(iii) At high press = V is so small that 'b' cannot be neglected. The factor a/v is
2
large but as p is very high a/v can be neglected in comparison of p. Thus
Vander waals equation becomes

P ( V-b ) = RT or PV = RT + bp
or PV / RT = 1 + bp / RT or Z = 1 + bp/ RT

Z>1 at high press

(iv) At high temp = V is very large at the constant press. therefore a/v² and b can
be neglected. Thus, Vanderwaals equation becomes, [PV=RT]
real gases behave like ideal I gases

Extra
Explanation of the exceptional behavior of h₂ and He

For h₂ and He Z is always greater than and increase with increase impress!
This is because h₂ and He are very small molecules, the intermolecular forces
of attraction in them are negligible ie. a is very very small so that a/v negligible.
Thus, Vanderwaal's equation becomes

P( V-b) = RT
or Z=1+bp/RT
Z>1

Liquefaction of gases: A gas can be liquefice by cooling or by application of

press. on the combined effect of both.
Criticaltemp: Critical temp. of a gas may be defined as that temp above which
gas cannot be liquefied howsoever high pressure may be applied on the gas.
The press. required to liquefy the gas at the critical temp. is called critical
press. The volume occupied by one mole of the gas at the critical temp. and the
critical pressure is called the critical volume.
eg critical constants for CO₂ are
Tc = 304.10K , Pc = 73.9 atm Vc = 95.6cm3 mol-1
Diff. between Vapour and gas: In terms of critical temp a gas can be liquefied
below the critical temp. by applying Press, therefore, Above the critical temp.,
it is a gas but below the critical temp, it is vapor

Continuity of state: It is possible to change a gas into liquid on liquid into a

process such that there is always a single-phase gas by present. Therefore, at
no stage during the process, we pass through the two-phase region. This is
called continuity of state between the liquid state.

Diff. between Ideal gas and real gas:

No gas is ideal All gases are real

It obeys Idealgas equation, PV It obeys vanderwaals equation
=nRT (P+an / v ) (V - nb ) = nRT
It obeys gas laws under all It obeys gas lows only under low
conditions of Tempand press press and high press.

Andrews Experiments on critical phenomena: Andrews studied the effect of

press. on the volume of CO2 at different constant temp. The plots obtained are
called isotherms. some of the isotherms thus obtained are shown in Fig.
At 13.1°C, at low pressure, CO₂ exists as a gas, as shown at the point A. As the
pressure is increased, the volume of the gas decrease along the curve AB at
the point B, Liquefaction of the gas starts. Hence Volume decreases rapidly
along BC because liquid has much less volume than the gas. At the point C,
liquefaction is complete. Now, the increase in press has very little effect upon
volume because liquids are very little compressible. Hence, C is obtained.

As the temp. is increased, horizontal

portion. becomes smaller and smaller
and at 30.98°C, it is reduced to a
point P. This means that above 30.98
°C, the gas cannot be liquefied at all,
however, high pressure may be
applied. Thus, 30.98 °C is the critical
temp. The corresponding press at
critical temp. is called cortical press
(73.9 atm). The volume y 1 mole of the
gas under these conditions is called
Crtical volume (95.6ml).
Problems
1. In terms of Charles's law explain why-273°C- is the lowest temp.
Ans: at -273°C, the Volume of gas becomes equal to zero

2. What would be the SI unit of the quantity PV² T/A

2
Ans: (Nm ) (m³) (k)² = Nm R² mol
-2

mol

3. Critical temp. for co2, and CH4 are 31. 1° Card - 81.9°C respectively. which of
these has a stronger Intermolecular force and why?
Ans: Higher, the cortical temp., the greater are the intermolecular force of
attraction. Hence, Co2, has stronger intermolecular forces than CH4.

4. A mixture of H2 and O2 at one bar pressure contains 20% by weight of H2

Calculate the partial pressure of h2?
Ans: 0.8bar

5. Payload is defined as the difference between the mass of the displaced air
and the mass of the balloon. Calculate the Payload when a balloon of radius 10m,
mass looks is filled with He at 1.66 bar at 27°C. ( Density of air = 1.2 kg/m³)
(Ans = 38 11.1 kg)

Liquid state

Vapour pressure of a liquid

Vapour pressure of a liquid - Vapour pressure of a liquid at any temp. may be

defined as the pressure extend. by the vapour present above the liquid in
equilibrium with the liquid at that temp.

factor's affecting vapour pressure :

1. Nature of liquid: if the intermolecular forces of attraction in the liquid are
weak, the molecules can easily leave the liquid and come into the vapour
phase and hence the vapour pressure is higher.
2. Temp: with an increase in temp kinetic energy of molecules. increase, as a
result, more no. of molecules of liquid can leave the surface of liquid and
hence vapour pressure increase
Applications: when a liquid evaporates, more energy molecules leave the
liquid. As a result, the average Kinetic energy of the remaining liquid decreases
and Hence the temp. falls of the liquid.
(cooling caused by evaporation)
Extra:
Clapeyron equations The effect of temp on VP. is given by this equation-

Boiling point: The boiling point of a liquid is defined as the temp. at which the
vapor pressure of the liquid becomes equal to the external press.
when the external pressure is 1 atm, the boiling point is called the normal
boiling point.
when the external pressure is I bar, the boiling point is called the standard
boiling point.

k3b: standard boiling point of a liquid is slightly less than the normal boiling
point because 1 bar is slightly less than 1 atm pressure [1atm = 1,013bar]

Applications
1. if the external pressure is high, then the boiling point of a liquid is high. That
is why in hospitals, surgical instruments are sterilized autoclaves in which
boiling point of water is raised by using a weight to cover the event
2. if the external pressure is decreased. then the boiling point of a liquid is low.
This is the reason that a liquid boils at a lower temp on the top of a
mountain therefore on hills, the use of a pressure cooker is essential for
cooking food.

Surface tension: surface tension of a liquid is defined as the force acting at

right angles to the surface along one-centimeter length of the surface.
[ S.I Unit of surface tension = Nm-1]

Factors affecting surface tension:

1. The nature of liquid & greater are the intermolecular forces of attractions,
the higher is the surface tension of that liquid
2. Temp: with increase in temp. the surface tension of liquid decrease
 Application
1. The spherical shape of liquid drops: The lowest energy state of a liquid will
be. when the surface area is minimum. surface tension tries to decrease the
surface area 1 of the liquid to the minimum. Therefore, The drops of liquid or
bubbles of gas are. • spherical because for a given. volume, a sphere has a
minimum surface area.
2. Fire polishing of glass: Sharp glass edges become smooth on heating. This is
because on heating, the glass melts and takes up rounded shape at the edges
which has a minimum surface area. It is called fire polishing of glass.
3. Rise of a liquid in a capillary tube: The liquid rises into the capillary tube to a
certain height. This is due to the inward pull of surface tension acting on the
surface which pushes the liquid into the Capillary tube.

Viscosity: The force of friction that one part of the liquid offers to another part of
the liquid is called viscosity
It has been found that the force of friction between two layers each having area
'A' cm², separated by a distance dx cm. and having a velocity difference of
dv cm/sec, is given by

F Adv/dx or F = n Adv/dx
where n = coefficient of viscosity and dv/dx = velocity gradist if dx=1cm, A = 1cm²
and dv = 1cm/sec. then f=n
coefficient of viscosity may be defined as the fonce of friction in dynes
required to mountain a velocity difference of 1cm/sec, between two paralle!
layers, 1 cm apart and each having an area of 1 cm2 Unit of n = dynes cm -2 sec.
or poise.

Factors affecting the viscosity

1. Nature of liquid: greater are the intermolecular forces of attraction in liquid,
higher is the viscosity of liquid.
2. Temp.: with increase of temp., Viscosity of liquid. decrease.
 Types of reaction
1. Reversible
2. Irreversible
Equilibrium
1. Physical equilibrium
2. Chemical equilibrium

Characteristics of physical
equilibrium
Characteristics of chemical
equilibrium
Low mass action
Low chemical equilibrium
Equilibrium constant

Relation b\w kp 4 ke
Characteristic of equilibrium,
Equilibrium constant
Types of chemical equilibrium
Expression for the equilibrium
constant
Application of equilibrium
constant
Factor affective equilibrium
Le chatiliers principle

Types of reaction
Ionic equilibrium
Brousted how concept
Lewis concept
Comparison of basic strength
Electrolyte
Relation b\w pH4 POH Polyprotic acids and poly acidic
Relation b\w ka 4k6 base
common Ion effect
Buffer solution
Types of buffer solution
Relation b\w solubility & solubility
product
 Equilibrium

Equilibrium represents the state of a reaction in which the properties like

temp, pressure, and concentration of the system do not show any change
with the passage of time. Equilibrium exists in reversible reactions.

There are two types of equilibrium-

Physical equilibrium - If the opposing process involves only physical

changes, the equilibrium is called physical equilibrium.
eg: (i) solid liquid
(ii)Liquid Gas
(iii) Solid Gas
(iv) Solid solution
(v) Gas solution

chemical equilibrium - If the opposing processes involve only chemical

changes, the -equilibrium is called chemical equilibrium.
eg (i) N2(g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH2(g)
(ii) Caco3 (s) CaO(s) + Co2(g)

Gas-solution equilibrium - The best example of this type of equilibirium is that

of a soda water bottle. The equal that exists within the bottle is

Co2(g) Co2 ( in solution )

 Two types of reaction are:

Reversible reactions: A reaction which takes place not only in the forward
direction but also in the backward direction under the same conditions is
called a reversible process,
A reaction in which not only the reactant [reacts to form the products under
certain - conditions but also the products react to vim reactants under the same
condition is called reversible reaction.

It is represented by putting a double arrow ( ) between reactants and products

eg : N₂ (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)
CacO3(s) Cao (s) + Co2 (g)

Irreversible reactions: If a reaction cannot take place in the reverse direction i.e
the products form do not react to give. back the reactants under the same
conditions. It is called an irreversible reaction.
It is represented by putting a single arrow ( ) between the reactants and
products. pointing from reactants to products.
eg 2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO (s)
factors affecting solubility of gas in liquids

Temp: With the increase in temp, the solubility of a gas in liquid decrease.
This is because the dissolution of your in liquid is an exothermic process

K3b In warm water. aquatic animals. survive due to the water. availability of less
oxygen in the water

Pressure; with an increase of pressure of gas, its solubility increase in liquid

at a constant temp

Henry's Law - The solubility of a gas in liquid Henry's is directly proportional to

the pressure of the gas above the liquid at a constant temp.
eg M P
M = p K = Henry constant m = mass of he gas in liquid
p = pressure of the gas

Characteristics of physical equilibrium.

At equilibrium, some observable properties of the system become constant

Equilibrium involving gases can be attained only in the closed vessel
Equilibrium is dynamic in nature
At equilibrium, the concentration of the different substances becomes
constant at a constant temp.
The magnitude of the equilibrium constant represents the extent to which
the process proceeds before equal. is obtained

Characteristics of Chemical equilibrium.

At equilibrium (Equil) the Conc. of each of the reactants of and the products
becomes constant.
At Equil the rate of forward reaction becomes equal to the rate of backward
reaction and hence the equil is dynamic in nature
A chemical equil. can be stabilized only if none of the products is allowed
to escape out or separate out as a solid
Equilibrium can be attained from either direction
A catalyst does not alter the state of equill. only equili.attains quickly
K3b
Law of mass action -
This law was given by Guldberg and Waage. Consider a reaction,
Reactants Products
Rate [R]
Rate = [R] (Where K is rate constant or velocity constant )

It states as follows" "The rate of a reaction proportional to the active mass

of the reactant...

Considering a reaction -
aA+bB product
a b
rate [A] [B]
a b
rate = K [A] [B]
It states as follows " The rate of a reaction is proportional to the product of
active masses of the reactants, is raised to the power equal to its
stoichiometric coefficients represented by the balanced chemical equation

Law of chemical equilibrium -

Consider a reversible reaction, aA + bB → xx+yY
Acc. to law of mass action,
a b
Rate of forward reaction [A] [B]
a b
Rate of forward reaction = Kf [A] [B]
(Where Kf = rate constant of forward reaction )

x y
Rate of backward reaction [X] [Y]
x y
Rate of backward reaction = Kb[X] [Y]
(where Kb is rate constant of backward reaction )

At equilibrium
Rate of forward reaction = Rate of backward reaction
a x y
Kf [A] [B] = Kb [X] [Y]
a b
kf/kb = [X] [Y] / [A] [B]

At constant temp, as Kf and Kb are constant therefore Kf/Ks = Ke is also

constant at constant temp , This is called equilibrium constant
x y a b
Ke = [X] [Y] / [A] [B]
Define equilibrium constant: The product of the mole concentrations of the
products, each raised to the power equal to its stoichiometric coefficients
divided by the product of mole concentration of the reactants each raised to the
power equal to is stoichiometric panzer coefficient is constant at constant temp
and is called equil constant.

for gas-phase reaction-

aA(g) + bB(g) xX(g) + yY(g)
the equilibrium constant (Kp) in terms of pressure
x x a b
Kp = Px . Py / Pa. Pb

(where Px,py,Pa,Pb are partial pressure of gas X,Y,A,B responsibility )

[Partial Press. of gas 'A' = XaXPtotal]

k3b Relation between Kp and Ke :

Consider a gas phase reversible reaction
aA(g) + bB(g) xX(g) + yY(g)
Equilibrium is constant in terms of conc.
x y a b
Ke = [X] [Y] / [A] [B]
where [A] [B] [X] [Y] represents the molar conc. of A B X Y respectively

The equilibrium constant in terms of pressure

x y a b
Kp = [Px] [Py] / [Pa] [Pb]

Where Pa Pb Px Py are partial pressure of gases A B X Y respectively

From Ideal gas equation,
PV = nRT
or P = n/v RT
P = [ ] RT ( where n/v = [ ] ( molar conc. )
For a gas A, Pa = [A]RT
For a gas B, Pb = [B]RT
For a gas X, Px = [X]RT
For a gas B, Py = [Y]RT

Putting the value of Pa Pb Px Py in eq

where = [x+y] - [a+b]
= moles of gas product mole of gas reacted

Characteristics of the equilibrium constant

1.The value of the equilibrium constant for a particular reaction is always
constant depending only upon the temp of the reaction and is independent
of the conc. cone of reactants.
2. If the reaction is reversed, the value of quilibrium constant is reversed i...
Kc = 1/kc
3. If the equation ( having equilibrium constant k) is multiplied by 2 the
equilibrium constant for the new equation is the square of k

ie k' = k
For a reaction 2A B+C K = [B] [C]
For a reaction 2A 2B+ 2C
2 2 4 2
K' = [B] [C] /[A] = ( [B] [C] / [A] )
K' = K

4. If the equation ( having equilibrium constant k) is divided by 2 the

equatiolibrium constant for the new equation by the new equation is the
square root of k
ie

5. If the equation (having equilibrium constant ) is written in two steps [having

equilibrium constants K K2 ] the K' = k2
eg for a reaction N2 + 2O2 2No2
 K = [NO2] / [N2] [O2]
Suppose the reaction takes place in 2 steps -
2
step (i) N2 + O2 2NO K1 = [NO2] / [N2] [O2]
2 2
Step (ii) N2 =+ O2 2NO2 K2 = [NO2] / [NO] [O2]
Therefore,
2
2 2
K1, k2 = [No] / [N2] [O2] x [NO2] / [NO] [O2]
2 2
= [NO2] / [N2] [O2] = K

6. The value of equilibrium constant is not effected by the addition of a catalyst

to the reaction

Effect of temp on equilibrium constant

Effect of temp on the equilibrium constant on endothermic reaction, the

value of equilibrium. constant increases with an increase in teme. For an
exothermic reaction, the value of the equilibrium constant decreases with an
increase in temp.
extra:
Van't half equation =

Types of Chemical equilibria

1. Homogeneous equilibrium - when in an equilibrium reaction, all the

reactants and the products are present in the same phase, it is called a
homogeneous equilibrium
Eg (i) N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3(g)
(ii) CH3COOH (aq) + C2H5OH (aq) CH3COOC2H5 (ag) + H2O (l)

2. Heterogenous equilibrium - when in an equilibrium reaction, all the

reactants and the products are present in two or more phases, it is called as
heterogeneous equilibrium. example
(i) CaCo3 (s) Cao (s) + Co2 (g)
(ii) C (s) + H2O(g) co(g) + H2 (g)
Writing expression for equilibrium constant

The active mass of a pure solid or pure liquid (present in excess) is constant.
In these cases, we put their active mass to unity (I ).

[Pure solid ] = 1 & [Pure liquid] = 1

Explanation - Active mass of substance means -

Active mass = moles of substance/volume of substance

Active mass = Mass of substance/ Molar mass of a subs x volume of subs
Active mass = Density of substances / Molar mass of a substance

As density of a particular pure substance at a particular temp. is the constant

and the molecular mass of the substance is also constant Therefore molar
concentration is constant.

molas concentration = active mass)

Applications of Equilibrium constant

1. Predict the extent of the reaction: The magnitude" of the equilibrium

constant gives relative amounts of reactants and products.

(a) Large values of the equi constant (> 10 ) show that forward reaction is
favored i.e concentration of products is much larger than that of the reactants

(b)Low value of the equi constant (<10 ). shows that backward reaction is
favoured i e conc. of reactants is much larger than that of the products.
Products

(c) Intermediate value of equilibrium constant (10 to 10 ) shows that the

concentration of the reactants and products are comparable,
(ii) Predicting the direction of the reaction- for the reaction- For the reaction
aA + bB xX + yY at any stage of the reaction, other than the stage of
chemical equilibrium, concentration ratio as given by the expression for the
law of chemical equilibrium, is called concentration quotient. It is represented
2 2 2 2
by Qc Thus "Concentration Quatient, Qc. = [x] [y] / [A] [B]

(a) if Qc = Kc, the reaction is in equilibrium.

(b) if Qc > Ke , Qc will tend to decrease so as to become equal to Ke.As a
result , the reaction will proceed in backward direction
(c) if Qc < Ke , Qc will tend to increase as a result , the reaction will proceed in
forward direction

Simalarly Qp can also be used

x y a b
Qp = Px. Py / Pa . Pb

Factors affecting equilibrium.

1. Change of conct. of reactants or product

2. Change of temp.
3. Change of press.
4. Addition of catalyst:The addition of catalyst does not disturb the
equilibrium However, it helps in the attainment of equilibrium quickly.
5. Addition of inert gases (like Ne, He, N, etc). Addition of inert gases at
constant volume has no effect on the state of quiliberum whereas at
constant pressure, the equilibrium shifts towards langer no of moles of
gases.

k3b: Le Chatelier's Principle 'if a system in equilibrium is subjected to

change of concentration and temperature. or pressure, the equilibrium shifts
in a direction that tends to undo the effect of the change imposed'

1. Effect of change of concentration -

Adding of reactant, equil. shifts in the forward direction.
adding of product, equil. shifts in backward. direction
Removal Of -reactants, equil shifts in backward direction
Removal Of -Products , equil shifts in Forward direction
2.Effect of change of temperatura-
A. For endothermic reaction-
R P - Heat
R H = +ve
with increase in temp, equil. shifts in forward direction
with decrease in temp equil shifts in backward direction

B. For exothermic reaction :

R P + heat
or R P
with increase in temp, equil. shifts in the backward direction
with decrease in temp equil shifts in the Forward direction

3. Effect of change of pressure.

with increase of pressure, equil. shifts in the towards less no. of moles of
gases.
with decrease of pressure, équill shifts towards Larger no. of moles of gases.
if no. of moles of gaseous reactants and product are equal no effect of
pressure on equilibrium is observed

4. Effect of change of volume (opposite of pressure)

Q for a reaction, 2N2o (g) +0₂ = 4NO(g) What will be the effect on equillbutum
when
(a) the volume of the vessel increase
(b) temp decrease
Ans: (a) . with increase in volume, equil. shife forward direction
b). For endothermic process, with decrease in temp equil shifts in backward
direction.

For the value of equilibrium constant concentration of reactants and

products at equilibrium is required.
Eg: 2Nh3 n2(g) + 3H2(g)
0 0
x 3x
Initial conc. 0.21mol/L
Equi conc. (0.21 - 2x)
3 2
kc = [N2] [H2] /[NH3]
2
3
Kc = X x (3x) / (0.21 - 2x)
 if Kc < 10 -3
[R] - Max [P] - min.
Equil conc.( 0.21 - 2x) = 0.21
Kp = Kc (RT) [ R = 0.0821 ]

Ionic Equilibrium

Various concepts of acids and bases-

(1) Classical concept
Acid - Acid is a substance whose aqueous sol? possessed the following
characteristic properties.
(a) conducts electricity, (b) Turns blue litmus red
(c) sour în taste

Base - Base is a substance whose aqueous sol? possessed the following

characteristics properties
(a) conducts electricity (b) Turns red litmus blue
[c] Bitter in taste.

(2) Arrhenius's concept.

Acid = It is defined as a substance that contains hydrogen and which when
dissolve into water gives hydrogen ion (H+)

Base: It is defined as a substance that contains a hydroxyl group and which

when dissolved into Water gives hydroxide ion (OH-)
eg : NaoH KoH Mg(oh)2 NH4OH etc
NaoH (aq) --- Na+(aq) + OH- (aq)

K3b
3.Bronsted Lowry concept :
Bronsted Acid: Acid is a proton (h+) donor
eg- HCl CH3COOH, H3O+ etc

Bronsted Base : Base is a proton (H=) acceptor

eg- NH3 , OH - ,Cl-, etc
Conjugate acid-base pair - A pair of acid and base that differ by H+ lon is called
conjugate Acid Base pair. eg. HCL and Cl-

K3b - (a) Formation of conjugate acid & Add H+

(b) Formation of Conjugate base - Remove H+
(c) Compare acidic and basic strength.
Strong acid > its conjugate base (weak)
weak acid > its conjugate base (strong )
(d) Amphoteric substance - Substance which" acts as an acid as well as base, is
called. amphoteric substance.
Eg H2O HSO4- HCO3- NH3 etc

Q) What will be the conjugate base for the following Bronsted acids ?
HF, H₂SO4 HCO3 CH3COOH
Ans- conjugate bases = F-, HSO4-, CO3 (2-), CH3COO-

Q) Write the conjugate acids for the following bronsted Base?

NH2- ,NH3, HCOO- Cl- HsO4-
Ans - Conjugate acids = NH3, NH4+, HCOOH,HCl H2SO4

Q) Write the conjugate acids as well as the Conjugate base of the following -
H2O , HCO3- ,NH3
Ans - Conjugate acid - H3O+ , HCO3H , NH4+
Conjugate base - OH- , CO3(2-) , NH2-

Polyprotic Lacids Polybasic acids : Acids which contain more than one protons
are called polyprotic acids. Eg H₂ SO4, H₂CO3, H3PO4 etc
H2SO4 ===> 2H+ + SO42-

4. Lewis concept >

Lewis acids=> An acid is an electron pair. acceptor

Types of Lewis Acid- (four types) -

(a) Molecules having a central atom with incomplete octet- eg. BCl , BBr3 AlCl,
etc.
(b) Simple cations - eg - Ag+, Cu²+, Fe 3+, etc.
(c) Molecules having central atom with empty d-orbitals. eg- siF4, pF5,SnCl4
etc
(d) Molecules containing Leg- CO a polar multiple bond.

Lewis Base - Base is an electron pair donor.

Types of Lewis Bases => (two types)
(a) All negative ions eg : I- , Cl-.OH-,CN- etc
(b)Neutral molecules like
in which one of the atom contains lone pairs

Q)Classify the following species into Lewis Acid and Lewis bases.

Comparison of acidic strength

A. For organic acids => weak Arrhenius acid
-I , -R effect => Increase acidic strength
+I , +R effect => decrease acidic strength
eg CH3COOH < ClCH2COOH
( -I ) Strong acid

B. For other acid => Apply lewis acid concept with increase in electronegativity
, acidic strength increases
eg CH4<NH3<H2O<HF
(strong acid due to more E.N of F atom)

With increase in ox state acidic strength increase

+1 +3 +5 +7
eg HOCL < HCLO2 < HCLO3 < HCLO4
(strong acid due to Higher ox state)

Exception: 1. HF < HCL<HBL<HI (STRONG ACID )

2. H2O < H2SE< H2Te (STRONG ACID)
This is due to low bond energy
 3. BF3 < BCL3<BBR3< BI3 (Absence of )
(weak acid this is due to back bonding )

Comparision of Basic strength.

(a) For metals with a decrease in E N, basic strength increases
(b) With a decrease in ox state, basic strength increases
Eg : LiOH < NaoH < KOH < RboH < CsOH ( strong base )
NaOH > Mg(oH)2 > Al(OH)3
(strong base due to less E.N of Na metal )

Existence of H+ ions in aqueous solution -

Existence of OH- ions in aqueous solution -

Electrolyte

Electrolyte. It is defined as a compound whose aqueous solution or melt

conducts electricity
.There are 2 types of electrolytes
strong electrolytes. It is defined as a substance which dissociates almost
completely into ions in aqueous solution and conducts electricity to large
extent
eg-strong acids like HClO4, H₂SO4, HND3, Hcl, etc.
strong bases like NaOH, KOH, etc.
Salts => Nacl KCl, k2SO4, etc.
K3b : For strong electrolytes => degree of dissociation ( )
=1
Degree of dissociation ( ) = Moles dissociated / NO. of moles taken

Weak electrolytes: - It is defined as a substance which dissociates partly into

ions in an aqueous solution and conducts electricity to a small extent.
Eg : Weak acid - CH3COOH, H₂CO, etc.

Difference between Dissociation and Ionisations =>

Ionisation of weak electrolytes [Ostwald's dilution law]

when acetic acid (a weak electrolyte), is dissolved in water, it dissociates partly
into H+ ions and OH- ions and CH3COO- and the following equil is obtained
CH3COOH (aq) + H₂O (l) CH3COO- (AQ) + H3O+ (aq)
Applying law of chemical equil:
k = [CH3COO-] [H2O+] / [CH3COOH] [H2O]

In dilute solution, [ H2O] is constant The product of K and [H20] is denoted by

Ka the Ionisation constant or dissociation constant of acide thus,
Ka = [CH3COO-] [HO+] / [CH3COOH] -------(i)

f 'C' represents the initial conc. of the acid in mol L-1 and (degree of
dissociation). Then equil.. conc. of the ions (CH3COO -and H₂O+) is equal to
C and that of the undissociated acetic acid = c ( 1 - )
we have,

In case of very weak electrolyte <<<<1,

therefore ( 1 - ) =1

for a weak electrolyte the degree of ionization is inversely proportional to the

square root of molar concentration or directly proportional to the square root of
volume containing one mole of the solute/ electrolyte. This is called ostworld's
of dilution law.

Limitations -
It is applicable only for weak electrolytes in case of strong electrolytes,
=1 & ka = ∞
Dissociation ou conisation constant of base (k) :
The dissociation is a weak base (weak electrolyte). NH4OH in water can be.
represented as follows:
Polyprotic acids and polyacidic base :-
some acids like H₂SO4 H₂CO3, (carbonic acid), COOH (oxalic acid), H3PO4
( phosphoric acid) etc. contain more than one ionizable proton such acids are
"called polybasic or polyprotic acids. They ionize in steps (eg. H2S4)
H2SO4 (aq) + H₂O = H2SO4 + H3O+ (aq)

Where Ka = First ionisation constant of acid

ka2 = second ionisation constant of acid
the overall equilibrium may be obtained as follows
Simillary for tribasic acid like H3PO4
Ka = ka1 x ka2 x ka3
ka1>ka2>ka3
this is because, it is more difficult to remove a positively charged proton from a
negative ion due to electrostatic forces. Greater the charge on the negation
ion, more difficult it becomes to remove a proton

similarly, poly acidic base also ionizise in steps with ionisation constants
[Kb = kb1 x Kb2 & Kb1 > Kb2

Comparison of acidic strength of acids on the basis of the value of ionization

constants of a acid
[Strenght of acid (HA1)
=
[Strength of acid (HA2)

Comparison of basic strength of bases on the basis of value of ionization

constants of base Strength of base
[Strength of Base - 1
=
[Strength of Base - 2

Dissociation constant of water (K) and Ionic product of water (KW)

Pure water is a weak electrolyte . It is ionise to a very small extent as

This ionizationof water is called self ionization of water .

Applying law of chemical equilibrium
K = [H+] [OH-] / [H2O]
Where K = dissociation constant of water
[H2O] is constant , The product of k and [H2O] is represented by Kw, called
ionic product of water
[Kw = [H+] [OH-] & Kw = Kx [H2O]
K3B : Ionic product of water may be defined as the product of molar
concentration of H+ ions and "OH ions."
-14 -14
At 25°C Kw = 1·008 x 10 = 10
temp. increase , Kw = increase
-14
pure water [H+] [OH-] = Kw = 10
-7
[H+] [OH-] = 10 MOL -1

PH => .To determine the acidity and basicity of acids and bases according to pH
scale. pH = potenz de Hydrogen ion concentration.
-PH
PH = [H+] = -10
PH = -log [H+]
Similarly , POH = -log [OH-]
PKa = -log Ka
PKb = -log Kb
PKw = -log Kw
PH + POH = 14

K3B: Relation between ph and poh =>

We know that Kw = [H+] [OH-]
Taking log both sides
log Kw = log [H+] + log [OH-]
-14
At 298k , Kw = 10
-14
log 10 = log [H+] + log [OH-]
-14 log 10 = log [H+] + log [OH-]
-14 = log [H+] + log [OH-]
14 = -log [H+] + log [OH-]

[14 = ph + poh]
or, log Kw = log [H+] + log [OH-]
- log Kw = -log [H+] +(- log [OH-])
pKw = ph +poh
at 298k , pkw = 14
[14 = ph poh ]

Relation between Ka and Kb

consider a weak acid HF and its conjugate base f-
k3b: Common ion effect
If to an ionic equilibrium, AB = A + B- a salt containing a common lon (A*B or
DB). is added, the equil. shifts in the backward. direction, this is called
common ton effect). g- CH3COOH ( acetic acid), a weak electrolyte
dissociates in aqueous solution as follows-"
CH3COOH (aq) = CH3Coo- (aq) + H+ (aq) To this solution, suppose sodium
acetate is added, equil. shifts in backward direction and hence dissociation of
acetic acid decreases

Buffer Solution: It is defined as a solution which resists any change in its pH

value even when small amounts of the acid or the base are added to it.
Buffer action - The property of a buffer solution to resist any change in the pH
value even when small amount of the acid or the base are added to it is called
"buffer action

Types of Buffer solutions - Two types

(a) Solution of single substance- The solution of a salt of a weak acid and a
weak base
eg- CH3COONH4
(b) Solution of the mixture - two types
(i) Acidic Buffer - It is the solution of a weak acid and a salt of this weak acid
with an strong base
eg : CH3COOH + CH3CooNa
ph = pKa + log [salt)/ (Acid]
(ii) Basic buffer : It is the solution of a weak base and a salt of this weak base
with a strong acid :
eg ; NH4OH + NH4CL
poh = pkb = log [salt] / [base]

Solubility of sparingly soluble salt and its solubility product (K₁p). =>
suppose Agcl (sparingly solubility salt ) dissolves in water , the following equi.
exists
Agcl (s) Agcl(ag) Ag+ (aq) + cl- (aq)
or Agcl (s) Ag+(aq) + Cl - (aq)
applying law of chemical equilibrium ,

K = [Ag+] [Cl-] / [Agcl (s)]

K [Agcl] is constant hence ,
K [Agcl (s) ] = Ksp called solubility product

Ksp = [Ag+] [cl-]

Define Ks = It may be defined as the product of the molar concentrations of its
ions in a saturated solution, each concentration raised to the power equal to
the number of ions produced on the dissociation of the molecule of the
electrolyte.

Relation b/w solubility (s) & solubility product

Suppose the solu. of the following salt is mol /L
(i) Agcl (i) Ag+ (aq) + cl-(aq)
s s
Ksp = [Ag+] [cl-]
2
=S x S=S

(ii)Ag2CrO4 (s) 2Ag+ (aq) + CrO4(2-) (aq)

2s s
2 -2
Ksp = [ Ag+] [CrO4 ]
2
= (2s) x s
3
Ksp = 4s
k3b = for salt , AxBy
x y x+y
Ksp = X Y (s)
Q ) calculate the S.P of AgBr -
1
if its solubility is 5.7 x 10 mol L
AgBr (s) Ag+ (ag) + Br -(aq)
s s
Ksp = [Ag+] [Br+]
2
= S x S =S
Q ) Calculate the solubility product of Mg(OH)2 If it's solubility on saturated
-3
solution 8.352×10 g/litre
-3 -4
ans : solubility (s) = 8.352x10 g/L / 58g/mol= 1.44x10 mol
Mg(OH)2 (s) Mg2+ (aq) +2OH- (aq)
S 2S
2 3
Ksp = S x (2s) = 4S
-3
= 4 x ( 8.352 x 10 )
-11
= 1.194 x 10 ans

Q) The solubility product of Agcl in water is 1.5x10 Calculate its solubility in 0.01
M Nacl
ans: Agcl (s) Ag+(aq) + cl- (aq)
(S+ 0.0) = 0.01
Ksp = [Ag+] [Cl-]
Ksp = s (0.01)
-10
1.5 x 10 = 5x0.01
-10
-8
S = 1.5 x 10/0.01 = 1.5 x 10 mol / l

Condition for precipitation

Ionic product = [cation] [anion]
a) if I.P > Ksp, ppt form
b) if Cksp, salt dissociate
c) if I.P = Ksp , equil stage
 The classical concept of oxidation
and reduction
Electron transfer concept of
oxidation and reduction

Oxidizing and reducing agent

Oxidation number
Rules for calculating oxidation
number

Redox Reactions

Types of redox reactions

1. Combination Reaction
2. Decomposition Reaction
3. Displacement reaction
4. Disproportionation reaction
Balancing of Chemical reaction
=> Oxidation number method
 Redox Reactions

The Reaction in which oxidation and Reduction occur simultaneously are called
Redox Reaction
The classical concept of oxidation and reduction -
According to this concept, Oxidation is a process in which the addition of oxygen
or an electronegative element or the removal of Hydrogen or an electropositive
element takes place
for eg: 2Hg + O2 ---> 2Mgo ( add. of oxygen )
Mg + S ----> Mgs ( add. of electronegative element )
2NH3 ---> N2 + 3H2 ( removal of hydrogen )

A process in which the addition of Hydrogen or an electropositive element or the

removal of oxygen or an electronegative element takes place is called Reduction
eg: 2Hgo --> 2hg + O2 ( removal of oxygen)
C2H + H2 ----> C2H6 ( add. of Hydrogen )

Electron Transfer concept of oxidation & reduction -

According to this concept, a process in which electrons are less by an atom ion
or molecule ( i,e charge increases) is called oxidation
eg : Na ----> Na+ + e-
 A process in which electrons are gained by an atom, ion or molecule ( i,e
charge decreases) is called Reduction
eg : Cl + e- ---> cl-

Oxidising and Reducing Agent -->

An Oxidising agent is one which reduces itself and oxidised others or we can
say that an electron acceptor behaves like an oxidising agent or oxidant

A substance that itself gets oxidised and reduces others is called a Reducing
agent or Reductant

Ques: Justify the reaction ,

H2 converted to 2H- by the gain
of electron ie Reduction takes
place so it is Redox Reaction

Oxidation Number --> Oxidation No. of an element is equal to the net charge
present on that element in a molecule or ion. It is also called the Oxidation
state.
For eg; In NaH oxidation no.of Na is +1 and Hydrogen is -1
Rules for Calculating Oxidation No.-->
The oxidation no. of an element in a free state is always era. For eg H2, O2, P4,
Sb, Na, Fr etc.
The oxidation no.of group 1st element ( Li,Na,K,Rb,Cs) in their compound is
+1

Oxidation No.of Group 2nd element ( Br,Hg,Ca,Sr,Ba) in their compound is

+2

The oxidation state of Fluorine (F) is always -1

The Oxidation no of Hydrogen is +1 Ifit is attached with non-metal and -1 if

it is attached with metal

The oxidation no of oxygen is -2 , in provides like Na2O2 h2O2 etc (-O-O-)

is -1 except when oxygen is attached with fluorine like in O2F2 is O Is in +2
state and in O2F2 It is in +1

The such of the oxidation state of all the elements in a molecule or ion is
equal to the change an that molecule or ion
K3b : The Maximum Oxidation state is equal to the no. of electron present is
last shell.
for eg: sulphur has maximum oxidation state of 6.
ex; H2S2O8 --> 2 x (1)+ 2x + 8(-2) = 0
2 + 2x - 16 = 0
Sulphur has only 6 electrons in the last shell so, the max. oxidtion state is +6
.It means two oxygen are joined by oxidation state by structure --->
eg :

Types of redox reactions --->

1. Combination reaction --> A reaction in which two atoms or molecules

combine together to form a single molecule is called a Combination Reaction.

C + O2 ---> CO2
2. Decomposition Reaction ---> A reaction in which a single-molecule
breakdown to form two or more compounds. It is the reverse of a
combination reaction
eg 2NaOH ---> 2Na + H2O

3. Displacement Reaction --> A reaction in which an atom or a compound is

replaced by a more reactive atom or some other element is called a
Displacement reaction
eg X + YX ----> XZ + Y

It is of two types:
1. Metal Displacement Reaction ---> In this metal in a compound is
displaced by some other metal in elemental state
eg : CuSO4 + Zn ---> ZnSO4 + Cu

2. Non-metal Displacement Reaction: In this metal or non-metal displaced

other non-metal From its Compound.
eg: 2Na + 2H2O ---> 2NaoH +H2 ( H2 Dispalced )
Mg + 2HCl ----> Hgcl2 + H2

Very less reactive metals like silver, gold, etc. do not react with dilute
Hcl to release H2.
Reactivity of Metals ---> The Rate of evolution of H2 by metals from
water and Aqueous Acid can be used to determine the order of reactivity
of the metal. This order is called Electra - chemical series. In this series
metal are placed in decreasing order of reactivity ( Reactivity of metals
depend upon reducing nature )

Reactivity of non-metal ---> It depends on oxidizing power and in

halogens, oxidizing power decreases down the group. So fluorine is the
strongest oxidizing agent

Disproportion Reaction: ---> A reaction in which the same species is

oxidized as well as reduced is called Dis - proportionate Reaction
 Balancing of chemical reaction ---->

step 1. Write skeletal equation

Step 2. Indicate the oxidation no. of each element above its symbol and identify
the element which undergoes oxidation and reduction

Step 3. Calculate the increase or decrease in oxidation no. per atom

(if more than 1 atm is present then calculate the total change in oxidation no.)and
make the change equal by multiplying with a suitable no

Step 4 Balance all elements except Hydrogen and Oxygen

Step 5 Balance charge by adding H+ In an acidic medium and OH- in Basic

Medium

Step 6 Balance Hydrogen by adding water

Eg:
step (i).

.step (ii) Write the Oxidation no. of each element

step (ii) Identify the element oxidized & reduced

Step(iv) Cal. the change and make them equal

step (v) Balance all elements except O & H

step (vi) Balance change by adding H+

step (vii) Balance H by adding H20

 Hydrogen
isotopes of hydrogen
Allotropes of hydrogen
Resemblances with alkali
metals
Resemblances with
halogens
Difference from alkali
Dihydrogen
metals and halogens
Preparation
Uses
Hydrides
Ionic Hydrides
Covalent Molecular Hydrides
Metallic Hydrides
Hydrogen

Water
Physical properties
Chemical properties
H2O2 Hydrogen perioxides Structure of water
Preparation Heavy water
Storage Hard and soft water
Physical properties
Structure
Uses
Test
Chemical properties
 Hydrogen
• It was first discovered by Henry Cavendish in 1766.
• Its name Hydrogen was proposed by Lavoisier
Hydro means water and gene mean producer .

ISOTOPES OF HYDROGEN:-

Protium ¹H 1e, 1p, 0n .

Deuterium ²H or D 1e, 1p, 1n .
Tritium ³H or T 1e, 1p, 2n .
•Occurrence:- 99.98.44% H ,
0.015.6% D
10-¹⁵ % T

•Nuclear spin quantum number :- ½ H , 1 D ,½ T

•Tritium is radioactive and emits low ß particles Half life,
t½ 12.33 years .

ALLOTROPES OF HYDROGEN :-

Total spin +½+½ 1 Total spin +½-½ 0

•At room temperature 75% orthohydrogen & 25%
parahydrogen
•At about 20k 100% parahydrogen
•Thermal conductivity of parahydrogen is 50% greater
than that of Orthohydrogen .

•Hydrogen is the third most abundant element on the

surface of the globe. It is the ninth element in order of
abundance on earth's crust.

•Position of Hydrogen Hydrogen is the first element in

the periodic table. However, it could not have a proper
position in the periodic table due to the following reason.

i In some properties, it resembles alkali metals. As such, it

ca be placed in group 1 of the periodic table along with alkali
metals.
ii In some properties, it resembles Halogens. As such, it can
be placed in group 17 along with Halogens.

iii In some properties, hydrogen differs from both alkali

metals and halogens.
Thus, the position of Hydrogen in periodic table is
controversial or anomalous.
 I Resemblance with alkali metals
i Like alkali metals, hydrogen contains one electron in its
valence shell. H 1s¹ ,Li 1s² 2s¹
2 Like alkali metal, hydrogen loses its valence electron to
form the H+ ion.
H ----- H+ +e–
Li ------ li+ +e–
3 Like alkali metals,hydrogen exhibits an ox. state of +1 in
its compounds.
Example:- HCl & Nacl .
4 Like alkali metals,hydrogen also acts as a strong reducing
agent.
5 Like alkali metals, Hydrogen combines with non metals to
form compounds
Example:- H2O, Na2O, HCl, NaCl

II Resemblance with Halogens

1 Like halogens, Hydrogen shows an oxidation state of -1
Example:- NaH ,NaCl
2 Like halogens,hydrogen gains one electron to form H– ions
Hydride ion .
H+ e– ----- H–
Cl+e– ----- Cl–

3 Like halogons, hydrogen has one electron less than the.

stable configuration of the nearest inert gas.
H 1s¹ one electron less than He 1s²
F 1s² 2s² 2p⁵ one electron less than Ne 1s² 2s² 2p⁶

4 Like halogens, Hydrogen exists as diatomic molecules. H2 ,

Cl2, Br2
5 Like halogens, Hydrogen combines with non metals to form
covalent compounds. CH4, CCl4, NH3, NCl3.
III Difference from alkali metals and Halogens
1 Hydrogen is comparatively less electropositive than alkali
metals and less electronegative than halogens.
2 The oxides of alkali metals are basic and the oxides of
halogens are acidic but the oxides of hydrogen H2O is
neutral.

DIHYDROGEN H2

Preparation:-
1 Lab Method :-
a Zn + 2HCL ----- ZnCl2 +H2 g
b Zn + 2NaOH ----- Na2ZnO2 + H2O g
2 Commercial methods:-
a by electrolysis of acidified water using it electrodes
Electrolysis
2H2O l -------------------------- 2H2 g + 0₂ g

b High purity 799.95% H2 is obtained by electrolysis

of warm aqueus solution of Ba OH 2, between Ni
electron.

c high purity H2 is obtained by -

Mg +H2SO4--------- MgSO4+H2

d H2 gas is obtained as a byproduct the electrolyis of

aqueous solution of NaCl

2 Nacl aq + 2H₂ O l --------- 2 NaOH aq + Cl2 g +H2 g

¾e¿ From syngas¾ Bosch process¿
Syn-gas â Earlier 1:1 mixture of CO and H2 was called water
gas but now all mixtures of CO and H2 are called syn-gas
¾synthesis gas¿.

The reaction of steam on Hydrocarbons or coke at a high

temp. in the presence of a catalyst yields hydrogen.

Ni
CH4 g +H20 g --------------->CO g +3H2 g
1270K

Ni
C s +H20 g --------------->CO g +H2 g
1270K

•The process of producing synges from coke or coal is

called coal gasification.

•It is difficult to obtain pure H2 from syngas. since CO is

difficult to remove. Therefore, to obtain H2 from syngas, CO
of the syngas is oxidised to CO2 by mixing it with more
steam at 673K in the presence of Iron chromate as catalyst.
This reaction is called water gas shift reaction.

FeCrO4
CO g +H20 g ------------>CO2
673K
g +H2 g

•Physical Properties:- H2 is a colourless, tasteless and

odourless gas . Due to nonpolar nature,H2 insoluble in
water.

•Chemical properties:- H2 is inert at room temperature

due to its high bond dissociation enthalpy. H2
dissociates into atoms in only 0.081% at 2000k. which
increases to 95.5% at 5000k.
 5000k
H2 g ------------>2H g
95.5%

Atomic hydrogen is very reactive and combines with all the

element since its orbital is incomplete with 1s Configuration.
It reacts in three different ways
¾i¿ by loss of its one electron to form H+.
¾ii¿ by gain of one electron to form H- .
¾iii¿ by sharing it's electron with other atoms.
Therefore, most of the reactions of H2 occur at high
temp. ¾1¿Reaction with Halogens:- H2 +X2 -----ã2HX
¾where x â Cl,Br,I,F¿
¾2¿ Reaction with dioxygen:-2H2¾g¿+O2¾g¿-------ã2H2O¾l¿
¾3¿ Reaction with N2 :-N2¾g¿+3H2¾g¿----------ã2NH3
¾4¿ Reaction with metals:-H2¾g¿+2M¾g¿ ---------ã2MH
¾where Mâ Li,Na,K,Rb,Cs¿
¾5¿ Reaction with metal ions and Metal oxides:-
Pd2+ + H2¾g¿---------ãPd¾s¿+2H+¾aq¿
MxOy¾s¿ + yH2¾g¿ --------ãxM¾g¿ +yH2O¾l¿

¾where Mâãless reactive metalâãCu,Pd,Hg etc¿

¾6¿ Reaction with organic compound:-

¾a¿ Hydroformylation of olefins give aldehydes which
further undergo reduction to give alcohols.

R - CH â CH2 +CO+H2 -------------ãR-CH2CH2CHO

RCH2CH2CHO +H2 ----------------ãRCH2CH2CH2OH
¾b¿ Hydrogenation:-
Hydrogenation means addition of Hydrogen across double
and triple bonds to form saturated compounds.
Ni
Vegetable oil +H2-------------ãVegetable ghee
4473K

It is used in the manufacture of vegetable ghee from

vegetable oils. This process is also called hardening of oils.

Uses of Dihydrogen:-
¾1¿It is used in the manufacture of methanol
CO¾g¿+2H2¾g¿-------------ãCH3OH

¾2¿ It is used as a rocket fuel in space research.

¾3¿ It is used in fuel cells for generating electrical energy.
[Fuel cellâã It is a device which convents the energy,
produced during the combustion of a fuel directly into
electrical Energy. Eg. Hydrogen oxygen fuel cell it does not
cause any pollution.]
¾4¿Atomic hydrogen and oxy-hydrogen torches are used for
cutting and welding purposed.Since atomic hydrogen
atoms which produced by dissociation of H2 with the help
of an electric arc, are recombine on the surface of metal to
liberate a large amount of energy which generate the
temperature of 4000k.

2H -------------------ãH2¾g¿ [Delta Hâ-435.9KJ MOL-1]

HYDRIDES
Dihydrogen combines with a number of elements to
form binary compounds called Hydrides.
The hydrides are classified into three types-
¾i¿ Ionic Hydrides
¾ii¿Covalent hydrides
¾ii¿Metallic hydrides

Ionic Hydrides or saline or salt like hydrides

These are stoichiometric compounds of dihydrogens
formed with most of the s-block elements which are
highly electropositive in character. However BeH2 and
MgH2 have covalent polymeric structures.

Properties: These are white crystalline solids and their

crystal consist of ions C metal ions Hydride iones..
Random arrangement anemon
¾2¿ The density of these hydrides is higher than metals
from which they are formed. This is because H- ions
occupy holes in the lattice of the metal without distortion.
¾3¿ They have high m·p. and b. p.
¾4¿ They conduct electricity in the melt state and liberate
H2 gas at anode.

Anode:- 2H- melt --------> H2 g +2e-

¾5¿ They react violently with water to give H2 gas.
NaHN+H2O¾l¿-----------ã NaOH¾aq¿ +H2¾g¿
¾6¿ Lithium hydride is unreactive at moderate temp. with
O2 and Cl2. Therefore, It is used in the synthesis of other
useful hydrides.
Covalent or molecular hydrides
There are formed by p-block elements and some-s-
block elements ¾Be,Mg¿.These hydrides consist of
discrete covalent molecules which are held together by
weak vanden waals forces of attraction and hence are
called molecular hydride

Properties:-
¾1¿They are volatile compounds having low melting and
boiling points.

¾2¿ They do not conduct electricity.

Molecular hydrides are further classified into the

following three types.

¾a¿ Electron deficient hydrides: Hydrides of group ¾13¿

¾BH3, AlH3 etc¿ do not have sufficient number of
electrons to form normal covalent bonds and hence are
called electron deficient hydrides. They exist in
polymeric stage. Example B2H6 etc. ¾Be, Mg, group 13¿

¾b¿ Electron precise or electron exact hydrides-

Hydrides of group ¾14¿ ¾CH4 ,SiH4 etc¿ have exact no. of
electrons to form normal covalent bonds and hence are
called electronprecise hydrides. They have tetrarhedral
shapes.
¾c¿Electron rich hydrides: Hydrides of group 15,16 and 17
¾NH3,H2S, HF etc¿ have more electrons, than required to
form normal covalent bonds and hence are called
electron rich hydrides. The excess electrons in these
hydrides are present as lone pairsof electrons.
Metallic hydrides
•These are formed by many of d-block and f-block elements. In
group 6,Cr alone forms the halides CrH

•The metal of group 7, 8 and 9 do not form hydrides. The region

of the periodic table from groups 7 to 9 which do not form
hydrides is known as hydride gap.These hydrides have
properties similanto parent metals and hence are called
metallic hydrides. In these hydrides, small size hydrogen atoms
occupy some interstitial sites in the metallic lattice. That is why
they are also called interstitial hydrides

•Properties:-
1 They are hard, have a metallic lustre conduct electricity and
have magnetic properties.
2 The density of these hydrides is lower than those of metals
from which they are formed since the Crystal lattice expands
due to inclusion of H2
3 They are non stoichiometric.
Example:-LaH2.87, VH0.56
Conclusion: The process of adsorption of gas on metal is
known as occlusion.

On strong heating, these hydrides liberate hydrogen. Thus,

these hydrides can be used as hydrogen storage media.

WATER
Physical Properties :-
1 The freezing point, boiling point, heat of fusion
and heat of vaporization of water are higher than
that of H2S or H2Ve or H2Te. This is due to
presence of intermolecular hydrogen bonding in
H2O the molecules.
2 Due to its high dielectric constant 78.39 , water
is used as universal solvent.
Chemical properties:-

1 Amphoteric character : Water acts both as an acid and

as a base and hence is said to be amphoteric in character.

Eg: It can act as an acid towards NH3 and as a base to

H2O + NH3 ------> NH4+ + OH-
H2O +H2S --------> H3O+ + HS-

In terms of its amphoteric nature; autoprotolysis. self

ionisation of water may be represented as follows
H 2O + H2O -----------> H3O+ aq + 0H aq

2 Hydrolysis reaction:-Some Covalent and ionic compounds

are hydrolysed in water.
P4O10 s + 6H2O l -----> 4H3PO4 aq

SiCl4 l + 2H2O -----> SiO2 s + 4HCl aq

N3+ +3H2O ---------> NH3 g + 3OH- aq

3 Redox reactiom involving water:-

2 Na s +2H2O l ---------> 2 NaOH aq +H2 aq
6CO2 g +12H2O l ---------> C6H12O6 aq + 6H2O l +6O2 g
2F2 g + 2H2O l ---------> 4HF aq +O2 g

4 Hydrate formation:-
Many ionic compounds crystallise from water with one or
more molecules of water associated with them. This
water in combination with ionic salts is called water of
crystallisation and such crystals are called hydrated
salts.
These hydrates can be classified into the following three
categories:-
a Coordinated water. Example:- [Cu H2O 4]•SO4•H2O
b Hydrogen bonded water
c Interstitial water. Example:- BaCl2•2H2O

Structure of water
In the gas phase, water is a bent molecule with a
bond angle of 104.5°.

In the liquid state, water molecules are associated with

hydrogen bonds. High boiling point

The crystalline form of water is ice. At atmospheric

pressure ice trystallins in the hexagonal
form but at form very low temperature, it condenses to
cubic form.
In the normal hexagonal ice, each oxygen atom is
tetrahedrally surrounded by four other oxygen atoms ie.
there is a hydrogen atom between each pair of oxygen
atoms. This gives ice an open age like str. as shown in
figure.
It is clear that each oxygen is surrounded by four other
hydrogen atoms, two by strong covalent bonds and two by
weak hydrogen bonds. Since H-bonds are longer than covalent
bonds, the molecules of water are not closely packed in the
crystal lattice. In other words, there exists a no. of vacant
spaces in the Crystal lattice and hence the density of ice is
lower than that of liquid water.

When ice melts, some of the H. bonds are broken. and vacant
space occupied by some of the water molecules. Therefore,
the volume decrease and hence density increase. In other
words, the density of liquid water at 273 K is higher than that of
ice and hance ice floats over liquid water.
As the temp. is raised gradually above 273K, more and more of
H. bonds break consequently more and more H2O molecules
start coming closer resulting in decrease in volume and hence
increase in density. This goes on till 277K. As the is raised
above 277K, the increase in Volume due to expansion of liquid
water and hence sensity decrease. Hence, density of water is
max. at 277K.
HEAVY WATER
Physical Properties:- It is colourless, odourless, tasteless
liquid. Since Dielectric constant of D2O is lower than that
of H20. Therefore, ionic compounds are less soluble in D₂O
than in H20.

Chemical properties of D2O :-The chemical properties of

D₂0 are quite similar to those of ordinary water. However,
the reactions of D₂ 0 is slow than that of H2O.
Example:-SO3 + D₂0 ------> D₂ SO4
CaC2+ 2D2O -----------> C2D2 + Ca OD ₂
Al4C3 +12D₂O ------------>3CD4 + 4AI OD 3

Uses:- 1 It is used as a moderator in nuclear reactions

since it slows down the speed of neutrons.
2 It is used as a tracer compound for studying the
mechanism of many reactions.

Hydrogen economy
The proposal to use hydrogen as fuel in industry, power
plants and motor vehicles is called hydrogen economy. The
basic principle of hydrogen economy is production, storage
and transportation of energy in the form of liquid or
gaseous dihydrogen.

Q1 As conc. H2SO4 cannot be used for drying H2. Why?

Solution Conc.H2SO4 on absorbing H20 from
moist H2O produced so much heat that
hydrogen catches fire.
Q2 What is hydrolith ? How is it prepared ?
Solution + H2 -----> CaH2 Hydrolith
Q3 Although D₂20 resembles H2O, chemically yet it is
a toxic substance. Explain.
Solution D2O is toxic since it reach at a much
slowen rate as compared to H+ in enzyme-
catalysed reactions
Q4 Can marine species live in distilled water?
Solution No, because distilled H2O does not contain dissolve
DO2 gas.

HARD AND SOFT WATER

Water which produced latter with soap readily is called soft
water.
Examples- Rain water, distilled water.

Water which does not produce latter with soap. is called hard
water.
Examples- seawater, river water, spring water, lake water and
well water.

Cause of hardness of water

Hardness of water is due to the presence of bicarbonates,
chlorides sulphates of calcium and magnesium in it.
When hard water is treated with soap solution,Ca2+ and
Mg2+ ions present in hard water react with the anion of fatty
acids present in soap to form scum. As a result, Hard water
does not produce lather with soap immediately.
2C17 H35 COONa + Mg2+ aq -----> C17H35COO 2M + 2Na+
aq
Where M Ca or Mg
Types of Hardness of Water
1 Temporary hardness
2 Permanent hardness.

Temporary Hardness
It is due to the presence of Mg HCO3 2 and Ca HCO3 2
It can be removed by the following methods:-

1 Boiling:-During boiling, the soluble Mg HCO3 2 and is

converted into insoluble Mg OH 2 and Mg OH 2 and
Ca HCO3 2 is changed to insoluble CaCO3.

Mg HCO3 2 ------->Mg OH 2 + 2CO2 ppt

These ppt can be removed by filtration.

[It is because of high solubility product of Mg OH 2 as
compared to that of MgCO3 ]

2 Clark's method:- In this method calculated amount

of lime is added to hard water. It precipitates out
CaCO3 and Mg OH 2 which can be removed by filtration..
Ca HCO3 2 + Ca OH 2-------> 2CaCO3 +2H20
Mg HCO3 2 +2Ca OH 2 ----->2CaCO3 +Mg OH 2 +2H20

Permanent hardness
It is due to the presence of soluble salts of Mg and Ca in
form of sulphates and chlorides in the water. It can be
removed by the following methods:-

1 Washing soda method:- Washing soda reacts with

soluble ca and Mg chlorides and sulphates in hard water
to form insoluble carbonates.
MCl2 + Na2CO3 --------> MCO3 +2NaCl
MSO4+ Na2CO3 ----------> MCO3 +Na2SO4

WhereM Mg or Ca

2 Calgon's Method:-
Sodium hexametaphosphate, Na6P6O18 or
Na2[Na4P6O4-] or Na2[Na4 PO3 6]
When Calgon is added to hard water, the following
reactions take place.

Na₂ [Na4P6O18 ]--------> 2 Na + [Na4P6O18 ] 2-

M3+ + [Na4P6O18]2- -------> 2Na+ + [Na4 M P6O18]

The complex anion keeps the Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions

M2+ insolution.

3 Ion-exchange method or Zeolite or Permutit method

Hydrated sodium aluminium silicate [Na2Al2Si2O8•xH2] is
called zeolite on permutit.

Zeolite can be represented by the general formula Na₂Z] or

Naz in NCERT where Z Al₂ Si₂ O8•XH2O or NaZ in
NCERT .

When zeolite is added in hard water, exchange reactions

take place.

2 NaZ s + M² + aq ------- MZ₂ s + 2 Na+

Where M Mg, Ca
It is regenerated for further use by treating with an aqueous
NaCl solution.
MZ2 s + 2 NaCl aq ----- 2 NaZ s + MCl2 aq
4 Synthetic resins method
This method is makes efficient than Zoolide process. Cation
exchange resins contains large organic molecule with SO₂H
group and are water insoluble. Ion exchange resin RSO3H is
changed to RNa by treating it with NaCl. The resin exchanges
Na + ions with Ca+ and Mg2+ ions present in hard water to
make the water soft.

2RNa s +M2+ aq ---- R2M s +2Na2+ aq

WhereM Mg,Ca
The resin can be regenerated by adding aq.NaCl solution.

•Pure de-mineralised de-ionized water is obtained by passing

water successively through a cation exchange in the H+ ion
form and an anion exchange in the OH- form resins.

2RM S + M²+ aq -------- MR₂ s +2H+

In this cation exchange process, it exchanges for NO+, Ca2+,
Mg2+ and other cations present in water. This process makes
the water acidic.
In anion exchange process,

RNH2 s +H2O L --------- RŇH3ŌH s

RŇH3ŌH s +X aq ---------- RNH3X S +OH- aq .

OH exchanges for anions like Cl-, HCO3-,SO4²-etc. present in

water.
These OH- ions neutralise the H+ ions and form water.
H+ aq +OH- aq ---------- H2O L

De mineralized water :-Water which is free from all cations and

anions is called demineralised water.
H₂O₂ [HYDROGEN PEROXIDE]
Preparation:-
1 It can be prepared by acidifying Barium peroxide.
lab. Method
Ba02•8H20 s + H₂SO4 aq ------ Ba SO4 s + H202 aq
+8H2O aq

2 It is obtained by theelectrolysis of a cold 50%

Solution of the H2SO4 at high current density. The
reactions taking place are

2H2SO4 ----- 2H+ +2HSO4-

At Cathod:- 2H+ +2e- ---- H2 g
At anode :- 2HSO4- ------- H2S2O8 +2e-

3 Industrially, It is prepared by the auto-oxidation of 2-

Ethylanthraguino.

Concentration of H2O2 Solution:-

H2O2 prepared by any methods is in the form of
dilute aq. solution. It cannot be concentrated by
simple distillations because it decomposes below it
boiling point.

2H2O2 -------- 2H2O +O2

Therefore, It can be concentrated by distillation under
reduced press 10-15mm
Storage of H2O2:-
H2O2 cannot be stored in glass bottles since the rough
surface of glass, alkalimetal oxides present in it, and exposure
to light catalysed its decomposition. Therefore, H2O2 is
stored in coloured paraffin wax coated plastic or teflon
bottles.

•Volume strength of Hydrogen peroxide:-

10 volume H2O2 means 1ml of H2O2 solution on
decomposition by heat produces 10 ml of oxygen gas at
STP.

Hint:-
Volume strength. 5.6XN Normality
Volume strength 11.2 XM Molarity
Volume me strength 5.6/17 x strength gL-1
Volume strength 56/17 x strength %

Q Calculate the strength of 10 Volume H2O2?

Solution 30 gL1-
Hint- moden volume at STP 22.7-litre

Physical properties of H2O2:-Pure H2O2 , is a thick Syrupy

liquid with pale blue colour. It has a bitter taste. It a soluble
in water the dipole moment of H202 is little more 2.1D
than that of H2O2 1.84D . H2O2 is diamagnetic.
Structure of H2O2:- H2O2 has a non-planari str. open
book like

Uses of H2O2:-
1 In daily life, it is used as a hair bleach and as a mild
disinfectant.
2 It is used as an antiseptic. It is sold in the market as
perhydrol.
3 Nowadays it is also used in green chemistry

Tests of H2O2:-
1 H2O2 on treatment with an -acidified solution of
titanium salt gives a yellow on orange colour due to the
formation of per titanic acid.
Ti SO4 2 + H2O2 + 2H20 ------ H2TiO4 +2H2SO4

2 When ethereal solution of H2O2 is shaken with

acidified solution of K2Cr 2 O2, blue colour appears due
to formation of Cr O5 Chromium pent oxide
Bleaching action:-The bleaching action of H2O2 is due to the
nascent oxygen which combines with colouring matter and
convent into colourless matter.
H2O2 -------- H2O +[O]
Colouring matter +[0] ------- colourless matter.

Chemical properties of H2O2:- It acts as an oxidising as well

as reducing agent in both acidic and alkaline medium.
A Oxidising Character:-

In aidic medium, H2O2+2e- ------- 2H2O

Innbasic medium, H2O2 +2e- ------ 2OH-

Example:-
1 Oxididing action in acidic medium:-
2 Fe²+ aq + 2H+ aq +H2O2 aq ------- 2Fe3+
aq + 2H2O l
2 Oxidising action in basic medium:-
2Fe²+ + H2O2 ------- 2Fe³+ +2OH-
Mn2+ +H2O2 ------- Mn 4+ +2OH-

3 Reducing character
In acidic medium, H2O2 aq + --------- 2H+ aq + O2 g
+2e-
In basic medium, H2O2 aq +2OH- aq ------------
2H2O l +O2 g +2e-
1 Reducing action in acidic medium:-
2MnO4 - + 5H2O2 +6H+ ------------ 2Mn2+ +8H2O
+5O2
HCl + H2O2 ------------- H3O+ + Cl- + O2
2 Reducing action in basic medium :-
I2 + H2O2 +2OH- ---------- 2I- +2H2O + O2
2MnO4- +3H2O2 ---------- 2MnO2 + 2H2O + 3O2 +2OH-

Complete the following reactions :-

0H2 g + MmOo s -------- 0H2O +mM
CO g + 2H2 g -------------- CH3OH
Zn +2NaOH ------------- Na2ZnO2 +H2
C3H8 g n+3H2O ------- 3CO +7H2
PbS + H2O2 -------- PbSO4 + 4H2O
MnO4- + H2O2 ------ ANY ABOVE
CaO +H2O ----------- Ca OH 2
AlCl3 g +3H2O l ---------- Al OH 3 s +3HCl aq

NCERT PROBLEMS
9.7 Ans Demineralised water is not useful for drinking
purposes since it does not contain useful mineral. Therefore
to make it useful for drinking purposes, useful minerials in
proper amounts should be added to demineralised or distilled
water.

9.30 Ans: Heavy water is injurious to human beings, plants.

and animals since it slows down the rates of reactions
occurring in them.

9.31 Any Interaction of H+ and OH- ions of water with anion

and cation of a salt respectively to give the original acid and
original base is called
Hydrolysis.
Example:- NaCl +H2O-------- NaOH +HCl
Hydration means addition of H2O to ions or molecules
to form hydrated ions or salts.
Example:- CuSO4 s +5H2O l -------- CuSo4•5H2O s
 9.33 Ans: i Element with Z 15 is a p-block element and
hence forms a covalent hydride.
ii Element with Z 19 is s block element and hence forms ionic
hydride.

lit Element with Z 23 is d block element and its group 3

element. Therefore, it forms metallic hydride.

iv Element with Z 44 is a d-block element of the group 8

and hence does not form hydride Hydride gap

Only ionic hydrides react with water to give H2 gas.

NaH+4H2O ------- NaOH +H2

9:16 Arrange the following:

I CaH2 , BeH2 and TiH2 in onder of increasing electrical

conductance.
Ans: BeH2 < CaH2 < TiH2
ii LiH, NaH and CsH in order of increasing ionic character
Ans: LiH < NaH <CsH
iii H-H, D-D and F-F in order of increasing bond
dissociation energy.
Ans: F-F <H-H <D-D
iv NaH, MgH2 and H20 in order of increasing reducing
properties. Ans: H2O < MgH2 < NaH
Ionic hydrides are best reducing agents

9.14 Ans:- With increase in electronegativity of element,

Strength of H. bond increase

N.....H-N......H< 0......H--0.....H< H-F......H-F

 Group 1: Alkali Metals

Electronic configuration
Atomic and ionic radii
Ionization Enthalpy
Hydration Enthalpy
Physical Properties
Chemical Properties
Uses

Group 2: Alkaline earth

metals

Electronic configuration
Atomic and ionic radii
Ionization Enthalpy
S-Block Elements Hydration Enthalpy
Physical Properties
Chemical Properties
Uses

General Characteristics of
compounds of Alkaline earth metals

Oxides and hydroxides

Halides
Sulphates
Carbonates
Calcium Sulphate
Cement
 S -Block
GENERAL ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
Elements

For alkali metals [noble gas] ns1

For alkaline earth metals [noble gas] ns2

GROUP 1 :- ALKALI METALS

Electronic Configuration
nsl, where n represents the valence shell.

These elements are called alkali metals because they

readily dissolve in water to form soluble hydroxides,
which are strongly alkaline in nature. Hydrogen Lithium
Sodium Potassium Rubidium, Cesium Francium.

Atomic and Ionic Radii

Atomic and ionic radii of alkali metals increase on

moving down the group ie, they increase in size going
from Li to Cs. Alkali metals form monovalent cations by
losing one valence electron. Thus cationic radius is less
as compared to the parent atom.
IONIZATION ENTHALPY

The ionization enthalpies of the alkali metals are generally

low and decrease down the group Li to Cs. from

Reason:- Since alkali metals possess large atomic. sizes as

a result of which the valence s-electron msl can be easily
removed. These values decrease down the group because
of decrease in the magnitude of the force of attraction with
the nucleus on account of increased atomic radii and
screening effect.

HYDRATION ENTHALPY
Smaller the size of the ion, more is its tendency to
get hydrated hence more is the hydration enthalpy
Hydration enthalpies of alkali metal ions decrease
with increase in ionic sizes.

Li+ > Na+ > K+ > Rb+ > Cs+

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
1 All the alkali metals are silvery white, soft and
light metals.

ii They have generally low density which increases

down the group.

iii They impart colour to an oxidising flame. This is

because the heat from the flame excites the
outermost orbital electron to a higher energy level.
When the excited electron comes back to the
ground state, there is emission of radiation in the
visible region.
Chemical Properties

1.Reaction towards Air :-

When exposed to air surface of the alkali metals.
get tarnished due the formation of oxides and
hydroxides.

Alkali metals combine with oxygen upon heating to

form different oxides depending upon their
nature.

4 Li +02 -----> Li₂O oxide

2.Reaction towards Water:-

Alkali metals react with water to form hydroxide
and dihydrogen.

Eg. Lithium & Water Lithium Hydroxide + Hydrogen

2Li + 2H2O -------> 2LiOH + H2

3.Reaction towards Hydrogen:-

The alkali metals combine with hydrogen at about
673 K lithium at 1073 K to form hydrides.

2M + H2 ------->2M+ +2OH- + H2
4.Reaction with halogens:-

Alkali metals combine with halogens directly to

form metal halides.
They have high melting and boiling points.

2M +X2 --------> 2MX

Reducing nature

The alkali metals are strong reducing agents. In aqueous

solution it has been observed that the reducing character
of alkali metals follows the sequence
Na < k < Rb < Cs & Li

Li is the strongest while sodium is least powerful reducing

agent. This can be explained in terms-
of electrode potentials. Since the electrode potential of
Li is the lowest. Thus Li is the strongest reducing agent.

Solutions in liquid aqueous

The alkali metals dissolve in liquid ammonia to give deep

blue solution. The solution is conducting in nature.
Uses of Alkali metals

Uses of Lithium.

i Lithium is used as deoxidiser in the purification of copper and

nickel.

ii Lithium is used to make both primary and secondary batteries.

ii Lithium hydride is used as source of hydrogen for meteorological
purposes.
iv Lithium aluminium hydride LiAlH4 is a good reducing agent.
v Lithium carbonate is used in making glass.

Uses of Sodium.

i Used as sodium amalgum in laboratory synthesis of organic

compounds
ii Sodium is used in sodium rapour lamp.
iii In molten state, it is used in nuclear reactors.

iv An alloy of sodium-potassium is used in high temperature

thermometres.

Uses of Potassium
i Salts of potassium are used in fertilizers.
ii Used as reducing agent.

Uses of Cesium
i In rocket propellent.
ii In photographic cells.
GROUP 2:- ALKALINE EARTH METALS

Alkaline earth metals since they were alkaline in nature like

alkali metals oxides and they were found in the earth's
crust.
Example, Be Beryllium , Ca, Mg, Sr etc.

Electronic Configuration
Their general electronic configuration is represented as
[noble gas] ns2.

Atomic and ionic radii

Atomic and ionic radii of alkaline earth metals
one comparatively smaller than alkali metals.
Within the group atomic and ionic radii
increases. with the increase in atomic
number.

Reason:- Because these elements have

only two valence electrons and the
magnitude of the force of attraction with the
nucleus is quite small.

Ionization enthalpies
These metals also have low ionization enthalpies due
to fairly large size of atoms. As the atomic sizes
increase down the group ionization enthalpies are
expected to decrease in the same manner. Due to
their small size in comparison to alkali metals first
ionization enthalpies of alkaline earth metals is higher
than that of alkali metals.
Hydration Enthalpies
The hydration enthalpies of alkaline earth metal ions
are larger than those of the alkali metals. Thus alkaline
earth metals have more tendency to become hydrate.
The hydration enthalpies decreases down the group
since the cationic size increases.
Be2+ > Mg2+ > Ca2+ > Sr2+ > Ba2+

Metallic character
They have strong metallic bonds as compared to the alkali
metals in the same period. This is due to the smaller kernel
size of alkaline earth metal and two valence. electrons
present in the outermost shell.

Physical Properties

i They are harder than alkali metals.

ii M.P and B.P are higher than the corresponding alkali
metals due to their small size.
iii The electropositive character increases down the group.
iv Except Be and Mg, all these metals impart characteristic
colour to the flame.
v The alkaline earth metals possess high thermal and
electrical conductivity.
Chemical Properties

1.Reaction with oxygen.

Beryllium and magnesium are kinetically inert to oxygen

because of the formation of a thin film of oxide on their
surface.Reactivity towards oxygen increases as going
down the group

2.Reaction with water

Since these metals are less electropositive than alkali

metals, they are less reactive towards water.
Magnesium reacts with boiling water or steam.
Rest of the members reacts even with cold water.
Mg + 2H2O ------> Mg OH 2 + H2
Ca + 2H2O -------> Ca OH 2 + H2

3.Reaction with Halogens

They combine with the halagens at appropriate
temperature to form corresponding halides MX2.

M + X2 -- MX2 X F, Cl, Br, I

Thermal decomposition of NH4 2 . BeF4 is used for
the preparation of BeF2.

4.Reaction with Hydrogen

These metals except Be combine with hydrogen directly
upon heating to form metal hydrides.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPOUNDS OF
ALKALINE EARTH METALS

Oxidies and Hydroxides

Ii The alkaline earth metals bum in oxygen to form MO
monoxide .
ii These oxides are very stable to heat.
iii BeO is amphoteric in nature while oxides of other
elements are ionic.
iv Exept BeO, they are basic in nature and react with
water to form sparingly soluble hydroxides.
MO + H2O -------> M OH 2

iv Hydroxides of alkaline earth metals are less stable and

less basic than alkali metal hydroxide

v Beryllium Hydroxide is amphoteric in nature

Halides
The alkaline earth metals combine directly with halogens
at appropriate temperatures forming halides, MX2. They
can also be prepared by the action of halogen acids HX
on metals, metal oxides, metal hydroxides.

M + 2HX ------> MX2 + H2

MO + 2HX -----> MX2 + H2O

M OH 2 + 2HX ------> MX2 + 2H2O

1 Except beryllium halides, all other halides of alkaline

earth metals are ionic in nature.

ii Except Be C12 and MgCl2 other chloride of alkaline

earth metals impart characteristic
colours to flame.
iii The tendency to form halide hydrates decreases down
the group.

For example:- MgCl2 - 8 H2O, CaCl2-6 H2O

iv BeC12 has a chain structure in the solid phase

Sulphate
i The sulphates of alkaline earth metals are
white solids and quite stable to heat.
ii BeS04 and MgS04 are readily soluble in
water. Solubility decreases from BeS04 to
BaSO4

Reason. Due to greater hydration enthalpies of

Be2+ ions and Mg2+ ions they overcome the
lattice enthalpy factor. Their sulphates are
soluble in water.
Carbonates
Carbonates of alkaline earth metals are
thermally unstable and decompose on heating.

Calcium Carbonate or Limestone CaCO3

Preparation: Calcium carbonate occurs in nature in
different forms like limestone, marble, chalk etc. It can
be prepared by passing CO2 through slaked lime in
limited amount.

Ca OH 2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H20

It can also prepared by the reaction of a solution
Of sodium carbonate with calcium chloride.

CaCl2 + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + 2NaCl

Uses
i In the manufacturing of Quick Lime.
ii With MgCO3 used as flux in the extraction of metals.
iii Used as an antacid.
iv In the manufacture of high quality paper.

Calcium Sulphate Plaster of Paris CaSO4 .½ H20

Preparation: It is obtained when gypsum
CaSO4•2 H20 is heated to 393 K .

2 CaSO4•2420 ------ 2 CaSO4 H2O +3H20

Above 393 K anhydrous CaSO4 is formed, which is

called 'dead burnt plaster'.
Properties
i It is a white atmosphous powder.
ii When it is mixed in adequate quantity of water it forms
a plastic hard mass within 15 minutes.

Uses

i Commonly used in making pottery, ceramics etc.

ii Used in the surgical bandages for setting the
fractured bone or sprain.
iii For making statues, ornamental work,decorative
material etc.

Cement
Preparation: Prepared by combining a material rich in CaO
with other material such as clay, which contains SiO2 along
with the oxides of aluminium,iron and magnesium.

Important Ingredients of portland cement:

Ca2Si04 dicalcium silicate 26 Ca2Si04 Tricalcium
silicate 51 Ca3Al206 Tricalcium Aluminate 11 .
 Group 1 element

Electronic configuration
Atomic radii
Ionization Enthalpy
Metallic Character
Melting and boiling point
Density
Chemical properties
Anomalous Behaviour of
Boron

Allotropes
Diamond
Graphite
P - Block Elements Fullerence

Group 1 element

Electronic configuration
Atomic radii
Ionization Enthalpy
Electronegativity
Physical properties
Chemical properties
Anomalous Behaviour of Carbon
 The P-Block
Elements
P- Block elements 6 groups

13 14 15 16 17 18

III A IV A VA VI A VII A VIII A

Group -13 Elements Boron family

Non - Metal

{B } { Al Ga In Ti }
Metal

Occurence - Boron occurs in two is isotropic forms ¹⁰B

19% and ¹¹B 81% . Its abundan in Earth's crust is very
low 0.0001% by mass
Boron mainly occurs as orthoboric acid H3BO3 .
Boron Na2B407•10H20 or {Na, [B4O5 OH 4]8H20}
general formula correct formula

Kernite NO2[B4O5 OH 4]
Colemanite Ca2[B304 OH 3]2.
Aluminium is the third most abundant element by weight
8.3% found in the Earth's crust after oxygen 45.5% and
silicon 27.7%

The important mineral of Al are:-

i Bauxite Al2 O3•2H2 O
ii Cryolite Na3 Al F6
iii Mica K2O •3Al2O3 •6SiO2 • 2H2O
iv Corundum Al2O3
v Beryl 3BlO•Al2O3 •6SiO2

• Gallium, Indium and Thallium TL are less abundant than

aluminium. Highest concentration of Ga 0.1-1% is found in the
mineral germanite traces of indium are found in the sulphide
ares of sulphide ore of Zn while that of thallium Tl are found
in the sulphide ores of Pb.

Electronic Configuration
Outershell electronic configuration of group 13 elements
ns²np¹ where n=2 to 6 or 7

Example:- B 5 :- 1s²,2s²2p¹
Al 13 :- 1s² , 2s²2p⁶,3s²,3s¹
Ga 31 :- 1s²,2s²2p⁶,3s²3p⁶3d¹⁰,4s² 4p¹
In 49 :- [Kr] 4d¹⁰5s²5p¹
Tl 81 :-[Xe] 4f¹⁴ 5d¹⁰ 6s² 6p¹
Atomic radii
On moving down the group,atomic radii and ionic radii
with some irregularities due to increase in no. of shells.

[B < Ga < Al < In <Tl]

Atomic radii of Ga is smaller than that of Al due to poor

shielding effect of 3d - electron in gallium.

Ionization Enthalpy
Ionisation enthalpies decreases down the group
with some irregularities

[B > Al < Ga > In < Tl] orders of ΔiH1

[B > Tl > Ga >Al > In]

• First ionisation enthalpy of galium is

more than that of Al due to poor shielding effect of 3-d
elections in gallium.
•First ionisation enthalpy of Tl is more than that of Al due to
poor shielding of 4f electrons in Thallium:

Electronegativity
Electronegativity decreases down the group with
some irregularities.
[B >Tl > In> Ga > Al]
Metallic character
An moving down the greeps metallic character increases
from Be to Al from then decrease from Al to Tl.

[B < Al > Ga > In> Tl]

Al is most metallic due to its low ionization enthalpy.

Melting points and Boiling points

Melting point decrease on moving down the group from

B to Ga and then increase from Ga to Tl.

[B >Al > Ga < In <Tl]

Melting point of boron is highest due to its crystalline

structure.

Boiling point of these elements decrease regularly in

moving down the group.
[B > Al > Ga > In >Tl]

Density

On moving down the group, densities Increases due to

increase in atomic mass more than that of atomic volume.
Chemical properties of group 13 elements
As we move down the group, the tendancy of selections of
the valence shell to participate in bond formation decrease.
This reluctance of the s-electron to participate in bond
formation is called inext pairs effect. This is due to poor
shielding of ns, electron of the valence shell by intervening d-
sf- electron.

Inext pair effects is observed in p-block elements.

•Oxidation state

Ground state configuration

Excited state configuration

The most common oxidation states of group B

elements are +3 and +1.

The stability of +3 oxidation state decreases moving

down the group due to inert pair effect.

The stability of +1 oxidation state increase on moving

down the group due to inert pair effect.
 B +3
Al +3
Ga +3 +1
In +3 +1
Tl +1

• The sum of first three ionisation enthalpie of

boron is very high. Therefore, Boron does not
form B3+ Ion and compounds of boron are
covalent in nature.

•Aluminium forms covalent compounds except AlF3

ionic .

•Compounds of Boron are electron deficient due to

presence of 6e- on boron atom. Therefore, compounds
of boron acts as lewis acid.

Example :- BCl3 Lewis Acid accepts a lone pair of

electrons from ammonia to form adduct BCl3, NH3 .
addition product
• Halides of boron are easily hydrolysed by water due to
electron deficiency on boron atom.

BCL3 + 3H2O ----- B OH 3 + 3HCL

B OH 3 + H+OH- -------- [B OH 4]- + H+

•Boron trihalides form [B OH 4]- tetrahedral unit from water.

•AlCl3 on hydralysis gives octahedral [Al H2O6]3+ species
sp³d² because Al due to the presence of 3d-orbitals can
expand its covalency from 4 to 6.

•AlCl3 form dimer Al2Cl6 due to electron deficiency

on Aluminium atom.

•Boron halides BCl3, BBr3,BI3 do not form dimer. This is

due to the reason that boron atom is too small that it
cannot accomodate for large sized halogen atom around
it.
•Boron triflouride BF3 does not form dimer due to back
bonding.
•Crystalline structure of boron consist of isolated unit in
which Boron atom on 12 corner and it has 20 faces
•Reactivity towards air
•Boron is unreactive in crystal form.
•Aluminium forms a very thin oxide on the surface which
protects Al from further attack.
•Amorphous boron and aluminium metal on heating in air
form B2O3 & Al2O3.

2E + 3O2 ------ 2E2O3

•B & Al on reating with N₂ at high temp. form nitrides.

2E + N2 ------ 2EN
Where E B,Al,Ga,In

K³B:- a In case Tl,Tl2O ,Tl3N forms.

b B3O3 is acidic
Al3O3 and Ga2O3 --- amphoteric oxides
In2O3 and Tl2O ---- Basic oxides

•Reactivity towards acids and Alkalies

•Boron does not react with acids & alkalies.

•Al is an amphoteric element. Therefore Al reacts with acids
and bases.
2Al s + 6HCl aq 2AlCl3 aq + 3H2 g
2Al s + 2NaOH aq + 6H₂O 1 ----------- 2 Na [Al OH 4]-
+ 3H2 g

•Al reacts with nitric acid HNO3 to form protective layer of

aluminium oxide on its surface. Therefore, nitric acid HNO3
can be transported in aluminium container
Reactivity towards Halogens

Group 13 elements reacts with halogens to form trihalides

EX3 .Except Tl forms monohalides TLX because the most
stable oxidation state of Tl is +1 due to inert pair effect.
where E B, Al, Ga, In & X F, Cl, Br, I .

•Thallium forms only one Trihalides TlI3 in which Tl+ I3-

ions exist.
• Acidic strength of boron trihalides
BF3< BCL3< BBr3 <B I₂

•Trihalides of group 13 elements acts as lewis

acid due to electron deficiency in central atom.

•Trihalides of group 13 elements form dimer to achieve

stable configuration or to complete octet.
•In structure of BF4- boron atom is sp³ hybrid and
BF4- is tetrahedral species.B- F bond is purely single
bonds

ANOMALOUS BEHAVIOUR OF BORON

Anomalous properties of boron is due to
i its small size
ii high electron negativity
iii Absence of d-orbitals in its valence thell

Some important anomalous properties of boron are:-

•Boron is harder than other elements.
•Oxide and hydroxide of boron are acidic nature.
•Max- covalency of boron is 4 whereas max covalency
of other elements is more than 4.
•Boron forms [BF4]- ions whereas Al forms [AlF6]-
ions.

Uses of Boron:-
•Boron fibres are used in making bulletproof vests and light
composite material for aircrafts.
•Aqueous solution of orthoboric acid H3BO3 is used as
antiseptic for eyes .
Uses of Aluminium
•Aluminium is a good conductor of electricity Therefore, it is
used for making transmiss cables.

• Al foil is used for wrapping fine articles like photographic

films, medicines, cigarette sweets, etc.

GROUP 14 ELEMENTS

C, Si , Ge , Sn ,Pb

Occurrences- Carbon is the seventeenth most abundant

element by weight in the earth's crust. It occurs in the native
state in form of coal, graphite and diamond. It combine state, it
occur widely as metal carbonates, hydrocarbon
carbohydrates, CO2. It contains isotopes ¹²C, ¹³C,¹⁴C.¹⁴C is a
radioactive isotope with a half life of 5570 years and it is used
for radio carbon dating.

Silicon is the second 27.7% most abundant element by

weight in the Earth's crust. It occurs in form of silica SiO2 and
in a wide variety of silicates and clays. Germanium occurs in
traces.

Ultrapure form of Ge and Si are used to make transistors and

semiconductors devices. Sn occurs as tine stone or cassiterite
SnO2 . Pb accurs as galena PbS which is associated with
ZnS zinc blende . The ores of Pb are anglesite PbS04 and
cerussite PbCO3 .
Electronic configuration:-
ns'np² where n 2 to 6

Atomic radii
increases down the group.

Ionization enthalpy
First IE of group 14 elements are higher than those of
group 13 elements

Electronegativity
Increases from C to si then constant

Physical Properties
•Metallic character - On moving group, metallic character
increases.
C Si Ge Sn Pb

It is due to decrease in ionization energy.

•Melting and boiling points -

M.P. and B.P. of group 14 elements are much higher than
those of corresponding group 13 elements. This is due
to the reason that atoms of group 14 form covalent
bonds with each other and hence strong bonds exists
among them.
On moving down the group, M.P. and B.P. decrease due
to decrease in magnitude of interatomic force with
increase in atomic sizes.

Exception:- M.P. of tin Sn is less than that of lead.

Chemical Properties

Oxidation state
ns² np²

Ground state

Excited state

Most common oxidation state of group elements are +4 and

+2.
C,Si, Ge ,Sn +4 +2 stable
Pb +4 <+2 stable
This is due to inert pair effect.
•On moving down the group, stability of +4 0.5 decrease due
to inert pair effect.
•On moving down the group,stability of +2 0.5Nincrease due
to inert pair effect.
•Compounds in +4 oxidation state are covalent.Because the
sum of first four ionisation enthalpies of these elements are
very high.
•Compounds of +2 oxidation state are more ionic than that
of compounds in +4 oxidation state.
•Ionic character increase on moving down the group due to
decrease in ionization enthalpies.
•PbO3or P IV acts as strong oxidising agent. This is because
in Oxidation state of PB is + 4 which is unstable due to the
inert pair effect.Therefore PbO2 is converted into PbO by
release of Oxygen and PbO2 act as oxidizing agent
 Reactivity towards oxygen
Group 14 elements on heating with oxygen form
two types of oxides [EO & EO2]
CO CO2
SiO SiO2
GeO GeO2
SnO SnO2
PbO PbO2

SiO exists at only high temperature.

Acidic strength with in E.N.
Acidic strength with in oxidation state.

Reactivity towards Water

•Carbon ,Silicon and germanium are not affected by water.

•Tin reacts with steam to form SnO2 & H2 gases.

Sn +2H2O g --------- SnO2 +H2

•Lead does not react with water due to presence of

protective oxide layer in it.

Reactivity towards halogens

•Group 19 elements form two types of halide of
formula MX2 and MX4.
where M Si, Ge , Si, Pb X F,CL,Br,I

•Except carbon, all others members react directly

with halogen under suitable conditions to make
halides.
•Tetrahalides MX are cevalent in nature.
• In tetrahalides, central atom is sp² hybridized and
forms molecule is tetrahedral.
•Exception:- SnF4 and PbF4 are ionic in nature
•PbI4 does not exist because PbI bond initially formed during
the reaction does not release enough energy to unpaired 6s²
electrons and excite one of them to highest orbital to have
four unpaired electrons around lead atoms
•Stability of tetrahalides MX4 decrease down the group and
stability of dihalides MX4 increase down the group due to
inert pair effect.
Example :-PbCl2 id more stable and SnCl2 and SnCl4 is more
stable than PbCl4. •Tetrahalides are except CX4 are easily
hydrolysed.
SnCl4 4H2O ----- Si OH 4 4HCl

•CX4 like CCL4 is not hydrolysed due to absence of empty

orbital in valence shell of carbon atom.

•PbX4 is more stable than PbX2.This is because +4 oxidation

state of Pb is more stable than +2 oxidation state due to inert
pair effect.

Q1 [SF6]²- is known whereas [SiCl6]²- not.

Give possible reason ?
Solution The main reasons are -
i Six large sized chloride ions cannot be
accomodated around small size Si⁴ ions
ii Interaction between lone pair of chloride ion.
and Si4 is not very strong.
Q2 White fumes appears around the bottle of anhydrous
aluminium chloride. Give reason?
Solution Anhydrous AlCl3, is partially hydrolysed with
moisture to liberate HCl gas. Most HCl gas Appears white in
colour.

Anomalous behaviour of carbon

Anomalous properties of carbon are due to
i its small size.
ii High electronegativity
iii High ionisation enthalpy
iv Absence of d-orbital in its valence shell

Some important anomalous properties of carbon are-

1 Carbon in form of diamond is very hard as
compared to the other elements of group 14.
2 Carbon has only four valence orbitals one 2s and
three 2p . Therefore, its max. covalency is four
whereas other elements of group due to presence of
d-orbital this can expend their covalency to Six. Thus,
carbon does not form CF6²-Ion whereas silicon forms
SiF6²- ion.
3 Carbon has higher melting and boiling points than
other members of the group.

4 Due to small size and high electronegativity carbon

has a strong tendancy to form pπ-pπ multiple bonds
either with itself or with other atoms such as oxygen
c 0 ,nitrogen C triple N and sulphur c 5 unstable
, the remaining elements do not form pπ pπ bonds
because & their bigger size.Instead due to the
presence of d-orbitals they form dπ-pπ multiple
bonds.
5 Catenation:- Carbon has highest catenation due to high bond
dissociation energy of C-C bond. On moving down the group,
catenation decrease.
C Si Ge Sn Pb.

Allotropes
The phenomenon of existence of an element in two or
more forms which have different physical properties but
identical chemical properties is called allotropy and the
different forms are called allotropes.

Allotropes of Carbon
Crystalline Diamond
Graphite
Fullerene

Amorphous Coke
Charcoal
Carbon Black

Diamond
•Structure Carbon is sp² hybridized
3-D network solid

•Hardness It is hardest substance due to their 3-D network

structure.
•Conductivity Bad conductor of electricity
•Uses Because of its hardness, it is used
for cutting glass,for making borers for rock,driling and for
making abrasives.
Graphite
•Structure Carbon is sp²-hybridized
It has 2-D sheet like structure layered in which benzene
ring fused together .Force between layers is vander
waal's
•Softness Due to presence of weak vande waal's
force between layers one layer can slip over the other.
This makes graphite soft and a good lubricating agent.
•Conductivity It is good conductor of electricity due
to presence of free electrons. Therefore, it is used in
making of electrodes of batteries.
Thermodynamically, graphite is more stable than
diamond.

Fullerenes buck minster fullerene

Preparation- Graphite --------- vapours Cn upto 350

C60 & C70 ---- Main component & trance

C 60 C 70
•sp² hybridized •sp² hybridized
• 12 five membered ring • 12 five membered ring
•20 six membered ring •25 six membered ring

•Five membered ring his surrounding by only six membered

ring.
•Fullerene is the purest form of carbon because it does not
form dangling bond.
Types of Organic Reaction:
1. Addition Reaction
2. Elimination Reaction
3. Substitution Reaction
4. Rearrangement Reaction

Alkanes:
1. Isomerism in Alkanes
2. Conformations or Rotomers
3. Preparation of Alkanes
4. Properties of Alkanes

Alkenes:
1. Isomerism in Alkenes
Hydrocarbons 2. Preparation of Alkenes
3. Properties of Alkenes

Extras:
Aromatisation
Halogenation
Friedel Craft Alkylation
Friedel Craft Acylation
Sulphonation
Preparation of Benzene
Alkynes:
Practice Problems
1 Isomerism in Alkynes
2. Types of Alkynes
3. Preparation of Alkynes
4. Properties of Alkynes
 Hydrocarbons

Types of Organic Reactions:

1.) Addition Reaction- A reaction in which two or more reactants combine

together to give a single product is called an addition reaction.
Example: CH2=CH2 + H2 ----------> CH3-CH3

There are 3 types of addition reactions:

a.) Electrophilic addition reaction- only alkenes and alkynes give this type of
reaction.
Example: CH3=CH3 + HCl -------------> CH3-CH2Cl

b.)Free-radical substitution reaction- When alkene and alkyne react with HBr in
the presence of peroxide.
Example: CH2=CH2 + HBr -------------> CH3-CHBr

c.)Nucleophilic addition reaction- In case of polar multiple bonds.

2.) Elimination Reaction- A reaction in which small molecules like water, HX etc
are removed from the reaction is called an elimination reaction.
3.) Substitution Reaction- A type of reaction in which an atom or group of
atoms is replaced by another atom or group of atoms is called a substitution
reaction.

There are 3 types of substitution reactions:

a) Substitution nucleophilic reaction (SN reaction): In this reaction, a strong
nucleophile replaces the weak nucleophile from the reactant molecule.
Example: CH3−Cl+KOH →CH3−OH+KCl
b) Electrophilic substitution reaction: Substitution reactions that are brought
about by electrophiles are called SE reactions. (only on benzene rings)

Example:

c) Free-radical substitution reaction: When alkanes react with dihalogen in the

presence of heat or light.
UV
Example: CH3 + Cl2 -----------------> CH2Cl + HCl

4.) Rearrangement Reaction- Reactions involving the migration of an atom or

group from one atom to another within the same molecule are called
rearrangement reactions.

CH3
-

Conc. H2SO4
CH3 - C - CH3 - OH ------------->
△ CH3 - C = CH - CH3
-
-

CH3
CH3
+ H2O
Q. Classify the following reactions in one of the reaction type studied in this
unit

(a) CH3​CH2​Br+HS− →CH3​CH2​SH+Br−

(b) (CH3​)2​C=CH2​+HCl→(CH3​)2​−CCl−CH3​
(c) CH3​CH2​Br+HO−→CH2​=CH2​+H2​O+Br−

Solution:
(a) CH3​CH2​Br+HS− →CH3​CH2​SH+Br−
This reaction is called a substitution reaction.

(b) (CH3​)2​C=CH2​+HCl →(CH3​)2​C(Cl)CH3​

This reaction is called addition reaction.

(c) CH3​CH2​Br+HO− →CH2​=CH2​+H2​O

This reaction is called elimination reaction.
 Alkanes

Saturated Hydrocarbons (Hydrocarbons containing only single bonds)

General formula: CnH2n+2
Simplest hydrocarbon: Methane, CH4 (Marshy Gas)

IUPAC naming - (Select Longest chain of carbon atoms)

CH3 - CH2 - CH2 - CH - CH2 - CH - CH3

-

-
CH2 - CH2 - CH3 C2H5

3-methyl-5-propyloctance

Tetra-tert-butylmethane

3,3-Ditertiary-Butyl-2,2,4,4-Tetramethylpentane
Isomerism in alkanes

They exhibit two types of isomerism

1.) Chain isomerism: It is a type of structural isomerism

Eg. a) Butane

b) Pentane

Pentane 2-Methylbutane 2,2-Dimethyl-propane

c) Hexane
Conformations or Rotomers

It is a type of stereoisomerism.
The spatial arrangement of atoms that can be converted into one
another by rotation around a C-C single bond is called conformations or
conformers or rotamers.

Conformations of ethane: There is an infinite number of conformers of

ethane.
One conformed in which hydrogen atoms attached to 2 carbon atoms
are as close together as possible, is called eclipsed conformation.
And the other in which hydrogens are as far apart as possible is known
as staggered conformation.
Any other intermediate conformations is called skew conformation.
Stability order of conformers of ethane

Staggered > Skew > Eclipsed

(more stable)

(due to low value of torsional strain)

Staggered form has less potential energy

Torsional strain and dihedral angle

The repulsive interaction between the electron cloud of CH bonds is

called torsional strain. The magnitude of torsional strain depends upon
the angle of rotation about the C-C bond. This angle is also called the
dihedral angle or torsional angle.
The staggered form has the least torsional strain and eclipsed form has
the maximum torsional strain
The energy between two conformers is of the order of 12.5 KJ/mol
which is very small. Therefore, conformers cannot be isolated.

Conformations of propane - Infinite

Eclipsed Staggered
 Conformations of butane - Infinite

Stability order- Anti > Groche > Eclipsed > Fully eclipsed

Preparation of alkanes

From unsaturated hydrocarbons (Hydrogenation)

Dihydrogen reacts with alkenes and alkynes in the presence of finally divided
catalyst like Ni/Pt/Pd to form alkane. This reaction is known as hydrogenation.

From alkyl halides (RX)

Dihydrogen reacts with alkenes and alkynes in the presence of a finely divided
catalyst like Ni/Pt/Pd to form alkane. This reaction is known as hydrogenation.
Zn
RX + H2 ---------------> RH + HX
dil.HCl

Zn
Eg. CH3CH2Cl + H2 ----------------> CH3CH3 + HCl
dil.HCl
 Haloalkanes reacts with:

A) Alkyl halides (expect alkylflouride): On reduction with zinc and dil.HCl to

give alkane
Zn

eg. CH3Br + H2 ------------------> CH4 + HBr

H+

B) Wurtz Reaction: Alkyl halides react with sodium metal in the presence of dry
ether to give a symmetrical alkene containing an even number of carbon atoms.
This reaction is known as Wurtz reaction.

eg.

Limitations of Wurtz Reaction

This method is used to obtain an alkene containing an even number of carbon

atoms.

Role of dry ether:

Haloalkanes are highly soluble in ether and sodium metal does not react with
ether due to the absence of acidic hydrogen in ether.
Q) What will happen if two different halides are taken in the Wurtz reaction?
Solution: A mixture of three products are obtained.

From carboxylic acids:

RCOOH + NaOH -------------------> RCOONa + H2O

Sodium Carboxylate

RCOOH + KOH -------------------> RCOOK + H2O

potassium
Carboxylate

Decarboxylation:

Sodium salts of carboxylic acid on heating with soda lime (mixture of

NaOH & CaO in the ratio of 3:1) gives alkanes containing one carbon atom
less than the carboxylic acid. This process of elimination of CO2 from a
carboxylic acid is known as decarboxylation.

Q.) Sodium salt of which acid will be needed for the preparation of propane
by decarboxylation.

Sodium salt of butanoic acid will be needed for the preparation of propane.

Q) What happens: HCOOH(aq)+NaOH(aq)

Solution: H2 + Na2CO3
 Kolbe’s electrolytic method

An aqeuous solution of sodium or potassium salt of a carboxylic acid on

electrolysis gives alkane containing even number of carbon atoms at the anode.

Mechanism

Q.) Methane cannot be prepared this way, why?

This method is used to prepare that alkane containing even number of carbon
atoms wherear methane contains odd number of carbon atoms.
Extra reactions of preparations of alkanes

a) Sabatier and Senderm's reactions:

The hydrogenation of unsaturated hydrocarbons using a nickel catalyst at 523-
573K is known as Sabatier and Senderm's reaction.

b) Grignard's Reagent Reaction

Haloalkanes react with magnesium metal in the presence of dry ether to form
alkyl magnesium halide. This is called Grignard's reagent reaction.

RX + Mg -------------> RMgX
Haloalkane Alkyl Magnesium
Halide

Grignard reagents react with water or alcohol or terminal alkynes to give

alkanes

RMgX + H2O ------------------> RH + Mg(OH)x

Alkane

RMgX + R'OH ---------------------> RH + Mg(OR')X

Alcohol Alkane
Physical Properties of Alkanes

a.) Solubility- According to "like dissolves like" concept alkanes are non-polar
are dissolved in non-polar solvents like ether, benzene, CCl4, etc but they are
insoluble in water. Solubility in non-polar solvent increase with increase in size of
the alkyl group.

b) Boiling Point- Alkenes have low boiling point due to presence of weak Van
der Waals force amongst its molecules.
Boiling point of alkanes increases with increase in molecular mass of
alkanes.

CH4 < CH3CH3 ,CH3CH2CH3 < CH3CH2CH2CH3

Among isomeric alkanes, straight-chain compounds have a larger surface

area and branched-chain compounds have less surface area. The magnitude
of Van der Waals forces increases with the increase in its surface area.
Therefore boiling points of straight-chain compounds are higher than those
of branched-chain compounds.
CH3
-

CH3CH2CH2CH3 > CH3 - CH - CH2CH3 > CH3 - C - CH3

-
-

CH3 CH3

d) Melting point (similar to boiling point)

Exceptions in melting point: n-Alkanes containing even no of carbon atoms
are symmetrical and very closely packed in their lattice. Therefore n-
alkanes containing even number of carbon atomshave higher melting
points than n-alkanes containing odd no. of carbon atoms (adjacent alkane)

e) Physical state- Amongst the straight-chain alkanes, the first four members are
gases, the next thirteen are liquids and higher members are solids.

f) Density- Density of alkane is less than that of water.

Chemical Properties of Alkanes

Alkanes are less reactive due to presence of strong C-C bonds and C-H bond.
Therefore alkanes are also called paraffins (latin word means para-little affinis-
affinity or reactivity) Some important reactions of alkanes are:

a.) Combustion:

Due to the evolution of large amount of heat during combustion, alkanes are
used as fuels.
During incomplete combustion (Lack of air) of alkanes with insufficient
amount of air or dioxygen, carbon black is formed which is used in the
manufacture of in, printer ink.

b) Controlled Oxidation: It takes place in the presence of a catalyst.

 Alkanes having tertiary hydrogen atom can be oxidised to corresponding
alcohols by potassium permangnate (KmNO4)

c) Isomerisation: n-Alkanes on heating in the presence of anhydrous aluminum

chloride and hydrogen chloride gas isomerize to branched-chain alkanes. This
reaction is known as isomerization reaction.

d) Aromatisation: n-Alkanes having six or more carbon atoms on heating to 773K

at 10-20 atmospheric pressure in the presence of oxides of vanadium,
molybdenum or chromium supported over alumina get dehydrogenated and
cyclised to benzene and its homologues. This reaction is known as aromatization
or reforming.
e) Reaction with steam: Alkanes react with steam to form syn gas or water gas.

f) Pyrolysis or cracking: Higher alkanes on heating to higher temperature

decompose into lower alkanes, alkenes, etc. Such a decomposition reaction
into smaller fragments by the application of heat is called pyrolysis or cracking.

Pyrolysis occurs by the free-radical reaction.

Preparation of oil gas or petrol gas from kerosene oil or petrol involves
the principle of pyrolysis.

g) Substitution reaction (Free radical substitution): A reaction in which a

hydrogen atom of an alkane is replaced by an atom or group of atoms is called
substitution.
eg. Halogenation, Nitration, Sulphonation
Halogenation of alkanes: Halogenation of alkanes is carried out by treating it
with a dihalogen (X2) in the presence of ultra-violet light or heating at 523-
573K.
Iodination is very slow and reversible reaction. It can be carried out in the
presence of oxidising agents like HIO3 (iodic acid) or HNO3 (Nitric acid) which
oxidise HI into I2 and shifts the equilibrium in the forward direction.

The fluorination of alkanes is too vigorous to be controlled under ordinary

conditions. Fluorination of alkanes can be carried out by diluting F2 with an inert
gas such as N2 or Argon.
Alternatively, Fluoroalkanes are obtained by Swarts Reaction:

Dihalogenation:
Trihalogenation:

Tetrahalogenation:

For major product of Halogenation: Replace hydrogen atom by halogen atom

in the following position:

eg. Write the major products of the following reactions

8) For all products of halogenation:
Replace all types of hydrogen atoms with halogen atoms.
Never replace the hydrogen atom with double bonded or triple-bonded carbon
atom

Q.) Write all the products of monochlorination of the following:

Q.) Write the structure of dihalogenation derivatives of propane

It involves 3-steps
1.) Initiation Step- Generation of free-radical

2.) Propagation: Chlorine free radicals attack methane molecules to generate

methyl free radicals with the formation of HCl. Methyl free radical attacks the
chlorine molecule to form another chlorine free radical with the formation of
CH3Cl

3.) Termination: The reaction stops after sometimes due to the following side
reactions.

The reaction above helps us to understand the reaction for the formation of
ethane as a by-product during chlorination of methane
 Alkenes

Unsaturated hydrocarbons with double bonds.

General Formula- CnH2n
Simplest alkene- CH2=CH2 (Ethene), CN (Ethylene)

IUPAC Nomenclature:
CH3-CH=CH2 (Prop-1-ene)
CH3-CH=CH-CH3 (But-2-ene)
CH2=CH-CH=CH2 (Buta-1,3-diene)

Penta-1,3-diene

3,4-diethyl hexa-1,5 diene

CH2 = C (CH2CH2CH3)2

CH2 = C - CH2 - CH2 - CH3 2-Propylpentene

-

CH2
-

CH2
-

CH3
 Isomerism in alkenes

1.) Chain Isomerism

2.) Positional isomerism
3.) Functional group isomerism

4.) Geometrical isomerism: It is a type of stereoisomer. These isomers that

have the same structural formula but differ in the relative spatial arrangement of
atoms or groups around double bonds are called geometrical isomers and this
phenomenon is known as geometrical isomerism.
The isomers in which similar atoms or group of atoms are on the same side of
the double bond is called cis-isomer whereas isomers in which similar atoms or
groups lie on the opposite side of the double bond is called trans-isomers.
This isomerism is called cis-trans isomerism.

Conditions for geometrical isomerism:-

If different groups are bonded with carbon atoms of double bond or ring.
Q.) Which of the following compounds show geometric isomerism?
a.) CH2=CHBr - Not show
b.) CH3CH=C(CH3)2 - Not show
c.) CH3CH=CHC2H5 - Show
d.) CH3CH=CHCH3 - Show

Q.) Draw cis-trans isomers of the following compounds

a.) CH3CH=CHCH3

b.) CHCL= CHCl

c.) Hex-3-ene
Properties of cis & trans isomers

1.) Dipole moment: In general cis-isomers of an alkene is found to be more

polar than the trans isomers.

The dipole moment of cis-isomer is more than of trans-isomers

2.) Solubility: According to "like dissolve like", cis isomer is more soluble in
water (polar solvent) than trans-isomer. This is because cis-isomer is polar.

3.) Boiling Point: Boiling point of cis-isomers is higher than that of trans-isomers.
This is because cis-isomer is polar and trans-isomer is non-polar. Dipole-dipole
interaction is present in cis-isomers whereas dispersion force is present in
trans-isomers. Dipole-dipole interaction is a stronger intermolecular force than
dispersion forces.

4.) Melting Point and stability: Trans-isomers are more symmetrical and closely
packed in their crystal lattice. Therefore, trans-isomers have higher melting
point and greater stability than cis-isomers.

Trans-isomers Cis-isomers
Q.) Draw the structures of all isomers of alkene of molecular formula C4H8

Total number of isomers: 4

Q.) Draw the structures of all structural isomers of alkene with molecular
formula C5H10
Preparation of alkenes

1.) By partial reduction of alkynes: Alkenes on partial reduction with the

calculated amount of dihydrogen in the presence of palletized charcoal
partially deactivated with poisons like sulfur, compounds, or quinoline give
alkenes (cis-alkene)

Note: Partially deactivated palladised charcoal is known as Lindlar's catalyst.

Birch reduction: Alkynes on reduction with sodium in liquid ammonia form trans-
alkanes. This process is called Birch Reduction.

2.) From Alkyl Halides:

β-elimination reaction: Alkyl halides on heating with alcoholic KOH or
alcoholic NaOH eliminate one molecule of halogen acid (HX) to form an
alkene. This reaction is known as dehydrohalogenation. This is an example
of β-elimination reaction.
3.) Saytzeff's rule: In dehydrohalogenation reaction, alkenes is a major product
that is highly substituted.

3.) From alcohol:

Alcohols on heating with concentrated H2SO4 forms alkenes with the

elimination of one molecule of H2O. This reaction is known as the acidic
dehydration of alcohols.

4.) From Vicinal dihalides: Vicinal dihalides on treatment with zinc metal loss a
molecule ZnX2 to form an alkene. This reaction is known as dehalogenation,

Vicinal dihalide
1,2-dibromopropane
Note: Dihalides in which two halogen atoms are attached to two adjacent
carbon atoms are known as vicinal dihalides or Vic-dihalides.

CH2 - CH2

-
Br Br

Dihalides in which two halogen atoms are attached to some carbon atoms are
known as geminal dihalides or gem-dihalides.

CH3 - CH - CHBr
-

Br
Physical properties of alkenes

Similar to alkanes

Physical State: First three members of alkenes are gases, next 14 are liquid
and others are solid.

Chemical Properties: Alkenes are a rich source of loosely held pi-electrons

due to which they show electrophilic addition reaction. Therefore, alkenes are
more reactive than alkanes. Some important reactions of alkenes are:

Addition of dihydrogen: Alkenes react with H2 gas in the presence of

Ni/Pt/Pd to give alkanes.
Addition of Dihalogen: Alkenes react with dihalogen (Cl2 or Br2) in the
presence of CCl4 (or dark) to give VIC-dihalides.

Note:
Test for unsaturation: Alkenes react with Bromine in CCl4 and decolorize its
reddish-orange color. This reaction is used in the test for unsaturation.

Addition of HX (HCl, HBr, HI): Alkenes react with HX to give haloalkanes

(According to Markovniko's rule)

Note:
1. In the case of unsymmetrical alkenes with unsymmetrical reagents, apply
Markonikov's rule.
2. Markonikov's rule- "Negative part of the addendum (adding molecule) gets
attached to the carbon which possesses lesser no of hydrogen atoms.
 Mechanism addition of HBr on propene
or
Mechanism of Markonikov's Rules

Hydrogen bromide provides an electrophile, H+ , which attacks the double

bond to form carbocation as follows

Because 2nd carbocation is more stable than 1st carbocation, therefore, 2nd
carbocation is formed at a faster rate. 2nd carbocation reacts with Br- to form
the major product.

Anti Markonikov's rule or peroxide effect or Kharash effect.

In the presence of peroxide, addition of HBr or assymetrical alkene like propene

takes place contrary to the Markonikov's rule

Mechanism of addition of HBr on propene in the presence of peroxides.

Mechanism of the free-radical addition reaction. It takes place as follows:

Note: Peroxide effect is not observed in addition of HF and HCl because H-F
and H-Cl bonds are stronger than H-Br bonds and they do not break.

The peroxide effect is not observed in addition to HI because H-I is weaker than
the H-Br bond and it provides iodine free radicals which combine to form an I2
molecule instead of adding to the double bond.

( I• + I• -------------> I2)
 Addition of sulfuric acid

Alkenes react with cold-concentrated H2SO4 to give alkyl hydrogen sulfate

(According to Markonikov's rule)

Addition of water

Alkenes react with water in the presence of dil.H2SO4 to form alcohol

(According to Markonikov's Rule)
 Oxidation

Alkenes on reaction with cold, dilute, an aqueous solution of potassium

permanganate (Baeyer's reagent) produce vicinal glycols. Decolorization of
KMnO4 solution is used as test for unsaturation.

Acidic KMnO4 or acidic K2Cr2O7 (Potassium dichromate) oxidises alkenes, to

ketone and/or acids depending upon the nature of the alkene
 Ozonolysis

Alkenes react with ozone to form ozonide which further reductive hydrolysis
in the presence of zinc metal to form aldehydes, ketones or both. This
reaction is used to detect the position of double bonds in alkenes.

Eg. a)

b)

c)
 Polymerisation

Polyethylene is obtained by the combination of a large number of ethene

molecules at high temperatures high pressure and in the presence of a
catalyst. The large molecule thus obtained are called polymers. This reaction
is called polymerization. The simple compounds from which polymers are
made are called monomers.

Polyalkenes are used for the manufacture of plastic bags, squeeze bottles,
toys, pipes, radios and TV cabinets, etc.
Polypropene is used for the manufacture of milk crates, plastic buckets and
other molded articles.

Olefins: Alkenes are also called olefins. (Greek: olefiant= oil forming)

Alkynes

Unsaturated Hydrocarbons containing carbon-carbon triple bonds.

General formula- CnH2n-2
Common names of alkynes: ≡
H-C CH Acetylene
≡
CH3-C CH Methylacetylene
≡
CH3CH2-C CH Ethylacetylene
≡
CH3 -C C-CH3 Dimethylacetylene

Isomerism in alkynes
1. Chain Isomerism
2. Position Isomerism
3. Functional Group Isomerism
4. Ring Chain Isomerism
 Types of alkynes:

Terminal alkynes: If triple bond is present at the end of the carbon chain.
They contain acidic hydrogen

Non-Terminal alkynes: If triple bond is present within the carbon chain. They
do not contain acidic hydrogen

Structure of triple bond:

Preparation of alkynes

From Calcium carbide (CaC2):

From vicinal dihalides: Vicinal dihalides convert into alkynes as follows:

Or

Chloroform or Iodoform on heating with silver powder to form ethyne: :

Chloroform silver Ethyne

powder
 Physical properties of alkynes

Similar to alkenes

Physical State: First three members are gases and next 8 are liquids.
Homologous- successive members differ by CH2

Chemical Properties: Alkynes are less reactive than alkenes towards

electrophilic addition reactions, due to the following reasons:

Due to greater electronegativity of sp hybridization of carbon atoms of a

triple bond than sp2 hybridized carbon atoms of a double bond. The pi-
electrons of alkynes are more tightly held by the carbon atoms than pi-
electrons of alkenes and hence are less easily available for reaction with an
electrophile.
Due to the cylindrical nature of the pi-electrons cloud of alkynes, the pi-
electrons of a triple bond are more delocalized than the pi-electrons of a
double bond.

Reactivity order of alkane, alkene, and alkynes:

Alkane < Alkyne < Alkene

Important reactions of alkynes:

Electrophilic addition reaction

Addition of dihydrogen
Addition of dihalogen in the presence of CCl4: This reaction is used for
test of unsaturation

Addition of HX (HCl,HBr, HI) : Alkynes react with HX to give geminal dihalide

(According to Markonikov's rule)
 Addition of water: Alkynes are insoluble in water but they react with water in
the presence of MgSO4 (mercuric sulfate ) and H2SO4 to form aldehydes
and ketones (According to Markonikov's rule)

Polymerisation

Linear Polymerisation:

This film of polyethyne (polyaetylene)

can be used as electrodes in batteries
because it is a good conductor of
electricity due to the presence of
loosely held electrons.

Cyclic Polymerisation:
Acidic character of alkynes

Terminal alkynes react with strong bases like (sodium metal, sodamide, NaNH2)
to form a salt. These reactions explain the acidic nature of alkynes.

Comparison of acidic strength

Acidic strength increase with an increase in electronegativity. Therefore, order

of acidic strength - Ethane < Ethene < Ethyne

Ethyne > Propyne > Butyne

strong acid

It contains two acidic hydrogen

 Aromatisation

Conditions for aromatization: compounds possessing the following

characteristics are known as aromatic compounds:
Planarity
Complete delocalization of pi-electrons in the ring
Presence of (4n+2)pi electrons in the ring where (n=1,2,3......). This is referred
to as Muckle rule.

Cyclic compounds

Aromatic Anti-aromatic Non-aromatic

Compound Compound Compound
Ring Ring
Planar Planar
(4n + 2)π e- (4n + 2)π e-
[2,6,10,14....] [4,8,12,16.....]

Planar: Atoms which include in ring formation are sp2 hybridised or sp3
hybridised with lone pair.

Non-Planar:

Total pi-electrons: electrons present in the ring to form pi bond.

Lone pair of electrons involve in conjugation in ring.
Q) Identify Aromatic, Antiaromatic and Non-Aromatic compounds

Benzene Furan
Aromatic Aromatic Cyclopenta-1,4-dienone
Anti-aromatic

Cyclobuta-1,3 diene Pyridine

Antiaromatic Aromatic

Cyclohexane Cyclohexa-1,4-diene
Non-Aromatic Non-Aromatic

Cyclopropenyl cation Pyrole

Aromatic Aromatic
Physical Properties of benzene:
Benzene is a non-polar molecule and a colorless liquid
Benzene is insoluble in water because it does not form H-bond with it.

Chemical Properties of benzene:

Electrophilic addition reaction: Benzene does not give an electrophilic
addition reaction because benzene is stable due to the delocalization of pi-
electrons (i.e pi-electrons are involved in resonance)

Some addition reactions are as follows:

At high temperatures and high pressure in the presence of Ni catalyst,
hydrogenation of benzene gives cyclohexane.

Benzene reacts with chlorine in the presence of ultra-violet light to form

benzene hexachloride, C6H6Cl6 which is also called gammaxane.

Nucleophilic substitution reaction: Benzene does not give a nucleophilic

substitution reaction because benzene is a rich source of pi-electrons and
repulsion between pi-electrons and nucleophiles takes place.

Combustion: Benzene burns with a sooty flame in air to produce CO2 and
H2O

→
C6H6+(15/2)O2 6CO2+3H2O
 Electrophilic substitution reaction: Benzene is a rich source of pi-electrons
and these pi-electrons involve in resonance. Hence, benzene is extra stable
and gives only electrophilic substitution reactions, but not electrophilic
addition reactions.

Examples of substitution electrophilic reactions:

Nitration:

Reagents- Conc.HNO3 + conc.H2SO4

Electrophile: NO2+ (nitronium ion)
Adding species: NO2
By product: H2O

When benzene is heated with conc.HNO3 in the presence of conc.H2SO4

gives nitrobenzene, it is known as nitration of benzene.

Mechanism of nitration of benzene

i) Generation of electrophile:
ii) Attack of electrophile on benzene ring to form carbocation:

iii) Removal of proton:

Halogenation

Reagents- Cl2 + Br2 + Anhyd.AlCl3 or Anhyd.FeCl3 or Anhyd. FeBr3

Electrophile: chloronium ion or bromonium ion
Adding species: Cl or Br
By product: HCl or HBr

Benzene reacts with Cl2 or Br2 in the presence of catalyst Anhydr.AlCl3 or

FeCl3 or FeBr3 to give chlorobenzene or bromobenzene
Mechanism of chlorination of Benzene

i) Generation of electrophile:

+ -
Cl – Cl + AlCl3 -----> Cl + AlCl 4

ii) Attack of electrophile on benzene ring to form carbocation

iii) Removal of proton:

 Fridel Craft Alkylation

Reagent- RCl + Anhyd AlCl3 (where R = CH3, C2H5, C3H9 etc.)

Electrophile- R+ (carbocation)
Adding reaction- R
Byproduct- HCl

When benzene reacts with chloroalkane in the presence of catalyst like anhyd.
AlCl3 to form alkyl benzene.

Mechanism of Fridel Craft Alkylation

i) Generation of electrophile:

+ -
CH3 – CL + AlCl3 -------> CH 3 + AlCl 4

ii) Attack of electrophile on benzene ring to form carbocation

iii) Removal of proton:

Fridel Craft Acylation

CH3CO - Acetyl or acyl

Reagent- CH3COCl + Anhyd.AlCl3 or (CH3CO)2 + Anhyd.AlCl3
Electrophile- COCH3 (Acylium ion)
Adding species- COCH3
Byproduct- HCl or CH3COOH

When benzene reacts with acetyl chloride (CH3COCl) or acetic anhydride,

(CH3CO)2 in the presence of catalyst like anhyd.AlCl3, to form acetophenone
Mechanism of Fridel Craft Acylation

i) Generation of electrophile

ii) Attack of electrophile on benzene ring to form carbocation

iii) Removal of proton:

 Sulphonation

Reagents- Conc.H2SO4 or Fuming H2SO4 or SO3 + H2SO4 OR H2S2O7

(Oleum)
Electrophile: SO3
Adding species: SO3H
By product: H2O

When benzene is reacted with conc.H2SO4 or oleum to form benzene

sulphonic acid.

Mechanism of sulphonation or Benzene

i) Generation of electrophile

ii) Attack of electrophile on benzene ring to form carbocation

iii) Removal of proton:

iv) Protonation
Importance:

If excess of electrophilic reagent is used, further substitution reaction

must take place

S.E reactions in mono-substituted benzene

Napthalene

Anthracene

Cyclooctatetraene

Cyclopentadienylanion

Preparation of benzene

a.) From Ethyne:

b.) Aromatisation

c.) From phenol

d.) From sodium benzoate

 Q. Complete the following reactions:

a.)

b.)

c.)

Q.Convert:
a.) Benzene to acetophone

b.) Phenol to Toluene

c) Benzene into nitrochlorobenzene

d.) Benzene to m-nitrotoluene

 Environmental Pollution

Pollutants
Troposphere
Stratosphere
Tropospheric Pollution Oxides of sulphur
Oxides of Nitrogen
Hydrocarbons
Oxides of carbon

Environmental Chemistry

Global warming
Greenhouse effects
Acid rain
Particulate Pollutants
Smog
Water Pollution
Stratospheric Pollution
Chemical Pollutants
International Standard of
Drinking Water
Strategies to Control
Environmental Problems
 Environmental
Chemistry
It is the branch of science that deals with the chemical
changes in the environment. It includes our surroundings
as air, water, soil, forest etc.

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
It is the effect of undesirable changes in our
surroundings that have harmful effects on plants,
animals and human beings.
Pollutants
A substance, which causes pollution, is known as
pollutant. Itcan be solid, liquid or gaseous
substances. Present in higher concentration, it can be
produced due to human activities or natural
happenings.

Troposphere

The lowest region of atmosphere, in which

the human beings along with other organisms live, is
called troposphere.

It extends to the height of about 10 km from the sea

level. It contains air, water vapours, clouds etc. The
pollution in this region is caused by some poisonous
gases, smoke fumes, smog etc.
 Stratoshpere
It extends from height of 10 to 50 km above the sea level.
Ozone and some other gaseous substances present in this
region are responsible for the pollution.

Tropospheric Pollution

Pollution in this region is caused by the presence of undesirable

gaseous particles like oxides of sulphur, nitrogen and carbon,
hydrocarbons along with solid particles like dust, mist,
fumes, smoke etc.

OXIDES OF SULPHUR

These are produced when coal containing sulphur is burnt.

S(s)+O2(g) ------------> SO2(g)

It is also during volcanic eruptions.

Harmful effects

(i) It is poisonous to both animals and plants.

(ii) A very high concentration of 502 may cause respiratory

diseases e.g., asthma, bronchitis, emphysema in human
beings.

(iii) It causes irritation to the eyes,resulting in tears and

redness.

(iv) Its high concentration leads to the stiffness of flower

buds.

(v)Particulate matter present in the air can catalyse the

formation of sulphur trioxide from sulphur dioxide.

Oxides of Nitrogen

Main oxides of nitrogen are

nitric oxide- (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).

Major Sources:

(i) Lightning discharge results in the combination of N2

and 02 to form NO.

(ii) Combustion of gasoline in automobilies, burning of

hydrocarbons and coal etc..
Harmful effects
Nitric oxide itself is not harmful to human beings, but it is very
unstable and changes to nitrogen dioxide which is toxic in
nature.

These effects are as follows:

(i) It reacts with Ozone (03) present in the atmosphere and

thus decrease the density of Ozone.

(ii) It affects the respiratory system. and damages the lungs.

(ii) Higher concentrations of NO2 damage the leaves of plants

and retard. the rate of photosynthesis.

(iv) It causes cracks in rubber.

(v) Nitrogen dioxide is also harmful to various textile fibres and

metals.

HYDROCARBONS

Incomplete combustion of fossil fuel in industry and thermal

power plants and the exhaust of automobiles release
hydrocarbons into the atmosphere- constantly causing pollution
Harmful effects

(1) They cause cancer.

(ii) Methane is one of the greenhouse gases.

(iii) They harm plants in various ways like breakdown of tissues,

shedding of leaves
etc.

Oxides of carbon

Carbon dioxide
0.03% CO2 is present in air by Volume.

Major Sources:

(i) By burning of fossil fuels.

(ii) By the decomposition of limestone. during the manufacture
of cement.
(iii) Emitted during volcanic eruptions.
(iv) CO2 is released into the atmosphere by respiration.

Harmful effects

Deforestation and burning of fossil fuel

increases the CO2 level which is mainly
responsible for global warming.
Carbon monoxide

Carbon Monoxide is a colourless and odourless gas.

Major Sources:

(i) Released by the automobile exhaust.

(ii) Incomplete combustion of coal, fire wood, petrol etc.

(iii) By the dissociation of CO2 at high température.

Harmful effects
(i) It binds to haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin
which is more stable than oxygen-haemoglobin complex. Its
concentration in blood when reaches to 3-4%, the oxygen
carrying capacity of
blood is greatly reduced. The oxygen deficiency, results into
headache, weak eyesight, nervousness etc.

(ii) It has harmful effects on plants when its concentration is

(100' more).

GLOBAL WARMING AND GREENHOUSE EFFECTS

Some gases like carbondioxide, methane, ozone, water

vapours, CFCs have the capacity to trap some of the heat
radiations that are released from the earth or from sun. These
gases are known as greenhouse gases and the effect is
called greenhouse effect. This leads to global warming
Consequences of globalwarming

(i) It leads to melting of polar ice caps and flooding of low

lying areas all over the earth.

(ii) Global rise in temperature increases the incidence of

infectious diseases like dengue, malaria, yellow fever,
sleeping, sickness etc.

ACID RAIN

When the pH of the rain water drops below 5.6,

it is known as acid rain.

Normal rain is slightly acidic due to dissolution

of atmospheric carbon dioxide in water.

CO2 +H20 ----- > H2CO3

H2CO3 ------> H+ HC03

Harmful effects

(i) It has harmful effects on trees and plants as it

dissolves and washes away nutrients needed for their
growth.

(ii) It has very bad effect on aquatic. ecosystem.

(iii) Acid rain damages buildings and other structures

made of stone or metal. Taj Mahal in India has been
affected by acid rain.
PARTICULATE POLLUTANTS

Viable Particulates: They are minute living organisms that are

dispersed in the atmosphere.

Example :-Bacteria, Fungi Moulds,algae etc.

Non Viable Particulates:

(i) Smoke: It is the mixture of solid and liquid particles formed

during combustion
of organic matter.

Example: Cigarette smoke, smoke from burning of fossil fuel.

(ii)Dust: Composed of fine solid particles (over 2gm in

diameter).
It is produced during crushing, grinding and attribution of
solid particles.

(iii) Mist: These are produced due to the spray of liquids like
herbicides and pesticides over the plants. They travel
through air and form mist.

(iv) Fumes: They are generally released to the atmosphere by

the metallurgical operations and also by several chemical
reactions.
Harmful Effects of Particulate Pollutants

(i) Fine particles less than 5 microns penetrate into the

lungs. Inhalation of such particles can lead to serious lung
diseases including lung cancer.

(ii) Suspended particles of bigger size can hinder the sun

rays from reaching the earth surface. This can lower the
temperature of earth and make the weather foggy.

SMOG

This is the common form of air pollution which is combination of

smoke and fog.

Smog exists in two types:

(i) Classical Smog: Occurs in cool humid climate. It contains

smoke, fog and sulphur dioxide. It is also called as reducing
smog.

(ii) Photochemical Smog: This type of result from the action of

sunlight on smog unsaturated hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides
released by the vehicles and industries. It has high
concentration of oxidising agents and is there fore, called as
oxidising smog.
Harmful effects of photochemical smog
(i) It can cause cough, bronchitis, irritation of respiratory system
etc.

- To control this type of pollution the engines of the

automobiles are fitted with catalytic converters to check the
release of both oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons in the
atmosphere.

Some plants like Vitis, Pinus, Juniparus, Quercus, Pyrus can

metabolise nitrogen oxide and therefore, their plantation can be
done.

STRATOSPHERIC POLLUTION
Formation of Ozone: Ozone in the stratosphere is produced by
UV radiations. When UV radiations act on dioxygen (02)
molecules, Ozone is produced.

Ozone is thermodynamically unstable and decomposes to

molecular oxygen. Thus there exists an equilibrium between
production and decomposition of Ozone molecules.

Depletion of Ozone layer

Ozone blanket in the upper atmosphere prevent the harmful UV
radiations from reaching earth.

But in recent years, there have been reports of depletion of this

layer due to presence of certain chemicals in the stratosphere.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), nitrogen oxides, chloride, CCl4

etc. are the chemicals responsible for depletion.
(CFC) dissociate in the presence of light gives chlorine free
radicals which catalyse the conversion of ozone into oxygen.
Effects of the depletion of Ozone layer

(i) This leads to many diseases like skin cancer, sunburn,

ageing of skin, cataract etc.

(ii) UV radiations can kill many phytoplanktons, damage the

fish productivity.

(iii) It can decrease moisture content of the soil by

increasing the evaporation of
surface water.

(iv) UV radiations can damage paints and fibres, causing

them to fade faster.

WATER POLLUTION

Presence of undesirable materials in water which is harmful

for the human beings and plants is known as water pollution.
Normal properties of the water can be changed by the
presence of these foreign materials.
Causes of Water Pollution
(i) Pathogens: Pathogens are the bacteria and the other
organisms that enter water from domestic sewage and animal
excreta.
Human excreta contain bacteria such. as Escherichia coli and
Streptococcus faecalis. It causes gastrointestinal diseases.

(ii) Organic Wastes: Organic matter such as leaves, grass, trash

etc. can pollute water.

- Excessive growth of phytoplankton within water also pollute

water.

-Large numbers of bacteria in water can consume oxygen

dissolved in water by decomposing organic matter present in
water.

-If the concentration of dissolved oxygen in water is below 6

Ppm the growth of fish gets inhibited. If too much of organic
matter is
added to water, all the available oxygen is used up. This can
cause the death of the aquatic life.

• BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand)

It is defined as the amount of oxygen required by bacteria for

the breakdown of the organic matter present in a certain volume
of a sample of water.
The amount of BOD in water is a measure of the amount of
organic material in the
water. Clean water has BOD value of less than 5 ppm.
Highly polluted water could have a BOD value of 17 ppm or
more.
CHEMICAL POLLUTANTS

(i) Industrial Wastes: Chemical reactions carried in the

industrial units also pollute- water to a great extent. For
example, lead, mercury, nickel, cobalt etc. These chemicals
give very bad effect to the groundwater and waterbodies
are polluted due to the chemical reactions-
known as leaching. Organic chemicals like petroleum
products-also pollute many sources of water.

e.g., major oil spills in oceans.

(ii) Pesticides: These are i • mostly chlorinated

hydrocarbons, organophosphates and metallic salts etc.

They dissolve in water to small extent and pollute it. Since

all the pesticides are toxic in nature, they are injurious to
both plants and animals.

(ii) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBS).These are the

chemical compounds used as fluids in transformers and
capacitors.

These are released in atmosphere as rapours. They mix with

rain water and thus contaminate the water. Eutrophication:
The process in which algae like organisms reduce
dissolved oxygen in water is called as eutrophication. It is
harmful for aquatic life.
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD OF DRINKING WATER

Fluoride: Concentration of fluoride up to l ppm or 1 mg dm-3, is

not harmful for human beings if it is used as drinking water.

The F ions make the enamel on teeth much harder by converting

hydroxyapatite [3Ca3(PO4)2 Ca(OH)2] the enamel on the
surface of the teeth, into much harder fluorapatite, [3Ca3(PO4)2.
CaF2].

Concentration of F above 2 ppm causes. brown mottling of

teeth. Excess of fluoride is harmful to bones also.

Lead: Upper limit concentration of lead in drinking water is about

50
Lead can damage kidney, lever,reproductive system etc.

Sulphate: At moderate level it is harmless but excess is harmful.

Nitrate: The maximum limit of nitrate. should be 50 ppm. Excess

nitrate in drinking water can cause diseases such as me
themoglobinemia (blue baby syndrome).

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): Water is treated with K2Cr207

in acidic medium to oxidise polluting substance-
which cannot be oxidised. by microbial oxidation. The remaining
is determined. by back titration with suitable reducing agent.
SOIL POLLUTION
Sources
Pesticides: It can be classified as:
(i) Insecticide: The most common. insecticides are
chlorinated hydrocarbons like DDT, BHC etc.
As they are not much soluble in water, they stay in the soil
for long time. They are absorbed by the soil and
contaminate root crops like radish, carrot etc.

(ii) Herbicides: These are the compounds- used to control

weeds, namely, sodium chlorate (NaClO3) and sodium
arsenite- (Na3As03) are commonly used herbicides but
arsenic compounds, being toxic are no longer preferred.

Fungicides: Organo-mercury compounds are the most

common fungicides. Its dissociation in soil produces
mercury which is highly toxic and harmful for the crops.

INDUSTRIAL WASTES

It has seen that most of the industrial wastes are

thrown into water or dumped into the soil. These industrial
wastes contain huge amounts of toxic chemicals which
are mostly non-bidegradable.

For example :- metal processing industries, mining

cement, glass industries, petroleum industry etc., fertilizer
industry produce gypsum. The disposal of non-
biodegradable industrial solid waste is not done by
suitable methods and cause many serious problems.
STRATEGIES TO CONTROL ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEM

(i) The improper disposal of wastes is one of the major causes

of environmental degradation. The
management of wastes is very important.

(ii) All domestic wastes should be properly collected and

disposed.

GREEN CHEMISTRY

Green Chemistry is a way of thinking and is about utilising the

knowledge and principles of chemistry that would control
the increasing environmental pollution.

Green chemistry in day-to-day life:

(1) Dry-Cleaning of clothes and laundary: Replacement of

halogenated solvent like (CC14) by liquid CO2 which is less
harmful to groundwater.
Hydrogen peroxide (H202) is used for the purpose of
bleaching clothes.

(ii) Bleaching of Paper: In place of chlorine H202 is used for

the bleaching
of paper.

(iii) Synthesis of Chemicals: Ethahal (CH3CHO) is prepared by

step oxidation of ethene.

Environmental pollution: It is the effect of undesirable

changes in the surroundings that have harmful effects on
plants, animals, and human beings.