PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

OHM’S LAW

EXP. NO: 1 DATE:

AIM:
To determine resistivity of two / three wires by plotting a graph for potential
difference verses current.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Battery eliminator, Ammeter, Voltmeter, Rheostat, Unknown resistance (coil),
connecting wires.
FORMULA:
𝑽
R = (Ω)
𝑰

𝐑
Resistance per cm = (𝛀/𝐜𝐦)
𝐥
Where
R → resistance (in Ohms)
V → voltage (in volts)
I → current (in amperes)
𝑙 → Length of the wire (in cm) =100cm
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

B → Battery, Rh → Rheostat, A → ammeter, V → Voltmeter,

R →Unknown resistance coil

1
PROCEDURE:
1. Make neat clean and tight connections according to the circuit diagram.

2. Adjust the sliding contact of the rheostat such that a measurable current passes

through the resistance coil or the resistance wire.

3. Note down the value of potential difference V from voltmeter and current I from

ammeter.
4. Shift the rheostat slightly so that both ammeter and voltmeter show full divisions

reading and not in fractions.

5. Record the readings of the voltmeter and ammeter.

6. Find the resistance R using formula.

TABULAR COLUMN

Voltmeter reading(V) Ammeter reading (A) Unknown resistance

𝑽
S. No 𝑅 = (𝛀)
𝑰

1
2
3
4
5

R Mean= _________𝛀
SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:
V= ________ V
I= ________ A
R= __________ 𝛀
+ + + +
Mean resistance= = __________ (𝛀)
𝟓
𝑹
Resistance of the wire per cm(using graph) = =____________𝛀𝐜𝐦-1
𝒍

2
MODEL GRAPH:

∆𝑰
In ∆𝑨𝑩𝑪, 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 =
∆𝑽
∆𝑽
Cot𝜽 = =R= _____ 𝛀
∆𝑰

The graph between V and I is a straight line.

RESULT:
1. Resistance of the wire =___________ 𝛀.
2. Resistance of the wire(using graph) = _________ 𝛀.
3. Resistance per cm of the wire =________𝛀cm-1.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.
2. A low resistance rheostat must be used.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The instrument screws may be loose.
2. Thick connecting wires may not be available.

3
 METER BRIDGE (UNKNOWN RESISTANCE)
EXP. NO: 2 DATE:
AIM:
To find the resistance of a given wire / standard resistor using meter bridge.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Meter Bridge, Leclanche cell, Galvanometer, Resistance box, Unknown resistance,
Jockey and Connecting wires.
FORMULA:
𝒍𝑹
X= (𝒐𝒉𝒎𝒔)
𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍

Where
X= unknown resistance (in ohms)
l=balancing length (in x 10-2m)
R=known resistance (in ohms)
𝒙𝝅𝑫𝟐
Specific resistance of the material of the given wire 𝜌 = (𝛀 m)
𝟒𝑳

D → diameter of the given wire (in m)

L → length of the given wire (in m) =1 m
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

E → leclanche cell (or) Daniel cell, J → Jockey, G → Galvanometer,

R → Known resistor, X → unknown resistor, K → key,

PROCEDURE:
4
 1. Include some resistance in the resistance box.
2. Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram. Press the jockey at the ends
of the meter bridge. If the deflections are in the opposite direction, then the
connections are correct.
3. Move the jockey from the left end and observe the point of zero deflection in the
galvanometer.
4. Measure the balancing length as ‘l’ using the meter scale attached with the
apparatus.
5. Repeat the experiment by including different resistances in the known resistance
box and measure the balancing length in each case.
6. With the help of screw gauge measure the diameter of the wire at least two places
on the wire.
7. Using the formula calculate the specific resistance of the given material.
TABULAR COLUMN:
Unknown
Resistance in Balancing length Balancing length resistance
S. No
the box(𝛀) lx10-2m (100-l)x 10-2m 𝒍𝑹
X= (𝒐𝒉𝒎𝒔)
𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍
1
2
3
4

X Mean= _________𝛀
L.C= 0.01mm Z.E= ___________ Z.C= ________
Corrected reading
-3
S. No PSRx10 m HSC(div) D=[PSR +(HSC±𝑍𝐶)LC] x10-3m
1
2

Mean diameter =_____________ x10-3m

5
SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:
R= ___________ 𝛀
l= __________x10-2m
100-l = __________x10-2m
𝒍𝑹
X= (𝒐𝒉𝒎𝒔) = _________(𝛀)
𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍

X Mean = _________𝛀
To find specific resistance
X Mean = _________𝛀
D= ___________ x10-3m
L= 100cm = 1m
𝒙𝝅𝑫𝟐
𝜌= (𝛀 m) = _________ (𝛀 m)
𝟒𝑳

RESULT:
1. The unknown resistance of the given coil is __________ ohms.
2. The specific resistance of the material of the given wire=________ ohm. m.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. Null point should be brought between 45cm and 55cm.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The instrument screws may be loose.
2. The wire may not have uniform thickness.

6
 METER BRIDGE
LAW OF COMBINATION (SERIES)
EXP. NO: 3 DATE:
AIM:
To verify the laws of combination of resistances using a meter bridge.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Meter bridge, Leclanche cell, Galvanometer, Resistance box, Jockey, Two
Resistance coils, Connecting wires.
FORMULA:
𝒍𝑹
r= Ω
(𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍)

Req= ( 𝒓𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐 ) (Ω)
Where
R → known resistance in ohms
l→ balancing length in x 10-2m
r1 ,r2→ unknown resistance in ohms
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

E → leclanche cell (or) Daniel cell, J → Jockey, G → Galvanometer,

R → Known resistor, r1 and r2 → unknown resistor, K → key

7
PROCEDURE:
1. Mark the two resistance coils as r1 and r2 .
2. To find r1 , include some resistance in the resistance box.
3. Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram. Press the jockey at the ends
of the meter bridge. If the deflections are in the opposite direction, then the
connections are correct.
4. Move the jockey from the left end and observe the point of zero deflection in the
galvanometer.
5. Measure the balancing length as ‘l’ using the meter scale attached with the
apparatus.
6. Using formula calculate r1.
7. Repeat the experiment by including another resistance in the known resistance box
and measure the balancing length.
8. Take mean of above two result and record it as r1 mean.
9. To find r2 ,repeat steps 3,4,5,6,7.
10.Take mean of above two result and record it as r2 mean.
11.Calculate theoretical value by adding r1 mean and r2 mean.
12.Connect the two coils r1 andr2 in series in the left gap.
13.To find the resistance of this combination Repeat steps 3,4,5,6,7.
14.Take mean of above two results and record it as experimental value.
TABULATION:
Resistance Balancing
Balancing 𝒍𝑹
Resistance S. from the length r= Ω Mean
length (𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍)
coil No resistance (100-l) resistance(Ω)
l(x10-2m)
box(Ω) x 10-2m
r1 only 1
2
1
r2 only
2

r1 and r2 1
in series 2

8
SAMPLE CALCULATION:
R= __________________ Ω
l= ________________ x10-2m
𝒍𝑹
r= Ω =____________ Ω
(𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍)

CALCULATION FOR VERIFICATION OF LAWS:

Experimental value of rs = ___________Ω
Theoretical value of rs = r1 mean + r2 mean= ___________Ω
Difference (if any) = ___________Ω
RESULT:
Within limits of experimental error, experimental and theoretical values of Rs are
same; hence the law of resistances in series is verified.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The connections should be neat clean and tight.
2. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The instrument screws may be loose.
2. The wire may not have uniform thickness.

9
 SONOMETER
EXP. NO: 4 DATE:
AIM:
To determine the frequency of alternating current using a sonometer and an
electromagnet.
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED:
A sonometer with a soft iron wire stretched over it, an electromagnet, a step-down
transformer, slotted 1/2 kg weights hanger, two sharp edge wedges and a weight box,
connecting wires.
FORMULA:

𝟏 𝑻
The frequency of given electromagnet = n = √ (Hz)
𝟐𝑳 𝑴
𝒏
The frequency of ac mains= (in Hz)
𝟐
Where
L=Resonating length of the string in 10-2m
T=Tension in the wire (in N) = mg (where g=9.8 m/s2)
𝜇=Mass per unit length (kg/m) =𝛑r2𝛒
M=slotted mass in kg
𝜌=Density of the given wire (in kg/m3)
r= radius of the given wire in 10-3m
PROCEDURE:
1. Set up the sonometer and stretch the wire AB by placing a load of ½ kg on the
hanger.
2. Support the electromagnet in a stand and connect it to the secondary of a step-down
transformer. Adjust its position, such that its one pole lies close to the middle of the
sonometer wire.
3. Switch on the alternating current supply and adjust the length of vibrating portion of
AB by sliding the wedge p or p′. Make this adjustment until the amplitude of the
vibrating string is maximum.

10
 4. Measure the vibrating length and note the tension in the string.
5. Increase the load in steps of ½ kg and each time find the vibrating length.
6. Calculate the radius of the sonometer wire using screw gauge.
7. Record the readings in the tabulation.
DIAGRAM:

TABULAR COLUMN:
S. Slotted mass (m) Tension(N) Resonating length L √𝑻 √𝑵
No (kg) T=mg (10-2m) (𝒊𝒏 )
𝑳 𝒎
1

√𝑻 √𝑵
Mean =_______ (𝒊𝒏 )
𝑳 𝒎

11
FOR FINDING RADIUS OF THE WIRE:
L.C=0.01mm Z.E= ___________ Z.C= ________
Corrected reading
S.no PSRx10-3m HSC(div) D=[PSR +(HSC±𝑍𝐶)LC] x10-3m

1
2

Mean diameter (D) =____________x10-3m, Mean radius(r) =D/2 =___________x10-3m,

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS;
L=________10-2m
m=________ kg
T= mg =________X 9.8=________ N
𝜌=_______kg/m3
r=_______10-3m
𝜇=Mass per unit length (kg/m) = 𝝅r2𝝆=___________ kg/m
𝟏 √𝑻
The frequency of given electromagnet(n)= =
𝟐√𝝁 𝑳

= _________ Hz
𝒏
The frequency of ac mains= =_______ Hz
𝟐
RESULT:
Frequency of ac mains = ________ Hertz.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The wire should be soft iron or any magnetic material.
2. The length should be measured when vibration is maximum.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. Pulley may not be frictionless.
2. Weights may not be correct.

12
 CONVEX LENS
EXP. NO: 5 DATE:
AIM:
To find the focal length of a given convex lens by plotting graph between v and u.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Convex lens, lens stand, illuminated wire gauge (light box), white screen, metre
scale.
FORMULA:
𝒖𝒗
𝒇= (in 10-2 m)
𝒖+𝒗
Where
f =focal length of given convex lens (in 10-2m)
u= object distance (in 10-2m)
v=image distance (in 10-2m)
PROCEDURE:
1. Find the rough focal length of given convex lens using distant object method in
focusing a distant object by keeping the screen behind the lens. The distance
between the screen and the lens with stand gives rough focal length say ‘f’ x10 -2m.
2. Mount the lens on the stand and keep it between light box and screen.
3. Find the clear image on the screen by adjusting u (distance between light box &
lens) values as 2f-4,2f-2, 2f, 2f+2,2f+4.
4. Record v values (distance between lens & screen) for the same.
5. Substitute u and v values in ‘f’ formula to get focal length in each case.
6. Take mean value for the focal lengths to get final result.
RAY DIAGRAM:

13
TABULAR COLUMN:
S. Object distance(u)(10-2m) Image distance(v)(10-2m) Focal length
No 𝒖𝒗
𝑓= in 10-2 m
𝒖+𝒗
1

f mean = _______ x 10-2m

MODEL GRAPH:

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:
For u=___________ in 10-2 m

v=___________ in 10-2 m

𝒖𝒗 ( )( )
f= =( )+(
= _______________x10-2m
𝒖+𝒗 )

f mean=(f1+f2+f3+f4+f5)/5= _________x10-2m
14
RESULT:
The focal length of given convex lens is calculated as
i. From tabulation _____________ x10-2m.
ii. From u, v graph method __________________ x10-2m.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The uprights may not be vertically placed (lens).
2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The lens must be clean and must be vertical.
2. Avoid parallax.

15
 CONVEX MIRROR
EXP. NO: 6 DATE:
AIM:
To find the focal length of a given convex mirror using a convex lens.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Convex mirror, convex lens, lens stand, illuminated wire gauge (light box), white
screen, metre scale, mirror stand.
FORMULA:
𝑹
Focal length of the given convex mirror 𝒇 = (𝒊𝒏 10-2m)
𝟐
Where
R = B –A = radius of curvature of the given convex mirror (10-2m)
B =position of the screen from the source (10-2m)
A=position of the mirror from the source (10-2m)
RAY DIAGRAM:

16
PROCEDURE:
1. Image cannot be formed on the screen due to convex mirror in regular method.
So follow indirect method in using convex lens to bring image on the screen.
2. Keep convex lens between convex mirror and light box.
3. Bring convex lens & mirror stand close to light box to get image on the light box.
4. At this situation record distance between light box and mirror as A.
5. Now remove mirror stand from the setup, find the clear image using the convex lens
on the screen at that position.
6. Record distance between light box and screen as B.
7. Find R=B-A.
8. Repeat the same by disturbing convex lens position by 0.5cm.
𝑹
9. Take mean value of R and find f using formula 𝒇 = .
𝟐
TABULAR COLUMN:
S. Position of the mirror Position of the screen from Radius of curvature
No from the source A(10-2m) the source B(10-2m) R=B-A(10-2m)
1

𝑹𝟏+𝑹𝟐+𝑹𝟑+𝑹𝟒+𝑹𝟓
Rmean= = ________ x 10-2m
𝟓

𝐑𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐧
f= = ________ x 10-2m
𝟐

17
SAMPLE CALCULATION:
For A= _______________ x(10-2m)
B= _______________ x(10-2m)
R=B-A= ____________ - __________ =___________=x 10-2m
RESULT:
The focal length of the given convex mirror using convex lens is found to be
______10-2m.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The lens and the mirror should be fixed vertical.
2. The convex mirror should be placed close to the convex lens.
SOURCE OF ERROR:
1. Focal length of lens may not be small.
2. There may be parallax error.

18
 GLASS PRISM
EXP. NO: 7 DATE:
AIM:
To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given glass prism by plotting a
graph between the angle of incidence and the angle of deviation.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Drawing board, white papers, office pins, glass prism, geometry box.
PROCEDURE:
1. Place white paper on the drawing board using office pins.
2. Trace the outline of a given glass prism into 5 samples.
3. Mark the angle of incidence on the sample as 35○, 40○, 45○, 50○, 55○ separately.
4. Place on two office pins on the incidence ray and place prism on the sample.
5. Find the emergent ray by placing 2 office pins on the other side.
6. Find the angle between the extension of incidence ray to the emergent ray as
deviation for every sample.
7. Draw the graph taking ∠𝒊 𝑜𝑛 x-axis and ∠𝜹 on y-axis and mark 𝜹 m.
RAY DIAGRAM:

19
MODEL GRAPH:

TABULAR COLUMN:
S. No Angle of incidence (∠𝒊) Angle of deviation(∠𝜹)
1

RESULT:
1. Graph indicates ∠𝒊increases ,∠𝜹decreases attains a 𝜹 mand then starts increasing

for further increase in ∠𝒊.

2. Angle of minimum deviation, 𝜹 m =__________.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. ∠𝒊must be between 30○to 60○.
2. The pins must be fixed vertical.
SOURCE OF ERROR:
1. Parallax in measuring the angles.
2. Pins may not be vertical.

20
 PN JUNCTION DIODE
EXP. NO: 8 DATE:
AIM:
To draw the I- V characteristic curve of a PN junction diode in forward bias.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
PN diode, Voltmeter, Ammeter, Rheostat, Battery and connecting wires.
FORMULA:
𝑽
Static resistance (Rs)= (𝒊𝒏 𝛀)
𝑰
𝚫𝑽
Dynamic resistance (Rd) = (𝐢𝐧 𝛀)
𝚫𝑰
Where
V =voltage across given PN diode (in Volts)
I=current through given PN diode (in Ampere)
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in diagram.
2. Slowly increase the voltage of the battery.
3. Record the voltmeter and ammeter reading across the PN diode.
4. Plot graph between V & I.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

21
REVERSE BIAS:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TABULAR COLUMN:
S. No Voltmeter reading (V) Ammeter reading (µA)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

22
MODEL GRAPH:

TABULAR COLUMN:
S. No Voltmeter reading (V) Ammeter reading (mA)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

RESULT:
Static resistance of the given diode = Rs=___________(Ω).
Dynamic resistance of the given diode = Rd = ____________ (Ω).
PRECAUTIONS:
1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. High voltage should not be provided.
SOURCE OF ERRORS:
1. The junction diode supplied may be faulty.
2. Circuit connections may be wrong.
23
 ACTIVITIES
ASSEMBLING THE GIVEN CIRCUIT
ACTIVITY NO: 01 DATE:
AIM:
To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED:
Resistor, ammeter, (0-1.5A) voltmeter (0-5V), battery, one-way key, rheostat, sand
paper, connecting wires.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the components as shown in Fig.
2. After closing the key K, check that the voltmeter and ammeter show deflections on the
right hand side.
3. Check the continuity of the assembled circuit using a multimeter.
RESULT:
The components of the electrical circuit were assembled.

24
 CORRECTING THE WRONG CIRCUIT
ACTIVITY NO: 02 DATE:
AIM:
To draw the diagram of given open circuit comprising at least a battery,
resistor/rheostat, key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components that are not
connected in proper order and correct the circuit diagram.
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED:
A given open circuit comprising atleast a cell or a battery, plug key, resistor,
rheostat, ammeter, voltmeter, connecting wires and sand paper.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
WRONG CIRCUIT:

CORRECTED CIRCUIT:

25
PROCEDURE:
1. Draw the circuit diagrams.
2. Consider the various components which have not been connected in proper order.
3. Draw the correct circuit diagram.
4. Connect the electrical components according to corrected circuit diagram.
5. Close the key in the circuit to verify if the corrected circuit is functional.
OBSERVATIONS:
S. No. Circuit Component Correct Component Incorrect Component
1 Battery/cell

2 Resistor

3 Rheostat

4 Key

5 Ammeter

6 Voltmeter

RESULT:
The electrical circuit assembled as per the corrected circuit diagram is functional.

26
 IDENTIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS
ACTIVITY NO: 03 DATE:

AIM:

To identify a diode, a LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a capacitor from a

mixed collection of such items.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED:

Multimeter, a collection of diode, LED, transistor, IC, resistor and capacitor.

PROCEDURE:

1. Check the physical appearance of the component.

2. If the component is

A diode, it is a two terminal device. It conducts when forward biased and

does not conduct when reverse biased. It does not emit light while conducting.

A LED (light emitting diode), it is also a two terminal device. It conducts

when forward biased and does not conduct when reverse biased. It emits light while

conducting.

A transistor, it is a three terminal device. The terminals represent emitter (E),

base (B) and collector (C).

An IC (integrated circuit); it is a multi-terminal device in the form of a chip.

But some may have only three terminals, e.g. 7805, 7806, 7809, 7912.

A resistor, it is a two terminal device. It conducts equally in both directions.

A capacitor, it is a two terminal device. It does not conduct but stores some

charge when dc voltage is applied.

27
OBSERVATION:

S. No Physical Appearance Name of the Component

RESULT:
A diode, a LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a capacitor are identified
respectively from a mixed collection.

28
 GLASS SLAB
ACTIVITY NO: 04 DATE:
AIM:
To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on
a glass slab.
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED:
Drawing board, rectangular glass slab, white sheet of paper, adhesive tape (cello-
tape), drawing pins, a metre scale, protractor, sharp pencil and eraser.
RAY DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE
1. Fix a white sheet of paper on the drawing board with the help of drawing pins.
2. Place the glass slab lengthwise symmetrically mark its boundary on the paper sheet
with a sharp pencil.
3. Using the ray diagram, draw the incident ray and the corresponding emergent ray.
4. Calculate the lateral displacement from the ray diagram.
RESULT:
The ray of light emerging from a glass slab is parallel to the incident ray direction,
but is laterally deviated.

29
 IMAGE FORMED BY CONVEX LENS AND CONCAVE MIRROR
ACTIVITY NO: 05 DATE:
AIM:
To study the nature and size of the image formed by (i) a convex lens (ii) a concave
mirror on a screen (for different distances of the light source from the lens/mirror).
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED:
Light source, convex lens, Concave mirror, lens/mirror holder, screen, meter scale.
PROCEDURE:
1. Find the rough focal length of given convex lens/concave mirror using distant
object method.
2. Using ray diagrams check the nature and size of the image.
CONVEX LENS:

30
OBSERVATION (CONVEX LENS):
S. Position of the Image
No object Position Nature Size
1. At infinity At F Real and Inverted Point size
2. Beyond 2F Between F & 2F Real and Inverted Diminished
3. At 2F At 2F Real and Inverted Same
4. Between F & 2F Beyond 2F Real and Inverted Enlarged
5. At F At infinity Real and Inverted Extremely enlarged
6. < F Beyond 2F Virtual and Erect Magnified
CONCAVE MIRROR:

31
OBSERVATION (CONCAVE MIRROR):
S. Position of the Image
No object Position Nature Size
1. At infinity At F Real and Inverted Point size

2. Beyond C Between F & C Real and Inverted Diminished

3. At C At C Real and Inverted Same

4. Between F & C Beyond C Real and Inverted Enlarged

5. At F At infinity Real and Inverted Extremely enlarged

6. Between F & P Behind the mirror Virtual and Erect Highly Magnified

RESULT:
The nature and size of the image using convex lens and concave mirror were
studied and tabulated.

32