1.

1: LIGHT AND LIGHTING FUNDAMENTALS

OBJECTIVES

In this, document, the student will be able to learn about basic concepts and principles of light and
lighting, its characteristics, different units, laws, and formulas for lighting calculation and how it will be
use in actual application.

INTRODUCTION

Lighting is the utilization or application of either natural light or artificially generated light to

provide a desired visual environment for work and living.

It is both science and an art. Science because it makes use of the science of light and employs

methods and techniques developed through time. It is an art because the personal taste (preference)

and artistic sense of the designer and owner greatly influence the manner by which lighting is applied.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

LIGHTING – The various processes, systems, forms, and/or equipment used to provide light and

illumination.

LIGHT - The artificial source of illumination

ILLUMINATION - The luminous flux density incident on a surface, i.e. the luminous flux per unit area,

usually expressed in lumens per square foot, or foot candles, and lumens radiation, lumens per square

meter.

LUMINANCE – The luminous intensity of any surface in a given direction per unit of projected area of

the surface, as viewed from that direction; a directional property of luminous radiation.

LUMINANCE CONTRAST - The relationship between the luminance of an object and the luminance of

the immediate background.

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ILLUMINANCE - The density of luminous flux incident on a surface; the quotient of the luminous flux

divided by the area of the surface, hence the latter is uniformly illuminated.

LUMINOSITY - The ratio of Luminous flux to the corresponding radiant flux at a particular wave

length; expressed in lumens per watts.

LUMINESCENCE - The emission of light not directly ascribable to incandescence.

CANDELA - The unit of luminous intensity; international candle.

CANDLE POWER (CP) - The luminous intensity of a light source, expresses in candles.

LUX - A unit of illumination equal to 1 lumen per square meter.

FOOTCANDLE (FC) – A unit of illumination equal to 1 lumen per square foot, light flux density.

LAMBERT - A unit of luminance equal to 1/Π candela per square centimeter.

FOOTLAMBERT (FL) – A unit of luminance equal to 1/Π candela per square foot.

LUMEN- A unit of luminance flux.

ZONAL CAVITY METHOD/LUMEN METHOD/FLUX METHOD – A procedure in lighting design used to

determine the number and types of lamps or luminaires required to provide a desired average level of

illumination on a workplane; takes into account both direct and reflected light flux.

ABSORPTION - The ratio of light absorbed by a material to the light falling upon it.

REFLECTANCE - The ratio of reflected light to incident light.

REFRACTION - The process by which direction of a ray of light changes as the ray passes oblique

from a medium to another.

LUMINAIRE - A complete lighting unit consisting of one or more lamps, together with components

which are used to distribute light, to position and protect the lamps to the electric power supply, also
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called a lighting fixture.

LUMINAIRE EFFICIENCY - The ratio of luminous flux (lumen) emitted by a luminaire to a total

flux emitted by the lamp or lamps in the luminaire.

LUMINOUS EFFICACY - A measure of the effectiveness with which the light source converts electric

power into luminous flux.

LUMINOUS INTENSITY - The luminous flux per unit solid angle in a specific direction from a point

source of light.

INTENSITY - The luminous flux per unit solid angle, expressed in lumens per steradians (lm/Sr)

or candela

LUMINOUS FLUX - The rate of flow of light through a surface.

LUMINANCE METER (BRIGHTNESS FACTOR) – A visual instrument of a photoelectric instrument

used to measure luminance.

BRIGHTNESS – An attribute of visual perception in accordance with which a surface appears to emit

more or less light

BRILLIANCE - The clarity, strength and brightness of a color.

INFRARED RADIATION (IR) – Non-visible light characterized by its relation to heat.

ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION (UV) - Non-visible light that can have both harmful and non- beneficial

effects.

VISIBLE LIGHT – The combination of the colors of the visible spectrum; red, orange, yellow, green, blue,

indigo, and violet.

CRITICAL ANGLE - The angle at which light undergoes total internal reflection.
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COEFFICIENT OF UTILIZATION (CU) - The ratio of the luminous flux (lumens) from a luminaire,

calculated as received on the work plane to the luminous flux emitted by the luminaires lamp.

LAMP LUMEN DEPRECIATION (LLD) – Multiplicative factor in calculating illuminance for reduction in

the light output of a lamp over a period of time.

LIGHT LOSS FACTOR (LLF) – A factor used in calculating illuminance after a given period and under given

conditions. Also known as Maintenance Factor.

LUMINAIRE DIRT DEPRECIATION (LDD) – Multiplicative factor used in calculations of

illuminance for reduced illuminance due to dirt collecting on the luminaires.

ROOM CAVITY RATIO (RCR) - A number indicating the proportions of a room cavity, calculated

from the length, width and height of the room to be illuminated.

VISUAL COMFORT PROBABILITY (VCP) – The rating of a lighting system, expressed as a percent of

people who, when viewing from a specified location is properly specified.

POINT SOURCE - A source of essentially zero dimension that radiates light uniformly in all directions.

NADIR- Vertically downward directly below the luminaire or lamp, designated as 0°.

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 LIGHTING CALCULATIONS

ILLUMINATION
The luminous power per unit area, expressed as footcandle (fc), Lux (Sl).

Where:
E – Illuminance, fc (or lux, S.l.)
Φ – Light lux (power), lumen A – Area, sq. ft. (sq. m., S.l.)

LUMINOUS INTENSITY
The light power in a given direction is defined as the luminous flux per unit solid angle or a
luminous flux on a surface normal to that direction. Luminous intensity is measured in candela or candle
power.

INVERSE SQUARE LAW

The Inverse Square Law states that the illumination E at a point on a surface varies directly with
the intensity I on the surface and inversely with the square of the distance d between the surface and
the point source of light.

COSINE LAW
The Lambert Cosine Law states that the illuminance on any surface varies with the cosine of the
angle of incidence.

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LUMINOUS FLUX
Luminous flux or quantity of light, unit (lumen, lm)

ILLUMINANCE/ ILLUMINATION
One lumen of luminous flux, uniformly incient on one sq. ft. of area, provides an illumination of
one footcandle (fc); unit E – lumens/ area (sq. ft.) lux.sq.m. (S.I.).

Φ = lumens/sq.ft. Lux = lumens/sq.m. 1 Φ = 10.764 lux

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
*If the lighting power reaching a surface of 12 sq. ft. is 1000 lumens, what is the average illuminance in
footcandles or lux?

Solution: E = Φ /A

*A lighting fixture has an intensity of 7500 cadelas directly below a fixture. What is the illuminance on
table 12 ft. below? 25ft?

Solution: E = I/d2

*If the spotlight with 7500 candelas at the center is aimed at painting on the wall 5 ft. from the light (h)

and the angle O is 60°, what is the illuminance level at the center of the painting?

Solution: E = I cos3 θ/h2

*A surface 4 ft. from a light source is illuminated by a light source having a candlepower of 60 candela.
What will be the illuminance of the source?

Solution: E = i/d2
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LIGHT

As stated by the Illuiminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA), light is a

visually evaluated radiant energy, which permits us to see. Therefore, in comparison to other

waves that has frequency and wavelength, light has a higher wave frequency than radio and

radar.

The color of light is determined by wavelength with red (lowest frequency), orange,
yellow green, blue, indigo, and violet. When a light source produces energy over the entire
visible spectrum in approximately equal quantities, the combination of the colored light
produces white, such as in the case of the sun; whereas a source producing energy over only
a small section of the spectrum produces its characteristics colored light.

PHYSICS OF LIGHT
Light produces the stimulus which allows recognition, organization and evaluation of
visual information perceived within an environment. Light defines form, color, creates mood,
atmosphere and emphasizes direction and movement.

The energy of light is a small band of wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum

which ranges from radio frequencies to cosmic rays. Infrared Radiation (IR) in non-visible light
characterized by its relation to heat. Ultra violet light recognized by human eyes as white light
but is actually a combination of the colors of the visible violet. Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation in
non-visible light that can have both harmful and beneficial effects.

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TYPES OF VISIBLE LIGHT SOURCES

NATURAL PHENOMENA
Radiation of the complete spectrum of light from the sun or stars; the reflection of
sunlight, moon, sky, clouds, earth and bodies of water, lightning, Aurora Australis, and
Bioluminescence (light produced from the oxidation of chemical compounds by plants and
animals).

INCANDESCENCE OR TEMPERATURE RADIATION

As an element is heated, its molecules become increasingly active until the

temperature of the element reaches about 500°C only heat radiation is released. From 500°C

to 600°C, infrared is also produced. At 600°C, infrared is also produced. At 600°C, visible light
of long, red wavelengths is radiated. As the temperature rises, the wavelengths become
shorter, progressing through the spectrum of the visible light.

LUMINESCENCE

When electric current is introduced through a gas or solid which is composed of single
valence electron, it causes the valence electrons to temporarily rise to a higher level of
energy. When the electron resumes its natural state, it radiates energy in the form of light.

VALENCE ELECTRONS
One of the electrons in the outermost shell of an atom, regarded as being responsible
for the chemical reaction of an element.

PHOTOLUMINESCENCE OR GASEOUS DISCHARGE

The principle which describes the response of single valence electrons when their
atoms are in a gaseous state. The collision of electrons induced by the introduction of
electrical current within a confined gas generates an arc discharge, ionizing the vapor
molecules.

FLOURESCENCE
It is a mean of producing light from gaseous discharge. In this case, the confined gas
is one which produces a relatively high percentage of ultraviolet light. The confining glass tube

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is coated with phosphor crystals which absorbs and convert the UV radiation into longer
wavelengths in the visible spectrum.

PHOSPHORESCENCE

Describes the action of organic fluorescent material (rare earth phosphors) which
retain the radiant energy for short periods of time.

ELECTRO LUMINESCENCE

The conversion of electric energy to light using the passage of conductors or direct
current through special conductors of solid matter producing visible light.

FUNDAMENTAL LAWS OF LIGHT

ABSORPTION
• Light is being absorbed and converted into energy
• Absorption of light is directly proportional to the frequency
• If they are complementary, light is being absorbed

REFLECTION
• Waves that encounter surface or other boundary that does not absorb the energy of
the radiation
• Bounces the waves away from the surface
• Incident light waves striking on a smooth, flat surface, resulting to reflect away from
the surface at the same angle as they arrive

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TRANSMISSION
• Moving of the electromagnetic waves through a material
• Moves as sea waves, bouncing off objects so we can see them

DIFFUSION
• For rough surfaces, the rays incident at slightly different points on the surface is
reflected in completely different directions
• Angle of reflection when compared between points is completely haphazard

REFRACTION
• Bending of light (sound, water and other waves) as it passes from
one transparent substance into another

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CAUSES OF BENDING OF REFRACTION
 Change in Speed
If a substance causes the light to speed up or slow down more, it will refract
(bend) more
 Incident Angle of Ray
If the light is entering the substance at a greater angle, the amount of
refraction will also be more noticeable. If straight 90 degrees, the light
retains slow, but no change of direction

LIGHTING AND EQUIPMENT SYSTEMS

LIGHT SOURCE FACTORS

1. Initial Lumens
- The initial light power output

2. Average lumens
- The initial light power output

3. Mean Lumens
- The lumens output 40% of rated life to the lamp.

4. Beam Lumens
- The initial lumens output within the central beam.

5. Intensity
- Expressed in candelas at various angles from the lamp of fixture.

6. Luminous Efficiency
- Defined as the light output per unit of electrical power (watts) input or lumen/watt

(lm/w)

7. Luminaire Efficiency
- A measure of the total light power output in lumen versus the total light power
input of the lamps in the luminaire.

8. Rated Lamp Life

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 - The time elapsed when 50% of a group of lamps remain burning.

9. Lumen Deprecation
- The loss of light.
10. Brightness
- Physically, small light sources of high intensity such as incandescent lamp are
excellent for light that can be too bright for visual comfort.

INCANDESCENT LAMPS

Thomas Edison
- Employs the principle of converting electrical energy into heat at the
temperature that causes the filament to be incandescent (red or white hot)

Parts of an Incandescent Light Bulb

1. Glass Bulb
- Soft glass is generally used
- Hard glass is used in some lamps to withstand higher bulb temperature and to
protect against weather
- Bulbs are made in various shapes and finishes
2. Inert Gas
- Usually a mixture of nitrogen and argon is used in most lamps of 40 or higher to
retard evaporation of filament
- The heat from the tungsten filament generates light and the argon helps prevent
the filament from decaying

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 3. Filament
- Made of Tungsten
- May be straight or a coiled coil
4. Foot – Contact Wire
- Connected from electrical foot contact going to filament
5. Contact Wire - Base
- Connected from filament going to the base
- From 4, the contact wires give current to the filament for heating up
6. Support Wires
- Molybdenum wires support the filament, as this element can withstand in very
high pressure and temperature excluding of softening
7. Glass Support
- Heated during manufacturing and support wires stuck into it
8. Base Contact Wire
9. Screw Threads
10. Insulation
11. Electrical Foot Contact

Types of Incandescent Lamp Bases

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 • Standard (A)
• Décor (B)
• Cone (C)
• Conical Angular (CA)
• Edison (E)
• Flame (F)
• Globe (G)
• Headlight (H)
• Pear (P)
• Pear – Straight Neck (PS)
• Straight Inside (S)
• Tube (T)
• Reflector (R)
• Bulged Reflector (BR)
• Extended Reflector (ER)
• Parabolic Arc Reflector (PAR

Types of Incandescent Lamp Bases

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 1.2: LOW INTENSITY DISCHARGED LAMPS

OBJECTIVE

In this document, the students will be able to learn about fluorescent lamps alongside its
parts and functions, different types, applications and operations.

INTRODUCTION

Why fluorescent lamps are considered as low intensity discharged lamps?

1. Light Output
- The light emitted by fluorescent lamps is diffuse, making it suitable for general
illumination purposes, such as in homes, offices, and commercial spaces. In
addition, fluorescent lamps are high-efficiency lamps that use electrical discharge
through low-pressure mercury vapor to produce ultraviolet energy, which is then
transformed into visible light, by the excitation of phosphor materials

2. Energy Efficiency
- This requires less electrical power to produce a given amount of light, which
contributes to their "low-intensity" designation, making it preferable for studying
and reading

3. Working Principles
- Fluorescent lamps use a combination of gas discharge and phosphor coating to
produce light, which inherently results in a lower intensity. When an electric
current flows through the lamp, it excites the mercury vapor, causing it to emit
ultraviolet radiation and strikes the phosphor coating, causing it to emit visible
light

4. Applications
- Fluorescent lamps are commonly used for indoor and task lighting where
moderate to low levels of illumination are sufficient, such as homes and offices

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TYPES OF FLUORESCENT LAMPS

1.2.1: LINEAR OR TUBULAR AND CIRCULAR FLUORESCENT LAMPS

Parts of the Linear Fluorescent Lamp and its Functions

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1.2.2: COMPACT FLUORESCENT LAMPS
Parts of the Compact Fluorescent Lamp and its Functions

1. Glass Discharge Tube

- Coated on the inside with a phosphor coating
- When electricity is applied to the lamp, it causes the phosphor coating to fluoresce

2. Phosphor Coating
- Plays a crucial role in the lamp's operation
- When UV light generated by the discharge interacts with the phosphor coating, it
causes the phosphor to emit visible light

3. Base Pins
- Connectors that plug into the fixture's socket or holder, for the lamp to
mechanically and/or electrically connect to the fixture

4. Starter
- Helps initiate the discharge within the lamp

5. RFI Suppression Capacitor

- EM Interference
- Added to the circuitry of the lamp, this absorbs high frequency of radio waves or

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 EM noice that may be produced by CFL

6. Electronic Ballast
- Eliminates the need for starters
- Used in many of circular fluorescent lamps
- For newer, it is being replaced by magnetic ones

6.5. Electrical Ballast

- Regulates the electrical current through the lamp with stability
- Provides initial power surge for the lamp to start

Types of Fluorescent Lamp Bases (Linear or Tubular & Circular)

1. Miniature Bi – Pin
- ⅝ inch diameter
- Ideal for small-sized fluorescent tubes used in decorative purposes

2. Medium Bi – Pin
- 1-inch diameter
- Ideal for commonly used fluorescent tubes used in homes and offices

3. Single Pin
- ¾ inch diameter
- Ideal for large-sized fluorescent tubes made for industrial usage

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 4. Recessed Double Contact
- 1-inch diameter
- Ideal for high power fluorescent tubes with safe installation

5. 4 – Pin
- 1 ⅛ inch diameter
- Ideal for circular fluorescent tube bulbs made for decorative purposes

6. 2Gx13
- ⅝ in distance
- Ideal for circular and different shaped fluorescent tubes that are ideal for
decoration and ambient lighting

Types of Compact Fluorescent Lamp Bases

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 1.3: HIGH INTENSITY DISCHARGED LAMPS

OBJECTIVES

In this document, the students will be able to learn about HID Lamps, as well as its different
types and parts, functions and characteristics.

INTRODUCTION

High Intensity Discharged Lamps, or abbreviated to HID Lamps, are a family of lamps
that incorporate a high pressure arc tube within the lamp envelope (bulb). In other terms, it
has a shorter arc, but generates much more light, heat, and pressure within the arc tube. Yet,
this gives a greater proportion of their radiation is visible light as opposed to heat.

TYPES OF HIGH INTENSITY DISCHARGED LAMPS

1.3.1: MERCURY VAPOR

Parts of Mercury Vapor HID Lamp

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1.3.2: METAL HALIDE
Parts of Metal Halide HID Lamp and its Functions

1. Dimple
- Relieves stress on the temperature of the arc tube by aid on cooling

2. Strap
- Supports the upper part of the arc tube for locked position
- Same application of the dimple by stress relieving

3. Glass Envelope
- Protection from UV Radiation and critical components inside of it

4. Main Electrode
- Create the high-intensity arc that produces light
- Anode is responsible for initiation of electrical discharge and sustained by
cathode once established

5. Arc Tube
- Where electrical discharge is energized with two electrodes (anode and
cathode) positioned at each end of the tube

6. Starting Electrode
- Think of it as a starter or igniter
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 - Once arc is initiated, this transits to sustain its electrical discharge,
produces continuous light

7. Starting Resistor
- Limits the current flow during the ignition phase
- Provides controlled resistance to the electrical current passing through it,
for safety and reliability
- Ranging ignition of the resistor will be 10 to 100 ohms

8. Bimetal Switch
- Controls temperature by switching or turning the system off if already
reached its maximum temperature

1.3.3: HIGH PRESSURE SODIUM

Parts of HPS HID Lamp and its Functions

1. Dome Mount
- Outer glass envelope that withstands extreme heat generated by the lamp
2. Getter
- As the lamp operated, this component absorbs unwanted gases (Oxygen
and Nitrogen). Otherwise, it will reduce its efficiency over time

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