Studying Electronics

Studying Electronics
This is the section to browse for the theoretical side of electronics.
Some pages will be useful if you are studying electricity as part of a GCSE Science course.
• Block Diagrams
• Circuit Diagrams
• Circuit Symbols - including the functions of components
• Electricity and the Electron
• Series and Parallel Connections
• Voltage and Current
• Meters - voltmeters, ammeters, galvanometers and ohmmeters
• Multimeters - choosing and using
• Resistance - resistors in series and parallel, conductors and insulators
• Ohm's Law - including the VIR triangle and calculations
• Power and Energy
• AC, DC and Electrical Signals
• Oscilloscopes (CROs) - setting up; measuring voltage and time
• Power Supplies
• Transducers
• Voltage Dividers
• Transistor Circuits
• Analogue and Digital Systems
• Logic Gates
• Capacitance and Uses of Capacitors
• Impedance and Reactance
• 555 and 556 Timer Circuits
• Counting Circuits
• Quantities and Units used in Electronics
• Books about Electronics
Remember to check the Frequently Asked Questions too!
Page 1 of 108
Block Diagrams
Block diagrams are used to understand (and design) complete circuits by breaking them
down into smaller sections or blocks. Each block performs a particular function and the block
diagram shows how they are connected together. No attempt is made to show the
components used within a block, only the inputs and outputs are shown. This way of looking
at circuits is called the systems approach.
Power supply (or battery) connections are usually not shown on block diagrams.
Audio Amplifier System
The power supply (not shown) is connected to the pre-amplifier and power amplifier blocks.
• Microphone - a transducer which converts sound to voltage.

• Pre-Amplifier - amplifies the small audio signal (voltage) from the microphone.
• Tone and Volume Controls - adjust the nature of the audio signal.
The tone control adjusts the balance of high and low frequencies.
The volume control adjusts the strength of the signal.
• Power Amplifier - increases the strength (power) of the audio signal.
• Loudspeaker - a transducer which converts the audio signal to sound.
Radio Receiver System
The power supply (not shown) is connected to the audio amplifier block.
• Aerial - picks up radio signals from many stations.

• Tuner - selects the signal from just one radio station.
• Detector - extracts the audio signal carried by the radio signal.
• Audio Amplifier - increases the strength (power) of the audio signal.
This could be broken down into the blocks like the Audio Amplifier System shown above.
Page 2 of 108
• Loudspeaker - a transducer which converts the audio signal to sound.
Regulated Power Supply System
• Transformer - steps down 230V AC mains to low voltage AC.

• Rectifier - converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
• Smoothing - smooths the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
• Regulator - eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.
Feedback Control System
The power supply (not shown) is connected to the control circuit block.
• Sensor - a transducer which converts the state of the controlled quantity to an

electrical signal.
• Selector (control input) - selects the desired state of the output. Usually it is a
variable resistor.
• Control Circuit - compares the desired state (control input) with the actual state
(sensor) of the controlled quantity and sends an appropriate signal to the output
transducer.
• Output Transducer - converts the electrical signal to the controlled quantity.
• Controlled Quantity - usually not an electrical quantity, e.g. motor speed.
• Feedback Path - usually not electrical, the Sensor detects the state of the controlled
quantity.
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Circuit Diagrams
Circuit diagrams show how electronic components are connected together. Each component is
represented by a symbol and a few are shown here, for other symbols please see the Circuit Symbols
page.
Circuit diagrams and component layouts

Circuit diagrams show the connections as clearly as possible with all wires drawn neatly as
straight lines. The actual layout of the components is usually quite different from the circuit
diagram and this can be confusing for the beginner. The secret is to concentrate on the
connections, not the actual positions of components.
The circuit diagram and stripboard layout for

the Adjustable Timer project are shown here so
you can see the difference.
A circuit diagram is useful when testing a circuit

and for understanding how it works. This is why
the instructions for projects include a circuit
diagram as well as the stripboard or printed
circuit board layout which you need to build the
circuit.
Drawing circuit diagrams

Drawing circuit diagrams is not difficult but it takes a little practice to draw neat, clear
diagrams. This is a useful skill for science as well as for electronics. You will certainly need to
draw circuit diagrams if you design your own circuits.
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Follow these tips for best results:
• Make sure you use the correct symbol for each

component.
• Draw connecting wires as straight lines (use a ruler).
• Put a 'blob' ( ) at each junction between wires.
• Label components such as resistors and capacitors with
their values.
• The positive (+) supply should be at the top and the
negative (-) supply at the bottom. The negative supply
is usually labelled 0V, zero volts.
If you are drawing the circuit diagram for science please
see the section about drawing diagrams the 'electronics
way'.
If the circuit is complex:
• Try to arrange the diagram so that signals flow from left

to right: inputs and controls should be on the left,
outputs on the right.
• You may omit the battery or power supply symbols, but
you must include (and label) the supply lines at the top
and bottom.
Drawing circuit diagrams the 'electronics way'

Circuit diagrams for electronics are drawn with the
positive (+) supply at the top and the negative (-) supply
at the bottom. This can be helpful in understanding the
operation of the circuit because the voltage decreases as
you move down the circuit diagram.
Circuit diagrams for science are traditionally drawn with

the battery or power supply at the top. This is not wrong,
but there is usually no advantage in drawing them this
way and I think it is less helpful for understanding the
circuit.
I suggest that you always draw your circuit diagrams the

'electronics way', even for science!
[I hope your science teacher won't mind too much!]
Note that the negative supply is usually called 0V (zero volts).

This is explained on the Voltage and Current page.
Page 5 of 108
Circuit Symbols
Circuit symbols are used in circuit diagrams which show how a circuit is connected together.
The actual layout of the components is usually quite different from the circuit diagram. To
build a circuit you need a different diagram showing the layout of the parts on stripboard or
printed circuit board.
Wires and connections

Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
To pass current very easily from one part of a
Wire
circuit to another.
A 'blob' should be drawn where wires are
connected (joined), but it is sometimes omitted.
Wires joined Wires connected at 'crossroads' should be
staggered slightly to form two T-junctions, as
shown on the right.
In complex diagrams it is often necessary to
draw wires crossing even though they are not
connected. I prefer the 'hump' symbol shown on
Wires not joined
the right because the simple crossing on the left
may be misread as a join where you have
forgotten to add a 'blob'!
Power Supplies
Supplies electrical energy.
Cell The larger terminal (on the left) is positive (+).
A single cell is often called a battery, but strictly a battery is
two or more cells joined together.
Supplies electrical energy. A battery is more than

Battery one cell.
The larger terminal (on the left) is positive (+).
DC supply DC = Direct Current, always flowing in one
direction.
AC supply AC = Alternating Current, continually changing
direction.
A safety device which will 'blow' (melt) if the
Fuse current flowing through it exceeds a specified
value.
Page 6 of 108
Two coils of wire linked by an iron core.
Transformers are used to step up (increase) and
step down (decrease) AC voltages. Energy is
Transformer
transferred between the coils by the magnetic
field in the core. There is no electrical connection
between the coils.
A connection to earth. For many electronic
circuits this is the 0V (zero volts) of the power
Earth
supply, but for mains electricity and some radio
(Ground)
circuits it really means the earth. It is also known
as ground.
Output Devices: Lamps, Heater, Motor, etc.

A transducer which converts electrical energy to
light. This symbol is used for a lamp providing
Lamp (lighting)
illumination, for example a car headlamp or
torch bulb.
light. This symbol is used for a lamp which is an
Lamp (indicator)
indicator, for example a warning light on a car
dashboard.
Heater
heat.

Motor
kinetic energy (motion).

Bell
sound.

Buzzer
sound.
A coil of wire which creates a magnetic field

when current passes through it. It may have an
Inductor
iron core inside the coil. It can be used as a
(Coil, Solenoid)
transducer converting electrical energy to
mechanical energy by pulling on something.
Switches
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A push switch allows current to flow only
Push Switch
when the button is pressed. This is the
(push-to-make)
switch used to operate a doorbell.
This type of push switch is normally closed
Push-to-Break
(on), it is open (off) only when the button is
Switch
pressed.
SPST = Single Pole, Single Throw.
On-Off Switch
An on-off switch allows current to flow only
(SPST)
when it is in the closed (on) position.
SPDT = Single Pole, Double Throw.
A 2-way changeover switch directs the flow
2-way Switch of current to one of two routes according to
(SPDT) its position. Some SPDT switches have a
central off position and are described as 'on-
off-on'.
DPST = Double Pole, Single Throw.
Dual On-Off
A dual on-off switch which is often used to
Switch
switch mains electricity because it can
(DPST)
isolate both the live and neutral connections.
DPDT = Double Pole, Double Throw.

Reversing
This switch can be wired up as a reversing
Switch
switch for a motor. Some DPDT switches
(DPDT)
have a central off position.
An electrically operated switch, for example

a 9V battery circuit connected to the coil can
Relay switch a 230V AC mains circuit.
NO = Normally Open, COM = Common,
NC = Normally Closed.
Resistors
A resistor restricts the flow of current, for
example to limit the current passing through an
Resistor
LED. A resistor is used with a capacitor in a
timing circuit.
This type of variable resistor with 2 contacts (a
rheostat) is usually used to control current.
Variable Resistor Examples include: adjusting lamp brightness,
(Rheostat) adjusting motor speed, and adjusting the rate of
flow of charge into a capacitor in a timing
circuit.
Page 8 of 108
This type of variable resistor with 3 contacts (a
potentiometer) is usually used to control
Variable Resistor
voltage. It can be used like this as a transducer
(Potentiometer)
converting position (angle of the control
spindle) to an electrical signal.
This type of variable resistor (a preset) is
operated with a small screwdriver or similar
tool. It is designed to be set when the circuit is
Variable Resistor
made and then left without further adjustment.
(Preset)
Presets are cheaper than normal variable
resistors so they are often used in projects to
reduce the cost.
Capacitors
A capacitor stores electric charge. A capacitor
is used with a resistor in a timing circuit. It can
Capacitor
also be used as a filter, to block DC signals
but pass AC signals.
A capacitor stores electric charge. This type
must be connected the correct way round. A
Capacitor,
capacitor is used with a resistor in a timing
polarised
circuit. It can also be used as a filter, to block
DC signals but pass AC signals.
Variable Capacitor A variable capacitor is used in a radio tuner.
This type of variable capacitor (a trimmer) is

operated with a small screwdriver or similar
Trimmer Capacitor
tool. It is designed to be set when the circuit is
made and then left without further adjustment.
Diodes
A device which only allows current to flow in
Diode
one direction.
LED A transducer which converts electrical energy to

Light Emitting Diode light.
A special diode which is used to maintain a

Zener Diode
fixed voltage across its terminals.
Page 9 of 108
Photodiode A light-sensitive diode.
Transistors
A transistor amplifies current. It can be used with other

Transistor NPN
components to make an amplifier or switching circuit.
A transistor amplifies current. It can be used with other

Transistor PNP
components to make an amplifier or switching circuit.
Phototransistor A light-sensitive transistor.
Audio and Radio Devices

A transducer which converts sound to electrical

Microphone
energy.

Earphone
sound.

Loudspeaker
sound.

Piezo Transducer
sound.
An amplifier circuit with one input. Really it is a block

Amplifier diagram symbol because it represents a circuit rather
(general symbol)
than just one component.
Page 10 of 108
Aerial A device which is designed to receive or transmit
(Antenna) radio signals. It is also known as an antenna.
Meters and Oscilloscope

A voltmeter is used to measure voltage.
Voltmeter The proper name for voltage is 'potential difference', but
most people prefer to say voltage!
Ammeter An ammeter is used to measure current.
A galvanometer is a very sensitive meter which is

Galvanometer used to measure tiny currents, usually 1mA or
less.
An ohmmeter is used to measure resistance.

Ohmmeter
Most multimeters have an ohmmeter setting.
An oscilloscope is used to display the shape of

Oscilloscope electrical signals and it can be used to measure
their voltage and time period.
Sensors (input devices)

A transducer which converts brightness (light) to

LDR resistance (an electrical property).
LDR = Light Dependent Resistor
A transducer which converts temperature (heat)

Thermistor
to resistance (an electrical property).
Logic Gates
Logic gates process signals which represent true (1, high, +Vs, on) or false (0, low, 0V, off).
For more information please see the Logic Gates page.
There are two sets of symbols: traditional and IEC (International Electrotechnical
Commission).
Gate Traditional
IEC Symbol Function of Gate
Type Symbol
Page 11 of 108
A NOT gate can only have one input. The
'o' on the output means 'not'. The output of
NOT a NOT gate is the inverse (opposite) of its
input, so the output is true when the input is
false. A NOT gate is also called an inverter.
An AND gate can have two or more inputs.

AND The output of an AND gate is true when all
its inputs are true.
A NAND gate can have two or more inputs.

The 'o' on the output means 'not' showing
NAND that it is a Not AND gate. The output of a
NAND gate is true unless all its inputs are
true.
An OR gate can have two or more inputs.

OR The output of an OR gate is true when at
least one of its inputs is true.
A NOR gate can have two or more inputs.

NOR that it is a Not OR gate. The output of a
NOR gate is true when none of its inputs
are true.
An EX-OR gate can only have two inputs.

EX-OR The output of an EX-OR gate is true when
its inputs are different (one true, one false).
An EX-NOR gate can only have two inputs.

EX-
that it is a Not EX-OR gate. The output of
NOR
an EX-NOR gate is true when its inputs are
the same (both true or both false).
Sets of circuit symbols to download

You can download complete sets of all the circuit symbols shown above. The sets are
'zipped' for convenience and they are provided in three formats:
• WMF circuit symbols (32K) - Windows Metafiles.

These vector drawings are the best format for printed documents on most computer systems, including
Windows where they can be used in Word documents for example. They can be enlarged without loss
of quality. If you are not sure which format is best for you I suggest you try this one first.
• GIF circuit symbols (43K) - Graphics Interchange Format.
These bitmap images are the best format for web pages but they print poorly and their bitmap nature
will become obvious if they are enlarged. You can download individual symbols by saving the images
used above on this page.
• Drawfile circuit symbols (29K) - for RISC OS (Acorn) computers.
These high quality vector drawings are suitable for almost all documents on a RISC OS computer. All
the symbols were originally drawn in this format. They print perfectly and can be enlarged without loss
of quality. Sorry, this format is NOT suitable for Windows computers.
Page 12 of 108
Electricity and the Electron
What is electricity?
Electricity is the flow of charge around a circuit carrying
energy from the battery (or power supply) to components such
as lamps and motors.
Electricity can flow only if there is a complete circuit from the

battery through wires to components and back to the battery
again.
The diagram shows a simple circuit of a battery, wires, a

switch and a lamp. The switch works by breaking the circuit.
With the switch open the circuit is broken - so electricity cannot flow and the lamp is off.
With the switch closed the circuit is complete - allowing electricity to flow and the lamp is on.
The electricity is carrying energy from the battery to the lamp.
We can see, hear or feel the effects of electricity flowing such as a lamp lighting, a bell
ringing, or a motor turning - but we cannot see the electricity itself, so which way is it flowing?
Which way does electricity flow?

We say that electricity flows from the positive (+) terminal of a battery
to the negative (-) terminal of the battery. We can imagine particles
with positive electric charge flowing in this direction around the
circuit, like the red dots in the diagram.
This flow of electric charge is called conventional current.
This direction of flow is used throughout electronics and it is the one Imaginary positive particles
you should remember and use to understand the operation of moving in the direction of
the conventional current
circuits.
However this is not the whole answer because the particles that move in fact have negative
charge! And they flow in the opposite direction! Please read on...
Page 13 of 108
The electron
When electricity was discovered scientists tried many experiments to find out which way the
electricity was flowing around circuits, but in those early days they found it was impossible to
find the direction of flow.
They knew there were two types of electric charge, positive (+) and negative (-), and they
decided to say that electricity was a flow of positive charge from + to -. They knew this was a
guess, but a decision had to be made! Everything known at that time could also be explained
if electricity was negative charge flowing the other way, from - to +.
The electron was discovered in 1897 and it was found to have a

negative charge. The guess made in the early days of electricity was
wrong! Electricity in almost all conductors is really the flow of
electrons (negative charge) from - to +.
By the time the electron was discovered the idea of electricity flowing
from + to - (conventional current) was firmly established. Luckily it is
not a problem to think of electricity in this way because positive
charge flowing forwards is equivalent to negative charge flowing backwards.
To prevent confusion you should always use conventional current when trying to
understand how circuits work, imagine positively charged particles flowing from + to -.
Page 14 of 108
Series and Parallel Connections
Connecting Components
There are two ways of connecting components:
In series
so that each component has the same current.
The battery voltage is divided between the two lamps

Each lamp will have half the battery voltage if the lamps are
identical.
In parallel
so that each component has the same voltage.
Both lamps have the full battery voltage across them.

The battery current is divided between the two lamps.
Most circuits contain a mixture of series and parallel connections

The terms series circuit and parallel circuit are sometimes used, but only the simplest of
circuits are entirely one type or the other. It is better to refer to specific components and say
they are connected in series or connected in parallel.
For example: the circuit on the right shows a resistor and

LED connected in series (on the right) and two lamps
connected in parallel (in the centre). The switch is
connected in series with the two lamps.
See Lamps in Parallel below for another example.
Lamps in Series
If several lamps are connected in series they will all
be switched on and off together by a switch
connected anywhere in the circuit. The supply
voltage is divided equally between the lamps
(assuming they are all identical). If one lamp blows
all the lamps will go out because the circuit is
broken.
Page 15 of 108
Christmas Tree Lights
The lamps on a Christmas tree are connected in series.
Normally you would expect all the lamps to go out if one blew, but Christmas tree lamps are
special! They are designed to short circuit (conduct like a wire link) when they blow, so the
circuit is not broken and the other lamps remain lit, making it easier to locate the faulty lamp.
Sets also include one 'fuse' lamp which blows normally.
If there are 20 lamps and the mains electricity voltage is 240V, each lamp must be suitable
for a 12V supply because the 240V is divided equally between the 20 lamps:
240V ÷ 20 = 12V.
WARNING! The Christmas tree lamps may seem safe because they use only 12V but they are connected to
the mains supply which can be lethal. Always unplug from the mains before changing lamps. The voltage
across the holder of a missing lamp is the full 240V of the mains supply! (Yes, it really is!)
Lamps in Parallel
If several lamps are connected in parallel each one has the full
supply voltage across it. The lamps may be switched on and
off independantly by connecting a switch in series with each
lamp as shown in the circuit diagram. This arrangement is
used to control the lamps in buildings.
This type of circuit is often called a parallel circuit but you can
see that it is not really so simple - the switches are in series with the lamps, and it is these
switch and lamp pairs that are connected in parallel.
Switches in Series
If several on-off switches are connected in series they must all be closed (on) to complete the
circuit.
The diagram shows a simple circuit with two

switches connected in series to control a lamp.
Switch S1 AND Switch S2 must be closed to light

the lamp.
Page 16 of 108
Switches in Parallel
If several on-off switches are connected in parallel only one needs to be closed (on) to
complete the circuit.
The diagram shows a simple circuit with two

switches connected in parallel to control a lamp.
Switch S1 OR Switch S2 (or both of them) must

be closed to light the lamp.
Page 17 of 108
Voltage and Current
Voltage and Current are vital to understanding electronics, but they are quite hard to grasp
because we can't see them directly.
Voltage is the Cause, Current is the Effect

Voltage attempts to make a current flow, and current will flow if the circuit is complete.
Voltage is sometimes described as the 'push' or 'force' of the electricity, it isn't really a force
but this may help you to imagine what is happening. It is possible to have voltage without
current, but current cannot flow without voltage.
Voltage and Current Voltage but No Current No Voltage and No Current

The switch is closed making a The switch is open so the circuit is Without the cell there is no source
complete circuit so current can flow. broken and current cannot flow. of voltage so current cannot flow.
Voltage, V
• Voltage is a measure of the energy carried by the
charge.
Strictly: voltage is the "energy per unit charge".
• The proper name for voltage is potential difference
or p.d. for short, but this term is rarely used in
electronics.
• Voltage is supplied by the battery (or power supply).
• Voltage is used up in components, but not in wires.
• We say voltage across a component.
• Voltage is measured in volts, V. Connecting a voltmeter in parallel
• Voltage is measured with a voltmeter, connected in parallel.
• The symbol V is used for voltage in equations.
Voltage at a point and 0V (zero volts)

Voltage is a difference between two points, but in
electronics we often refer to voltage at a point meaning the
voltage difference between that point and a reference point of
0V (zero volts).
Zero volts could be any point in the circuit, but to be

consistent it is normally the negative terminal of the battery
or power supply. You will often see circuit diagrams labelled
with 0V as a reminder.
Page 18 of 108
You may find it helpful to think of voltage like height in geography. The reference point of zero height is the
mean (average) sea level and all heights are measured from that point. The zero volts in an electronic circuit is
like the mean sea level in geography.
Zero volts for circuits with a dual supply

Some circuits require a dual supply with three supply connections as
shown in the diagram. For these circuits the zero volts reference point
is the middle terminal between the two parts of the supply.
On complex circuit diagrams using a dual supply the earth symbol is

often used to indicate a connection to 0V, this helps to reduce the
number of wires drawn on the diagram.
The diagram shows a ±9V dual supply, the positive terminal is +9V,
the negative terminal is -9V and the middle terminal is 0V.
Current, I
• Current is the rate of flow of charge.

• Current is not used up, what flows into a
component must flow out.
• We say current through a component.
• Current is measured in amps (amperes), A.
• Current is measured with an ammeter, connected in
series.
To connect in series you must break the circuit and put the
ammeter acoss the gap, as shown in the diagram.
• The symbol I is used for current in equations.
Why is the letter I used for current? ... please see FAQ.
1A (1 amp) is quite a large current for electronics, so mA

(milliamps) are often used. m (milli) means "thousandth":
1mA = 0.001A, or 1000mA = 1A

Connecting an ammeter in series
The need to break the circuit to connect in series means that ammeters are difficult to use on soldered circuits.
Most testing in electronics is done with voltmeters which can be easily connected without disturbing circuits.
Voltage and Current for components in Series

Voltages add up for components connected in series.
Currents are the same through all components connected in series.
In this circuit the 4V across the resistor and the 2V across the LED
add up to the battery voltage: 2V + 4V = 6V.
Page 19 of 108
The current through all parts (battery, resistor and LED) is 20mA.
Voltage and Current for components in Parallel

Voltages are the same across all components connected in
parallel.
Currents add up for components connected in parallel.
In this circuit the battery, resistor and lamp all have 6V across
them.
The 30mA current through the resistor and the 60mA current
through the lamp add up to the 90mA current through the battery.
Page 20 of 108
Meters
Analogue display
Analogue displays have a pointer which moves over a graduated
scale. They can be difficult to read because of the need to work out
the value of the smallest scale division. For example the scale in
the picture has 10 small divisions between 0 and 1 so each small
division represents 0.1. The reading is therefore 1.25V (the pointer
is estimated to be half way between 1.2 and 1.3).
The maximum reading of an analogue meter is called full-scale deflection or FSD (it is 5V
in the example shown).
Analogue meters must be connected the correct way round to prevent them being
damaged when the pointer tries to move in the wrong direction. They are useful for
monitoring continously changing values (such as the voltage across a capacitor discharging)
and they can be good for quick rough readings because the movement of the pointer can be
seen without looking away from the circuit under test.
Taking accurate readings

To take an accurate reading from an analogue scale you must
have your eye in line with the pointer. Avoid looking at an
angle from the left or right because you will see a reading
which is a little too high or too low. Many analogue meters
have a small strip of mirror along the scale to help you. When
your eye is in the correct position the reflection of the pointer
is hidden behind the pointer itself. If you can see the reflection
you are looking at an angle. Correct Wrong
reflection hidden reflection visible
Instead of a mirror, some meters have a twisted pointer to

aid accurate readings. The end of the pointer is turned through 90° so it appears very thin
when viewed correctly. The meter shown in the galvanometers section has a twisted pointer
although it is too small to see in the picture.
Digital display
Values can be read directly from digital displays so they are easy to read
accurately. It is normal for the least significant digit (on the right) to
continually change between two or three values, this is a feature of the
way digital meters work, not an error! Normally you will not need great precision and the least
significant digit can be ignored or rounded up.
Digital meters may be connected either way round without damage, they will show a minus
sign (-) when connected in reverse. If you exceed the maximum reading most digital meters
show an almost blank display with just a 1 on the left-hand side.
All digital meters contain a battery to power the display so they use virtually no power from
the circuit under test. This means that digital voltmeters have a very high resistance (usually
Page 21 of 108
called input impedance) of 1M or more, usually 10M , and they are very unlikely to affect
the circuit under test.
For general use digital meters are the best type. They are easy to read, they may be
connected in reverse and they are unlikely to affect the circuit under test.
Connecting meters
It is important to connect meters the correct way round:
• The positive terminal of the meter, marked + or coloured red should be connected
nearest to + on the battery or power supply.
• The negative terminal of the meter, marked - or coloured black should be connected
nearest to - on the battery or power supply.
Voltmeters
• Voltmeters measure voltage.

• Voltage is measured in volts, V.
• Voltmeters are connected in parallel across
components.
• Voltmeters have a very high resistance.
Connecting a voltmeter in parallel
Measuring voltage at a point

When testing circuits you often need to find the voltages at various points, for example the
voltage at pin 2 of a 555 timer chip. This can seem confusing - where should you connect the
second voltmeter lead?
• Connect the black (negative -)

voltmeter lead to 0V, normally the
negative terminal of the battery or
power supply.
• Connect the red (positive +)
voltmeter lead to the point you
where you need to measure the
voltage.
• The black lead can be left
permanently connected to 0V
while you use the red lead as a probe to measure voltages at various points.
• You may wish to use a crocodile clip on the black lead to hold it in place.
Page 22 of 108
Voltage at a point really means the voltage difference between that point and 0V (zero volts)
which is normally the negative terminal of the battery or power supply. Usually 0V will be
labelled on the circuit diagram as a reminder.
Analogue meters take a little power from the circuit under test to operate their pointer. This
may upset the circuit and give an incorrect reading. To avoid this voltmeters should have a
resistance of at least 10 times the circuit resistance (take this to be the highest resistor value
near where the meter is connected).
Most analogue voltmeters used in school science are not suitable for electronics because
their resistance is too low, typically a few k . 100k or more is required for most electronics
circuits.
Ammeters
• Ammeters measure current.

• Current is measured in amps (amperes), A.
1A is quite large, so mA (milliamps) and µA
(microamps) are often used. 1000mA = 1A, 1000µA
= 1mA, 1000000µA = 1A.
• Ammeters are connected in series.
To connect in series you must break the circuit and
put the ammeter across the gap, as shown in the
diagram.
• Ammeters have a very low resistance.
The need to break the circuit to connect in series means that ammeters
are difficult to use on soldered circuits. Most testing in electronics is Connecting an ammeter in series
done with voltmeters which can be easily connected without disturbing circuits.
Galvanometers
Galvanometers are very sensitive meters which are used to
measure tiny currents, usually 1mA or less. They are used to
make all types of analogue meters by adding suitable resistors as
shown in the diagrams below. The photograph shows an
educational 100µA galvanometer for which various multipliers and shunts are available.
Page 23 of 108
Making a Voltmeter Making an Ammeter Galvanometer with multiplier and shunt
A galvanometer with a high A galvanometer with a low Maximum meter current 100µA (or 20µA reverse).
resistance multiplier in series resistance shunt in parallel This meter is unusual in allowing small
to make a voltmeter. to make an ammeter. reverse readings to be shown.
Ohmmeters
An ohmmeter is used to measure resistance in ohms ( ).
Ohmmeters are rarely found as separate meters but all standard
multimeters have an ohmmeter setting.
1 is quite small so k and M are often used.
1k = 1000 , 1M = 1000k = 1000000 .
Multimeters
Multimeters are very useful test instruments.
By operating a multi-position switch on the
meter they can be quickly and easily set to be
a voltmeter, an ammeter or an ohmmeter.
They have several settings (called 'ranges')
for each type of meter and the choice of AC
or DC.
Some multimeters have additional features

such as transistor testing and ranges for
measuring capacitance and frequency.
Analogue multimeters consist of a

Analogue Multimeter Digital Multimeter
galvanometer with various resistors which can
Multimeter Photographs © Rapid Electronics
be switched in as multipliers (voltmeter
ranges) and shunts (ammeter ranges).
For further information please see the Multimeters page.
Page 24 of 108
Multimeters
Multimeters are very useful test instruments. By operating a multi-
position switch on the meter they can be quickly and easily set to be a
voltmeter, an ammeter or an ohmmeter. They have several settings
(called 'ranges') for each type of meter and the choice of AC or DC.
Some multimeters have additional features such as transistor testing Liquid-Crystal Display
and ranges for measuring capacitance and frequency. (LCD)
Choosing a multimeter
The photographs below show modestly priced multimeters which are suitable for general
electronics use, you should be able to buy meters like these for less than £15. A digital
multimeter is the best choice for your first multimeter, even the cheapest will be suitable for
testing simple projects.
If you are buying an analogue multimeter make sure it has a high sensitivity of 20k /V or
greater on DC voltage ranges, anything less is not suitable for electronics. The sensitivity is
normally marked in a corner of the scale, ignore the lower AC value (sensitivity on AC ranges
is less important), the higher DC value is the critical one. Beware of cheap analogue
multimeters sold for electrical work on cars because their sensitivity is likely to be too low.
Digital multimeters
All digital meters contain a battery to power the display so they
use virtually no power from the circuit under test. This means that
on their DC voltage ranges they have a very high resistance
(usually called input impedance) of 1M or more, usually 10M ,
and they are very unlikely to affect the circuit under test.
Typical ranges for digital multimeters like the one illustrated:

(the values given are the maximum reading on each range)
• DC Voltage: 200mV, 2000mV, 20V, 200V, 600V.

• AC Voltage: 200V, 600V.
• DC Current: 200µA, 2000µA, 20mA, 200mA, 10A*.
*The 10A range is usually unfused and connected via a special
socket. Digital Multimeter
• AC Current: None. (You are unlikely to need to measure this). Photograph © Rapid Electronics
• Resistance: 200 , 2000 , 20k , 200k , 2000k , Diode
Test.
Digital meters have a special diode test setting because their resistance ranges cannot be
used to test diodes and other semiconductors.
Page 25 of 108
Analogue multimeters
Analogue meters take a little power from the circuit under test to
operate their pointer. They must have a high sensitivity of at least
20k /V or they may upset the circuit under test and give an
incorrect reading. See the section below on sensitivity for more
details.
Batteries inside the meter provide power for the resistance

ranges, they will last several years but you should avoid leaving
the meter set to a resistance range in case the leads touch
accidentally and run the battery flat.
Typical ranges for analogue multimeters like the one illustrated:

(the voltage and current values given are the maximum reading on each Analogue Multimeter
range)
Photograph © Rapid Electronics
• DC Voltage: 0.5V, 2.5V, 10V, 50V, 250V, 1000V.

• AC Voltage: 10V, 50V, 250V, 1000V.
• DC Current: 50µA, 2.5mA, 25mA, 250mA.
A high current range is often missing from this type of meter.
• AC Current: None. (You are unlikely to need to measure this).
• Resistance: 20 , 200 , 2k , 20k , 200k .
These resistance values are in the middle of the scale for each range.
It is a good idea to leave an analogue multimeter set to a DC voltage range such as 10V
when not in use. It is less likely to be damaged by careless use on this range, and there is a
good chance that it will be the range you need to use next anyway!
Sensitivity of an analogue multimeter

Multimeters must have a high sensitivity of at least 20k /V otherwise their resistance on DC
voltage ranges may be too low to avoid upsetting the circuit under test and giving an
incorrect reading. To obtain valid readings the meter resistance should be at least 10 times
the circuit resistance (take this to be the highest resistor value near where the meter is
connected). You can increase the meter resistance by selecting a higher voltage range, but
this may give a reading which is too small to read accurately!
On any DC voltage range:

Analogue Meter Resistance = Sensitivity × Max. reading of range
e.g. a meter with 20k /V sensitivity on its 10V range has a resistance of 20k /V × 10V =
200k .
By contrast, digital multimeters have a constant resistance of at least 1M (often 10M ) on

all their DC voltage ranges. This is more than enough for almost all circuits.
Measuring voltage and current with a multimeter
1. Select a range with a maximum greater than you expect the reading to be.
2. Connect the meter, making sure the leads are the correct way round.
Digital meters can be safely connected in reverse, but an analogue meter may be damaged.
3. If the reading goes off the scale: immediately disconnect and select a higher range.
Page 26 of 108
Multimeters are easily damaged by careless use so please take these precautions:
• Always disconnect the multimeter before adjusting the range switch.

• Always check the setting of the range switch before you connect to a circuit.
• Never leave a multimeter set to a current range (except when actually taking a
reading).
The greatest risk of damage is on the current ranges because the meter has a low resistance.
Measuring voltage at a point

When testing circuits you often need to find the voltages at various points, for example the
voltage at pin 2 of a 555 timer chip. This can seem confusing - where should you connect the
second multimeter lead?
• Connect the black (negative -
) lead to 0V, normally the
negative terminal of the
battery or power supply.
• Connect the red (positive +)
lead to the point you where
you need to measure the
voltage.
• The black lead can be left
permanently connected to 0V
while you use the red lead as
a probe to measure voltages
at various points. Measuring voltage at a point.
• You may wish to fit a
crocodile clip to the black lead of your multimeter to hold it in place while doing testing
like this.
Voltage at a point really means the voltage difference between that point and 0V (zero volts)
which is normally the negative terminal of the battery or power supply. Usually 0V will be
labelled on the circuit diagram as a reminder.
Page 27 of 108
Reading analogue scales
Check the setting of the range switch and
choose an appropriate scale. For some
ranges you may need to multiply or divide by
10 or 100 as shown in the sample readings
below. For AC voltage ranges use the red
markings because the calibration of the scale
is slightly different.
Sample readings on the scales shown:

DC 10V range: 4.4V (read 0-10 scale directly)
DC 50V range: 22V (read 0-50 scale directly)
DC 25mA range: 11mA (read 0-250 and divide by
10)
AC 10V range: 4.45V (use the red scale, reading 0-10) Analogue Multimeter Scales
These can appear daunting at first but remember
If you are not familiar with reading analogue that you only need to read one scale at a time!
scales generally you may wish to see the The top scale is used when measuring resistance.
analogue display section on the general meters
page.
Measuring resistance with a multimeter

To measure the resistance of a component it must not be connected in a circuit. If you
try to measure resistance of components in a circuit you will obtain false readings (even if the
supply is disconnected) and you may damage the multimeter.
The techniques used for each type of meter are very different so they are treated separately:
Measuring resistance with a DIGITAL multimeter
1. Set the meter to a resistance range greater than you expect the resistance to be.
Notice that the meter display shows "off the scale" (usually blank except for a 1 on the left). Don't worry,
this is not a fault, it is correct - the resistance of air is very high!
2. Touch the meter probes together and check that the meter reads zero.
If it doesn't read zero, turn the switch to 'Set Zero' if your meter has this and try again.
3. Put the probes across the component.
Avoid touching more than one contact at a time or your resistance will upset the reading!
Measuring resistance with an ANALOGUE multimeter

The resistance scale on an analogue meter is normally at the top, it is an unusual scale
because it reads backwards and is not linear (evenly spaced). This is unfortunate, but it is
due to the way the meter works.
1. Set the meter to a suitable resistance range.

Choose a range so that the resistance you expect will be near the middle of the scale. For example:
with the scale shown below and an expected resistance of about 50k choose the × 1k range.
2. Hold the meter probes together and adjust the control on the front of the meter
which is usually labelled "0 ADJ" until the pointer reads zero (on the RIGHT
Page 28 of 108
remember!).
If you can't adjust it to read zero, the battery inside the meter needs replacing.
3. Put the probes across the component.
Avoid touching more than one contact at a
time or your resistance will upset the
reading!
Reading analogue resistance

scales
For resistance use the upper scale,
noting that it reads backwards and is not
linear (evenly spaced).
Check the setting of the range switch so

that you know by how much to multiply the
reading.
Analogue Multimeter Scales
Sample readings on the scales shown: The resistance scale is at the top, note that it reads
× 10 range: 260 backwards and is not linear (evenly spaced).
× 1k range: 26k
If you are not familiar with reading analogue scales generally you may wish to see the
analogue display section on the general meters page.
Testing a diode with a multimeter

The techniques used for each type of meter are very different so they
are treated separately:
Testing a diode with a DIGITAL multimeter
• Digital multimeters have a special setting for testing a diode,

usually labelled with the diode symbol.
• Connect the red (+) lead to the anode and the black (-) to the
cathode. The diode should conduct and the meter will display a Diodes
value (usually the voltage across the diode in mV, 1000mV =
1V). a = anode
• Reverse the connections. The diode should NOT conduct this k = cathode
way so the meter will display "off the scale" (usually blank
except for a 1 on the left).
Testing a diode with an ANALOGUE multimeter
• Set the analogue multimeter to a low value resistance range such as × 10.
• It is essential to note that the polarity of analogue multimeter leads is reversed on the
resistance ranges, so the black lead is positive (+) and the red lead is negative (-)!
This is unfortunate, but it is due to the way the meter works.
• Connect the black (+) lead to anode and the red (-) to the cathode. The diode should
conduct and the meter will display a low resistance (the exact value is not relevant).
Page 29 of 108
• Reverse the connections. The diode should NOT conduct this way so the meter will
show infinite resistance (on the left of the scale).
For further information please see the diodes page.

You may find it easier to test a diode with the simple tester project.
Testing a transistor with a multimeter

Set a digital multimeter to diode test and an analogue
multimeter to a low resistance range such as × 10, as
described above for testing a diode.
Test each pair of leads both ways (six tests in total):
• The base-emitter (BE) junction should behave like

a diode and conduct one way only.
• The base-collector (BC) junction should behave
like a diode and conduct one way only.
• The collector-emitter (CE) should not conduct
either way. Testing an NPN transistor
The diagram shows how the junctions behave in an NPN transistor. The diodes are reversed
in a PNP transistor but the same test procedure can be used.
For further information please see the transistors page.

You may find it easier to test a transistor with the simple tester project.
Some multimeters have a 'transistor test' function, please refer to the instructions supplied
with the meter for details.
Page 30 of 108
Resistance
Resistance
Resistance is the property of a component which restricts the flow
of electric current. Energy is used up as the voltage across the
component drives the current through it and this energy appears as
heat in the component.
Resistance is measured in ohms, the symbol for ohm is an omega .

1 is quite small for electronics so resistances are often given in k
and M .
1 k = 1000 1 M = 1000000 .
Resistors used in electronics can have resistances as low as 0.1 or as high as 10 M .
Resistors connected in Series

When resistors are connected in series their combined resistance
is equal to the individual resistances added together. For example
if resistors R1 and R2 are connected in series their combined
resistance, R, is given by:
Combined resistance in series: R = R1 + R2
This can be extended for more resistors:

R = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + ...
Note that the combined resistance in series will always be greater than any of the
individual resistances.
Resistors connected in Parallel

When resistors are connected in parallel their combined resistance is less than any of the
individual resistances. There is a special equation for the combined resistance of two
resistors R1 and R2:
Combined resistance of R1 × R2
two resistors in parallel: R =
R1 + R2
For more than two resistors connected in parallel a more difficult equation must be used. This
adds up the reciprocal ("one over") of each resistance to give the reciprocal of the
combined resistance, R:
1 1 1 1
= + + + ...
R R1 R2 R3
Page 31 of 108
The simpler equation for two resistors in parallel is much easier to use!
Note that the combined resistance in parallel will always be less than any of the individual
resistances.
Conductors, Semiconductors and Insulators

The resistance of an object depends on its shape and the material from which it is made.
For a given material, objects with a smaller cross-section or longer length will have a greater
resistance.
Materials can be divided into three groups:
• Conductors which have low resistance.

Examples: metals (aluminium, copper, silver etc.) and carbon.
Metals are used to make connecting wires, switch contacts and lamp filaments.
Resistors are made from carbon or long coils of thin wire.
• Semiconductors which have moderate resistance.
Examples: germanium, silicon.
Semiconductors are used to make diodes, LEDs, transistors and integrated circuits
(chips).
• Insulators which have high resistance.
Examples: most plastics such as polythene and PVC (polyvinyl chloride), paper, glass.
PVC is used as an outer covering for wires to prevent them making contact.
Page 32 of 108
Ohm's Law
To make a current flow through a resistance there must be a voltage across that resistance.
Ohm's Law shows the relationship between the voltage (V), current (I) and resistance (R). It
can be written in three ways:
I= V R= V
V=I×R or or
where: V = voltage in volts (V) or: V = voltage in volts (V)

I = current in amps (A) I = current in milliamps (mA)
R = resistance in ohms ( ) R = resistance in kilohms (k )
For most electronic circuits the amp is too large and the ohm is too small, so we often
measure current in milliamps (mA) and resistance in kilohms (k ). 1 mA = 0.001 A and 1 k
= 1000 .
The Ohm's Law equations work if you use V, A and , or if you use V, mA and k . You must
not mix these sets of units in the equations so you may need to convert between mA and A
or k and .
The VIR triangle

You can use the VIR triangle to help you remember the three versions of Ohm's
Law. V
Write down V, I and R in a triangle like the one in the yellow box on the right.
I R
• To calculate voltage, V: put your finger over V,
this leaves you with I R, so the equation is V = I × R
• To calculate current, I: put your finger over I, Ohm's Law
triangle
this leaves you with V over R, so the equation is I = V/R
• To calculate resistance, R: put your finger over R,
this leaves you with V over I, so the equation is R = V/I
Ohm's Law Calculations

Use this method to guide you through calculations:
1. Write down the Values, converting units if necessary.
2. Select the Equation you need (use the VIR triangle). V
3. Put the Numbers into the equation and calculate the answer.
I R
It should be Very Easy Now!
• 3 V is applied across a 6 resistor, what is the current?

o Values: V = 3 V, I = ?, R = 6
V
o Equation: I = /R
Page 33 of 108
o Numbers: Current, I = 3/6 = 0.5 A
• A lamp connected to a 6 V battery passes a current of 60 mA, what is the lamp's

resistance?
o Values: V = 6 V, I = 60 mA, R = ?
V
o Equation: R = /I
6
o Numbers: Resistance, R = /60 = 0.1 k = 100
(using mA for current means the calculation gives the resistance in k )
• A 1.2 k resistor passes a current of 0.2 A, what is the voltage across it?
o Values: V = ?, I = 0.2 A, R = 1.2 k = 1200
(1.2 k is converted to 1200 because A and k must not be used together)
o Equation: V = I × R
o Numbers: V = 0.2 × 1200 = 240 V
Page 34 of 108
Power and Energy
What is power?
Power is the rate of using or supplying energy:
Energy Power is measured in watts (W)
Power = Energy is measured in joules (J)
Time Time is measured in seconds (s)
Electronics is mostly concerned with small quantities of power, so the power is often
measured in milliwatts (mW), 1mW = 0.001W. For example an LED uses about 40mW and a
bleeper uses about 100mW, even a lamp such as a torch bulb only uses about 1W.
The typical power used in mains electrical circuits is much larger, so this power may be
measured in kilowatts (kW), 1kW = 1000W. For example a typical mains lamp uses 60W and
a kettle uses about 3kW.
Calculating power using current and voltage

There are three ways of writing an equation for power, current and voltage:
I= P V= P
Power = Current × Voltage so P = I × V or or
where: P = power in watts (W) or: P = power in milliwatts (mW)

V = voltage in volts (V) V = voltage in volts (V)
I = current in amps (A) I = current in milliamps (mA)
You can use the PIV triangle to help you remember the three versions of the power
equations. Use it in the same way as the Ohm's Law triangle. For most electronic P
circuits the amp is too large, so we often measure current in milliamps (mA) and
power in milliwatts (mW). 1mA = 0.001A and 1mW = 0.001W. I V
Calculating power using resistance and current or voltage

Using Ohm's Law V = I × R we can convert P = I × V to:
P = I² × R where: P = power in watts (W) P V²
or I = current in amps (A)
P = V² / R R = resistance in ohms ( ) I² R P R
V = voltage in volts (V)
PI²R triangle V²PR triangle
Page 35 of 108
Wasted power and overheating
Normally electric power is useful, making a lamp light or a motor turn for example. However,
electrical energy is converted to heat whenever a current flows through a resistance and this
can be a problem if it makes a device or wire overheat. In electronics the effect is usually
negligible, but if the resistance is low (a wire or low value resistor for example) the current
can be sufficiently large to cause a problem.
You can see from the equation P = I² × R that for a given resistance the power depends on
the current squared, so doubling the current will give 4 times the power.
Resistors are rated by the maximum power they can have developed in them without
damage, but power ratings are rarely quoted in parts lists because the standard ratings of
0.25W or 0.5W are suitable for most circuits. Further information is available on the Resistors
page.
Wires and cables are rated by the maximum current they can pass without overheating.
They have a very low resistance so the maximum current is relatively large. For further
information about current rating please see the Connectors and Cables page.
Energy
The amount of energy used (or supplied) depends on the power and the time for which it is
used:
Energy = Power × Time
A low power device operating for a long time can use more energy than a high power device
operating for a short time. For example:
• A 60W lamp switched on for 8 hours uses 60W × 8 × 3600s = 1728kJ.

• A 3kW kettle switched on for 5 minutes uses 3000W × 5 × 60s = 900kJ.
The standard unit for energy is the joule (J), but 1J is a very small amount of energy for
mains electricity so kilojoule (kJ) or megajoule (MJ) are sometimes used in scientific work. In
the home we measure electrical energy in kilowatt-hours (kWh). 1kWh is the energy used by
a 1kW power appliance when it is switched on for 1 hour:
1kWh = 1kW × 1 hour = 1000W × 3600s = 3.6MJ
For example:
• A 60W lamp switched on for 8 hours uses 0.06kW × 8 = 0.48kWh.

• A 3kW kettle switched on for 5 minutes uses 3kW × 5/60 = 0.25kWh.
Page 36 of 108
AC, DC and Electrical Signals
AC means Alternating Current and DC means Direct Current. AC and DC are also used
when referring to voltages and electrical signals which are not currents! For example: a 12V
AC power supply has an alternating voltage (which will make an alternating current flow). An
electrical signal is a voltage or current which conveys information, usually it means a voltage.
The term can be used for any voltage or current in a circuit.
Alternating Current (AC)

Alternating Current (AC) flows one way, then the
other way, continually reversing direction.
An AC voltage is continually changing between

positive (+) and negative (-).
AC from a power supply
The rate of changing direction is called the This shape is called a sine wave.
frequency of the AC and it is measured in hertz
(Hz) which is the number of forwards-backwards
cycles per second.
Mains electricity in the UK has a frequency of

50Hz.
See below for more details of signal properties.

This triangular signal is AC because it changes
An AC supply is suitable for powering some between positive (+) and negative (-).
devices such as lamps and heaters but almost all
electronic circuits require a steady DC supply (see below).
Page 37 of 108
Direct Current (DC)
Direct Current (DC) always flows in the same
direction, but it may increase and decrease.
A DC voltage is always positive (or always negative),

but it may increase and decrease.
Electronic circuits normally require a steady DC Steady DC

supply which is constant at one value or a smooth from a battery or regulated power supply,
DC supply which has a small variation called ripple. this is ideal for electronic circuits.
Cells, batteries and regulated power supplies

provide steady DC which is ideal for electronic
circuits.
Power supplies contain a transformer which converts

the mains AC supply to a safe low voltage AC. Then
the AC is converted to DC by a bridge rectifier but
the output is varying DC which is unsuitable for Smooth DC
electronic circuits. from a smoothed power supply,
this is suitable for some electronics.
Some power supplies include a capacitor to provide
smooth DC which is suitable for less-sensitive
electronic circuits, including most of the projects on
this website.
Lamps, heaters and motors will work with any DC

supply.
Please see the Power Supplies page for further Varying DC

information. from a power supply without smoothing,
this is not suitable for electronics.
Power supplies are also covered by the
Electronics in Meccano website.
Properties of electrical signals

An electrical signal is a voltage or current which conveys information, usually it means a
voltage. The term can be used for any voltage or current in a circuit.
The voltage-time graph on the right shows

various properties of an electrical signal. In
addition to the properties labelled on the
graph, there is frequency which is the
number of cycles per second.
The diagram shows a sine wave but these properties apply to any signal with a constant
shape.
Page 38 of 108
• Amplitude is the maximum voltage reached by the signal.
It is measured in volts, V.
• Peak voltage is another name for amplitude.
• Peak-peak voltage is twice the peak voltage (amplitude). When reading an
oscilloscope trace it is usual to measure peak-peak voltage.
• Time period is the time taken for the signal to complete one cycle.
It is measured in seconds (s), but time periods tend to be short so milliseconds (ms)
and microseconds (µs) are often used. 1ms = 0.001s and 1µs = 0.000001s.
• Frequency is the number of cycles per second.
It is measured in hertz (Hz), but frequencies tend to be high so kilohertz (kHz) and
megahertz (MHz) are often used. 1kHz = 1000Hz and 1MHz = 1000000Hz.
1 1
frequency = and time period =
time period frequency
• Mains electricity in the UK has a frequency of 50Hz,

so it has a time period of 1/50 = 0.02s = 20ms.
Root Mean Square (RMS) Values

The value of an AC voltage is continually changing from zero up to the positive peak, through
zero to the negative peak and back to zero again. Clearly for most of the time it is less than
the peak voltage, so this is not a good measure of its real effect.
Instead we use the root mean square voltage (VRMS)

which is 0.7 of the peak voltage (Vpeak):
VRMS = 0.7 × Vpeak and Vpeak = 1.4 × VRMS
These equations also apply to current.

They are only true for sine waves (the most common type
of AC) because the 0.7 and 1.4 are different values for other shapes.
The RMS value is the effective value of a varying voltage or current. It is the equivalent
steady DC (constant) value which gives the same effect.
For example a lamp connected to a 6V RMS AC supply will light with the same brightness
when connected to a steady 6V DC supply. However, the lamp will be dimmer if connected
to a 6V peak AC supply because the RMS value of this is only 4.2V (it is equivalent to a
steady 4.2V DC).
You may find it helps to think of the RMS value as a sort of average, but please remember
that it is NOT really the average! In fact the average voltage (or current) of an AC signal is
zero because the positive and negative parts exactly cancel out!
Page 39 of 108
What do AC meters show, is it the RMS or peak voltage?
AC voltmeters and ammeters show the RMS value of the voltage or current. DC meters also
show the RMS value when connected to varying DC providing the DC is varying quickly, if
the frequency is less than about 10Hz you will see the meter reading fluctuating instead.
What does '6V AC' really mean, is it the RMS or peak voltage?
If the peak value is meant it should be clearly stated, otherwise assume it is the RMS value.
In everyday use AC voltages (and currents) are always given as RMS values because this
allows a sensible comparison to be made with steady DC voltages (and currents), such as
from a battery.
For example a '6V AC supply' means 6V RMS, the peak voltage is 8.6V. The UK mains
supply is 230V AC, this means 230V RMS so the peak voltage of the mains is about 320V!
So what does root mean square (RMS) really mean?

First square all the values, then find the average (mean) of these square values over a
complete cycle, and find the square root of this average. That is the RMS value. Confused?
Ignore the maths (it looks more complicated than it really is), just accept that RMS values for
voltage and current are a much more useful quantity than peak values.
Page 40 of 108
Oscilloscopes (CROs)
An oscilloscope is a test instrument which allows
you to look at the 'shape' of electrical signals by
displaying a graph of voltage against time on its
screen. It is like a voltmeter with the valuable extra Circuit symbol for
function of showing how the voltage varies with an oscilloscope
time. A graticule with a 1cm grid enables you to
take measurements of voltage and time from the
screen.
The graph, usually called the trace, is drawn by a

beam of electrons striking the phosphor coating of
the screen making it emit light, usually green or
blue. This is similar to the way a television picture
is produced.
Oscilloscopes contain a vacuum tube with a

cathode (negative electrode) at one end to emit
electrons and an anode (positive electrode) to
accelerate them so they move rapidly down the
tube to the screen. This arrangement is called an Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
electron gun. The tube also contains electrodes to Photograph © Rapid Electronics
deflect the electron beam up/down and left/right.
The electrons are called cathode rays because

they are emitted by the cathode and this gives the oscilloscope its full name of cathode ray
oscilloscope or CRO.
A dual trace oscilloscope can display two traces on the screen, allowing you to easily
compare the input and output of an amplifier for example. It is well worth paying the modest
extra cost to have this facility.
Precautions
• An oscilloscope should be handled gently to protect its fragile (and expensive) vacuum
tube.
• Oscilloscopes use high voltages to create the electron beam and these remain for
some time after switching off - for your own safety do not attempt to examine the
inside of an oscilloscope!
Setting up an oscilloscope
Oscilloscopes are complex instruments with many controls and they require some care to set
up and use successfully. It is quite easy to 'lose' the trace off the screen if controls are set
wrongly!
Page 41 of 108
There is some variation in the arrangement and labelling of the many controls so the
following instuctions may need to be adapted for your
instrument.
1. Switch on the oscilloscope to warm up (it takes a

minute or two).
2. Do not connect the input lead at this stage.
3. Set the AC/GND/DC switch (by the Y INPUT) to DC.
4. Set the SWP/X-Y switch to SWP (sweep).
5. Set Trigger Level to AUTO.
6. Set Trigger Source to INT (internal, the y input).
7. Set the Y AMPLIFIER to 5V/cm (a moderate value). This is what you should see
8. Set the TIMEBASE to 10ms/cm (a moderate after setting up, when there
speed). is no input signal connected
9. Turn the timebase VARIABLE control to 1 or CAL.
10. Adjust Y SHIFT (up/down) and X SHIFT (left/right) to
give a trace across the middle of the screen, like the picture.
11. Adjust INTENSITY (brightness) and FOCUS to give a bright, sharp trace.
12. The oscilloscope is now ready to use!
Connecting the input lead is described in the next section.
Further information on the controls: Timebase | Y amplifier | AC/GND/DC switch
Connecting an oscilloscope
The Y INPUT lead to an oscilloscope should be a co-axial
lead and the diagram shows its construction. The central
wire carries the signal and the screen is connected to
earth (0V) to shield the signal from electrical interference
(usually called noise). Construction of a co-axial lead
Most oscilloscopes have a BNC socket for the y input and

the lead is connected with a push and twist action, to
disconnect you need to twist and pull. Oscilloscopes used
in schools may have red and black 4mm sockets so that
ordinary, unscreened, 4mm plug leads can be used if
necessary.
Professionals use a specially designed lead and probes kit

for best results with high frequency signals and when
testing high resistance circuits, but this is not essential for
simpler work at audio frequencies (up to 20kHz).
An oscilloscope is connected like a voltmeter but you must

be aware that the screen (black) connection of the input Oscilloscope lead and probes kit
lead is connected to mains earth at the oscilloscope! This Photograph © Rapid Electronics
means it must be connected to earth or 0V on the circuit
being tested.
Page 42 of 108
Obtaining a clear and stable trace
Once you have connected the oscilloscope to the circuit you wish
to test you will need to adjust the controls to obtain a clear and
stable trace on the screen:
• The Y AMPLIFIER (VOLTS/CM) control determines the

height of the trace. Choose a setting so the trace occupies
at least half the screen height, but does not disappear off
the screen.
• The TIMEBASE (TIME/CM) control determines the rate at
which the dot sweeps across the screen. Choose a setting The trace of an AC signal
so the trace shows at least one cycle of the signal across with the oscilloscope
the screen. controls correctly set
Note that a steady DC input signal gives a horizontal line trace for
which the timebase setting is not critical.
• The TRIGGER control is usually best left set to AUTO.
If you are using an oscilloscope for the first time it is best to start with an easy signal such as
the output from an AC power pack set to about 4V.
Further information on the controls: Timebase | Y amplifier | AC/GND/DC switch
Measuring voltage and time period

The trace on an oscilloscope screen is a graph
of voltage against time. The shape of this
graph is determined by the nature of the input
signal.
In addition to the properties labelled on the

graph, there is frequency which is the number
of cycles per second.
The diagram shows a sine wave but these properties apply to any signal with a constant
shape.
• Amplitude is the maximum voltage reached by the signal.

It is measured in volts, V.
• Peak voltage is another name for amplitude.
• Peak-peak voltage is twice the peak voltage (amplitude). When reading an
oscilloscope trace it is usual to measure peak-peak voltage.
• Time period is the time taken for the signal to complete one cycle.
It is measured in seconds (s), but time periods tend to be short so milliseconds (ms)
and microseconds (µs) are often used. 1ms = 0.001s and 1µs = 0.000001s.
Page 43 of 108
• Frequency is the number of cycles per second.
It is measured in hertz (Hz), but frequencies tend to be high so kilohertz (kHz) and
megahertz (MHz) are often used. 1kHz = 1000Hz and 1MHz = 1000000Hz.
1 1
frequency = and time period =
time period frequency
Voltage
Voltage is shown on the vertical y-axis and the scale is
determined by the Y AMPLIFIER (VOLTS/CM) control. Usually
peak-peak voltage is measured because it can be read correctly
even if the position of 0V is not known. The amplitude is half the
peak-peak voltage.
If you wish to read the amplitude voltage directly you must check the position of
0V (normally halfway up the screen): move the AC/GND/DC switch to GND (0V)
and use Y-SHIFT (up/down) to adjust the position of the trace if necessary,
switch back to DC afterwards so you can see the signal again.
The trace of an AC signal
Voltage = distance in cm × volts/cm
Example: peak-peak voltage = 4.2cm × 2V/cm = 8.4V Y AMPLIFIER: 2V/cm
amplitude (peak voltage) = ½ × peak-peak voltage = 4.2V TIMEBASE: 5ms/cm
Example measurements:
Time period
Time is shown on the horizontal x-axis and the scale is peak-peak voltage = 8.4V
determined by the TIMEBASE (TIME/CM) control. The time amplitude voltage = 4.2V
period (often just called period) is the time for one cycle of the
signal. The frequency is the number of cyles per second, time period = 20ms
frequency = 1/time period frequency = 50Hz
Ensure that the variable timebase control is set to 1 or CAL (calibrated) before
attempting to take a time reading.
Time = distance in cm × time/cm

Example: time period = 4.0cm × 5ms/cm = 20ms
and frequency = 1/time period = 1/20ms = 50Hz
Page 44 of 108
Timebase (time/cm) and trigger controls
The oscilloscope sweeps the electron beam across the screen
from left to right at a steady speed set by the TIMEBASE control.
Each setting is labelled with the time the dot takes to move 1cm,
effectively it is setting the scale on the x-axis. The timebase
control may be labelled TIME/CM.
At slow timebase settings (such as 50ms/cm) you can see a dot

moving across the screen but at faster settings (such as 1ms/cm) Slow timebase, no input
the dot is moving so fast that it appears to be a line. You can see the dot moving
The VARIABLE timebase control can be turned to make a fine

adjustment to the speed, but it must be left at the position labelled
1 or CAL (calibrated) if you wish to take time readings from the
trace drawn on the screen.
The TRIGGER controls are used to maintain a steady trace on the

screen. If they are set wrongly you may see a trace drifting
sideways, a confusing 'scribble' on the screen, or no trace at all!
The trigger maintains a steady trace by starting the dot sweeping
across the screen when the input signal reaches the same point in Fast timebase, no input
its cycle each time. The dot is too fast to see
so it appears to be a line
For straightforward use it is best to leave the trigger level set to AUTO, but if you have
difficulty obtaining a steady trace try adjusting this control to set the level manually.
Y amplifier (volts/cm) control

The oscilloscope moves the trace up and down in proportion to the
voltage at the Y INPUT and the setting of the Y AMPLIFIER
control. This control sets the voltage represented by each
centimetre (cm) on the the screen, effectively it is setting the scale
on the y-axis. Positive voltages make the trace move up, negative
voltages make it move down.
The y amplifier control may be labelled Y-GAIN or VOLTS/CM.

Varying DC (always positive)
The input voltage moving the dot up and down at the same time as
the dot is swept across the screen means that the trace on the screen is a graph of voltage
(y-axis) against time (x-axis) for the input signal.
Page 45 of 108
The AC/GND/DC switch
The normal setting for this switch is DC for all signals, including
AC!
Switching to GND (ground) connects the y input to 0V and allows

you to quickly check the position of 0V on the screen (normally
halfway up). There is no need to disconnect the input lead while
you do this because it is disconnected internally.
Switching to AC inserts a capacitor in series with the input to block Switching to GND allows you
out any DC signal present and pass only AC signals. This is used to quickly check the position
to examine signals showing a small variation around one constant of 0V (normally halfway up).
value, such as the ripple on the output of a smooth DC supply.
Reducing the VOLTS/CM to see more detail of the ripple would
normally take the trace off the screen! The AC setting removes the constant (DC) part of the
signal, allowing you to view just the varying (AC) part which can now be examined more
closely by reducing the VOLTS/CM. This is shown in the diagrams below:
Displaying a ripple signal using the AC switch
Switch in normal DC position. Switch moved to AC position. VOLTS/CM reduced to

The ripple is difficult to see, The constant (DC) part of the enlarge the ripple.
but if VOLTS/CM is reduced signal is removed, leaving The ripple can now be
to enlarge it the trace will just the ripple (AC) part. examined more closely.
disappear off the screen!
Page 46 of 108
Power Supplies
Types of Power Supply
There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high voltage AC mains
electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronics circuits and other devices. A power
supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a particular
function.
For example a 5V regulated supply:
Each of the blocks is described in more detail below:
• Transformer - steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC.

• Rectifier - converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
• Smoothing - smooths the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
• Regulator - eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.
Power supplies made from these blocks are described below with a circuit diagram and a
graph of their output:
• Transformer only
• Transformer + Rectifier
• Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing
• Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator
Dual Supplies
Some electronic circuits require a power
supply with positive and negative
outputs as well as zero volts (0V). This is
called a 'dual supply' because it is like
two ordinary supplies connected
together as shown in the diagram.
Dual supplies have three outputs, for example a ±9V supply has +9V, 0V and -9V outputs.
Page 47 of 108
Transformer only
The low voltage AC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and special AC motors. It is not
suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a rectifier and a smoothing capacitor.
Further information: Transformer
Transformer + Rectifier
The varying DC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and standard motors. It is not suitable
for electronic circuits unless they include a smoothing capacitor.
Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing
The smooth DC output has a small ripple. It is suitable for most electronic circuits.
Page 48 of 108
Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator
The regulated DC output is very smooth with no ripple. It is suitable for all electronic circuits.
Transformer
Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to
another with little loss of power. Transformers work only
with AC and this is one of the reasons why mains electricity
is AC.
Step-up transformers increase voltage, step-down Transformer

transformers reduce voltage. Most power supplies use a circuit symbol
step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high
mains voltage (230V in UK) to a safer low voltage.
The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is
called the secondary. There is no electrical connection
between the two coils, instead they are linked by an
alternating magnetic field created in the soft-iron core of the
transformer. The two lines in the middle of the circuit
symbol represent the core.
Transformers waste very little power so the power out is

(almost) equal to the power in. Note that as voltage is
stepped down current is stepped up.
Transformer
The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the
turns ratio, determines the ratio of the voltages. A step-
down transformer has a large number of turns on its
primary (input) coil which is connected to the high voltage There is more information
mains supply, and a small number of turns on its secondary about transformers on the
(output) coil to give a low output voltage. Electronics in Meccano
website.
Vp Np power out = power in

turns ratio = = and
Vs Ns Vs × Is = Vp × Ip
Vp = primary (input) voltage Vs = secondary (output) voltage
Np = number of turns on primary coil Ns = number of turns on secondary coil
Ip = primary (input) current Is = secondary (output) current
Page 49 of 108
Rectifier
There are several ways of connecting diodes to make a rectifier to There is more information
convert AC to DC. The bridge rectifier is the most important and it about rectifiers on the
produces full-wave varying DC. A full-wave rectifier can also be Electronics in Meccano
made from just two diodes if a centre-tap transformer is used, but this website.
method is rarely used now that diodes are cheaper. A single diode
can be used as a rectifier but it only uses the positive (+) parts of the AC wave to produce
half-wave varying DC.
Bridge rectifier
A bridge rectifier can be made using four individual diodes, but it is also available in special
packages containing the four diodes required. It is called a full-wave rectifier because it uses
all the AC wave (both positive and negative sections). 1.4V is used up in the bridge rectifier
because each diode uses 0.7V when conducting and there are always two diodes
conducting, as shown in the diagram below. Bridge rectifiers are rated by the maximum
current they can pass and the maximum reverse voltage they can withstand (this must be at
least three times the supply RMS voltage so the rectifier can withstand the peak voltages).
Please see the Diodes page for more details, including pictures of bridge rectifiers.
Bridge rectifier Output: full-wave varying DC

Alternate pairs of diodes conduct, changing over (using all the AC wave)
the connections so the alternating directions of
AC are converted to the one direction of DC.
Single diode rectifier

A single diode can be used as a rectifier but this produces half-wave varying DC which has
gaps when the AC is negative. It is hard to smooth this sufficiently well to supply electronic
circuits unless they require a very small current so the smoothing capacitor does not
significantly discharge during the gaps. Please see the Diodes page for some examples of
rectifier diodes.
Page 50 of 108
Single diode rectifier Output: half-wave varying DC
(using only half the AC wave)
Smoothing
Smoothing is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor connected across the DC
supply to act as a reservoir, supplying current to the output when the varying DC voltage
from the rectifier is falling. The diagram shows the unsmoothed varying DC (dotted line) and
the smoothed DC (solid line). The capacitor charges quickly near the peak of the varying DC,
and then discharges as it supplies current to the output.
Note that smoothing significantly increases the average DC voltage to almost the peak value
(1.4 × RMS value). For example 6V RMS AC is rectified to full wave DC of about 4.6V RMS
(1.4V is lost in the bridge rectifier), with smoothing this increases to almost the peak value
giving 1.4 × 4.6 = 6.4V smooth DC.
Smoothing is not perfect due to the capacitor voltage falling a little as it discharges, giving a
small ripple voltage. For many circuits a ripple which is 10% of the supply voltage is
satisfactory and the equation below gives the required value for the smoothing capacitor. A
larger capacitor will give less ripple. The capacitor value must be doubled when smoothing
half-wave DC.
5 × Io There is more information

Smoothing capacitor for 10% ripple, C = about smoothing on the
Vs × f
Electronics in Meccano
website.
C = smoothing capacitance in farads (F)
Io = output current from the supply in amps (A)
Vs = supply voltage in volts (V), this is the peak value of the unsmoothed DC
f = frequency of the AC supply in hertz (Hz), 50Hz in the UK
Page 51 of 108
Regulator
Voltage regulator ICs are available with
fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or variable
output voltages. They are also rated by
the maximum current they can pass.
Negative voltage regulators are available,
mainly for use in dual supplies. Most
regulators include some automatic
protection from excessive current
('overload protection') and overheating
('thermal protection'). Voltage regulator
Many of the fixed voltage regulator ICs
have 3 leads and look like power
transistors, such as the 7805 +5V 1A
regulator shown on the right. They include a hole for attaching
a heatsink if necessary.
Zener diode regulator

For low current power supplies a simple voltage regulator can
zener diode
be made with a resistor and a zener diode connected in
a = anode, k = cathode
reverse as shown in the diagram. Zener diodes are rated by
their breakdown voltage Vz and maximum power Pz
(typically 400mW or 1.3W).
The resistor limits the current (like an LED resistor). The

current through the resistor is constant, so when there is no
output current all the current flows through the zener diode
and its power rating Pz must be large enough to withstand
this.
Please see the Diodes page for more information about zener diodes.
Choosing a zener diode and resistor:
1. The zener voltage Vz is the output voltage required

2. The input voltage Vs must be a few volts greater than Vz
(this is to allow for small fluctuations in Vs due to ripple)
3. The maximum current Imax is the output current required plus 10%
4. The zener power Pz is determined by the maximum current: Pz > Vz × Imax
5. The resistor resistance: R = (Vs - Vz) / Imax
6. The resistor power rating: P > (Vs - Vz) × Imax
Example: output voltage required is 5V, output current required is 60mA.

1. Vz = 4.7V (nearest value available) There is more information
2. Vs = 8V (it must be a few volts greater than Vz) about regulators on the
3. Imax = 66mA (output current plus 10%) Electronics in Meccano
4. Pz > 4.7V × 66mA = 310mW, choose Pz = 400mW website.
5. R = (8V - 4.7V) / 66mA = 0.05k = 50 , choose R = 47
Page 52 of 108
6. Resistor power rating P > (8V - 4.7V) × 66mA = 218mW, choose P = 0.5W
Page 53 of 108
Transducers
A transducer is a device which converts a signal from one form to another.
Most electronics circuits use both input and output transducers:
Input Transducers
Input Transducers convert a quantity to an electrical signal
(voltage) or to resistance (which can be converted to voltage).
Input transducers are also called sensors.
Examples:
• LDR converts brightness (of light) to resistance.

• Thermistor converts temperature to resistance.
• Microphone converts sound to voltage.
• Variable resistor converts position (angle) to resistance.
LDR
Output Transducers
Output Transducers convert an electrical signal to another
quantity.
Examples:
• Lamp converts electricity to light.

• LED converts electricity to light.
• Loudspeaker converts electricity to sound.
• Motor converts electricity to motion.
• Heater converts electricity to heat. Loudspeaker
Page 54 of 108
Using input transducers (sensors)
Most input transducers (sensors) vary their resistance and this
can be used directly in some circuits but it is usually converted to
an electrical signal in the form of a voltage.
The voltage signal can be fed to other parts of the circuit, such
as the input to a chip or a transistor switch.
The conversion of varying resistance to varying voltage is

performed by a simple circuit called a voltage divider.
Please see the next page for more information about

voltage dividers. Voltage divider circuit
Page 55 of 108
Voltage Dividers
Voltage divider (potential divider)
A voltage divider consists of two resistances R1 and R2 connected
in series across a supply voltage Vs. The supply voltage is divided
up between the two resistances to give an output voltage Vo which
is the voltage across R2. This depends on the size of R2 relative to
R1:
• If R2 is much smaller than R1, Vo is small (low, almost 0V)

(because most of the voltage is across R1)
• If R2 is about the same as R1, Vo is about half Vs
(because the voltage is shared about equally between R1 and R2)
• If R2 is much larger than R1, Vo is large (high, almost Vs)
(because most of the voltage is across R2)
Vs × R2
If you need a precise value for the output voltage Vo you can use Ohm's law and Vo =
a little algebra to work out the formula for Vo shown on the right. The formula and R1 + R2
the approximate rules given above assume that negligible current flows from the
output. This is true if Vo is connected to a device with a high resistance such as
voltmeter or a chip input. For further information please see the page on impedance. If the output is connected
to a transistor Vo cannot become much greater than 0.7V because the transistor's base-emitter junction
behaves like a diode.
Voltage dividers are also called potential dividers, a name which comes from potential
difference (the proper name for voltage).
One of the main uses of voltage dividers is to connect input transducers into circuits...
Using an input transducer (sensor) in a voltage divider

Most input transducers (sensors) vary their resistance and usually a voltage divider is used
to convert this to a varying voltage which is more useful. The voltage signal can be fed to
other parts of the circuit, such as the input to a chip or a transistor switch.
The sensor is one of the resistances in the voltage divider. It can be at the top (R1) or at the
bottom (R2), the choice is determined by when you want a large value for the output voltage
Vo:
• Put the sensor at the top (R1) if you want a large Vo when the sensor has a small
resistance.
• Put the sensor at the bottom (R2) if you want a large Vo when the sensor has a large
resistance.
Then you need to choose a value for the resistor...
Page 56 of 108
Choosing a resistor value
The value of the resistor R will determine the range of the output
voltage Vo. For best results you need a large 'swing' (range) for
Vo and this is achieved if the resistor is much larger than the
sensor's minimum resistance Rmin, but much smaller than the
sensor's maximum resistance Rmax.
You can use a multimeter to help you find the minimum and
maximum values of the sensor's resistance (Rmin and Rmax).
There is no need to be precise, approximate values will do.
Then choose resistor value:

R = square root of (Rmin × Rmax) OR
Choose a standard value which is close to this calculated value.
For example:
An LDR: Rmin = 100 , Rmax = 1M , so R = square root of (100 × 1M)
= 10k .
Swopping over the resistor and sensor

The resistor and sensor can be swopped over to invert the
action of the voltage divider. For example an LDR has a high
resistance when dark and a low resistance when brightly lit, so:
• If the LDR is at the top (near +Vs),

Vo will be low in the dark and high in bright light.
• If the LDR is at the bottom (near 0V),
Vo will be high in the dark and low in bright light.
Using a variable resistor

A variable resistor may be used in place of the fixed resistor R. It
will enable you to adjust the output voltage Vo for a given
resistance of the sensor. For example you can use a variable
resistor to set the exact brightness level which makes a chip
change state.
The variable resistor value should be larger than the fixed

resistor value. For finer control you can use a fixed resistor in
series with the variable resistor. For example if a 10k fixed
resistor is suitable you could replace it with a fixed 4.7k resistor
in series with a 10k variable resistor, allowing you to adjust the
resistance from 4.7k to 14.7k . The sensor and variable
resistor can be swopped
If you are planning to use a variable resistor connected between over if necessary
the +Vs supply and the base of a transistor you must include a
resistor in series with the variable resistor. This is to prevent excessive base current
destroying the transistor when the variable resistor is reduced to zero.
Page 57 of 108
Transistor Circuits
Types of transistor
There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP, with
different circuit symbols. The letters refer to the layers of
semiconductor material used to make the transistor. Most
transistors used today are NPN because this is the easiest type to
make from silicon. This page is mostly about NPN transistors and
if you are new to electronics it is best to start by learning how to
use these first. Transistor circuit symbols
The leads are labelled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E).
These terms refer to the internal operation of a transistor but they are not much help in understanding how a
transistor is used, so just treat them as labels!
A Darlington pair is two transistors connected together to give a very high current gain.
In addition to standard (bipolar junction) transistors, there are field-effect transistors which
are usually referred to as FETs. They have different circuit symbols and properties and they
are not (yet) covered by this page.
Transistor currents
The diagram shows the two current paths through a
transistor. You can build this circuit with two standard 5mm
red LEDs and any general purpose low power NPN transistor
(BC108, BC182 or BC548 for example).
The small base current controls the larger collector

current.
When the switch is closed a small current flows into the

base (B) of the transistor. It is just enough to make LED B
glow dimly. The transistor amplifies this small current to allow
a larger current to flow through from its collector (C) to its
emitter (E). This collector current is large enough to make
LED C light brightly.
When the switch is open no base current flows, so the

transistor switches off the collector current. Both LEDs are off.
A transistor amplifies current and can be used as a switch.
This arrangement where the emitter (E) is in the controlling circuit (base current) and in the controlled circuit
(collector current) is called common emitter mode. It is the most widely used arrangement for transistors so it
is the one to learn first.
Page 58 of 108
Functional model of an NPN transistor
The operation of a transistor is difficult to explain and understand in terms of its internal
structure. It is more helpful to use this functional model:
• The base-emitter junction behaves like a diode.

• A base current IB flows only when the voltage VBE across
the base-emitter junction is 0.7V or more.
• The small base current IB controls the large collector
current Ic.
• Ic = hFE × IB (unless the transistor is full on and saturated)
hFE is the current gain (strictly the DC current gain), a
typical value for hFE is 100 (it has no units because it is a
ratio)
• The collector-emitter resistance RCE is controlled by the
base current IB:
o IB = 0 RCE = infinity transistor off
o IB small RCE reduced transistor partly on
o IB increased RCE = 0 transistor full on
('saturated')
Additional notes:
• A resistor is often needed in series with the base

connection to limit the base current IB and prevent the transistor being damaged.
• Transistors have a maximum collector current Ic rating.
• The current gain hFE can vary widely, even for transistors of the same type!
• A transistor that is full on (with RCE = 0) is said to be 'saturated'.
• When a transistor is saturated the collector-emitter voltage VCE is reduced to almost
0V.
• When a transistor is saturated the collector current Ic is determined by the supply
voltage and the external resistance in the collector circuit, not by the transistor's
current gain. As a result the ratio Ic/IB for a saturated transistor is less than the current
gain hFE.
• The emitter current IE = Ic + IB, but Ic is much larger than IB, so roughly IE = Ic.
There is a table showing technical data for some popular transistors on the transistors page.
Page 59 of 108
Darlington pair
This is two transistors connected together so that the current
amplified by the first is amplified further by the second
transistor. The overall current gain is equal to the two
individual gains multiplied together:
Darlington pair current gain, hFE = hFE1 × hFE2

(hFE1 and hFE2 are the gains of the individual transistors)
This gives the Darlington pair a very high current gain, such as
10000, so that only a tiny base current is required to make the
pair switch on.
A Darlington pair behaves like a single transistor with a

very high current gain. It has three leads (B, C and E) which
are equivalent to the leads of a standard individual transistor.
To turn on there must be 0.7V across both the base-emitter
junctions which are connected in series inside the Darlington
pair, therefore it requires 1.4V to turn on.
Darlington pairs are available as complete packages but you

can make up your own from two transistors; TR1 can be a low Touch switch circuit
power type, but normally TR2 will need to be high power. The
maximum collector current Ic(max) for the pair is the same as Ic(max) for TR2.
A Darlington pair is sufficiently sensitive to respond to the small current passed by your skin
and it can be used to make a touch-switch as shown in the diagram. For this circuit which
just lights an LED the two transistors can be any general purpose low power transistors. The
100k resistor protects the transistors if the contacts are linked with a piece of wire.
Using a transistor as a switch

When a transistor is used as a switch it must be either OFF
or fully ON. In the fully ON state the voltage VCE across the
transistor is almost zero and the transistor is said to be
saturated because it cannot pass any more collector current
Ic. The output device switched by the transistor is usually
called the 'load'.
The power developed in a switching transistor is very small:
• In the OFF state: power = Ic × VCE, but Ic = 0, so the

power is zero.
• In the full ON state: power = Ic × VCE, but VCE = 0
(almost), so the power is very small.
This means that the transistor should not become hot in use and you do not need to consider
its maximum power rating. The important ratings in switching circuits are the maximum
collector current Ic(max) and the minimum current gain hFE(min). The transistor's voltage
Page 60 of 108
ratings may be ignored unless you are using a supply voltage of more than about 15V. There
is a table showing technical data for some popular transistors on the transistors page.
For information about the operation of a transistor please see the functional model above.
Protection diode
If the load is a motor, relay or solenoid (or any other
device with a coil) a diode must be connected across
the load to protect the transistor (and chip) from
damage when the load is switched off. The diagram
shows how this is connected 'backwards' so that it will
normally NOT conduct. Conduction only occurs when
the load is switched off, at this moment current tries to
continue flowing through the coil and it is harmlessly
diverted through the diode. Without the diode no
current could flow and the coil would produce a
damaging high voltage 'spike' in its attempt to keep
the current flowing.
When to use a relay

Transistors cannot switch AC or high voltages (such as mains
electricity) and they are not usually a good choice for switching
large currents (> 5A). In these cases a relay will be needed, but
note that a low power transistor may still be needed to switch
the current for the relay's coil!
Advantages of relays:
• Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.
• Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot.
• Relays are a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A).
• Relays can switch many contacts at once.
Disadvantages of relays:
• Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents. Relays
• Relays cannot switch rapidly, transistors can switch many times
per second. Photographs © Rapid Electronics
• Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their
coil.
• Relays require more current than many chips can provide, so a low power transistor may be
needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.
Connecting a transistor to the output from a chip

Most chips cannot supply large output currents so it may be necessary to use a transistor to
switch the larger current required for output devices such as lamps, motors and relays. The
Page 61 of 108
555 timer chip is unusual because it can supply a relatively large current of up to 200mA
which is sufficient for some output devices such as low current lamps, buzzers and many
relay coils without needing to use a transistor.
A transistor can also be used to enable a chip connected to a low voltage supply (such as
5V) to switch the current for an output device with a separate higher voltage supply (such as
12V). The two power supplies must be linked, normally this is done by linking their 0V
connections. In this case you should use an NPN transistor.
A resistor RB is required to limit the current flowing into the base of the transistor and prevent
it being damaged. However, RB must be sufficiently low to ensure that the transistor is
thoroughly saturated to prevent it overheating, this is particularly important if the transistor is
switching a large current (> 100mA). A safe rule is to make the base current IB about five
times larger than the value which should just saturate the transistor.
Choosing a suitable NPN transistor

The circuit diagram shows how to connect an NPN transistor, this will switch on the load
when the chip output is high. If you need the opposite action, with the load switched on when
the chip output is low (0V) please see the circuit for a PNP transistor below.
The procedure below explains how to choose a suitable

switching transistor.
1. The transistor's maximum collector current

Ic(max) must be greater than the load current Ic.
supply voltage Vs
load current Ic =
load resistance RL
2. The transistor's minimum current gain hFE(min)

must be at least five times the load current Ic
divided by the maximum output current from the
chip.
NPN transistor switch
(load is on when chip output is high)
load current Ic
hFE(min) > 5 ×
max. chip current
Using units in calculations

3. Choose a transistor which meets these Remember to use V, A and or
requirements and make a note of its properties: V, mA and k . For more details
Ic(max) and hFE(min). please see the Ohm's Law page.
There is a table showing technical data for some popular transistors on the transistors page.
4. Calculate an approximate value for the base resistor:
Vc × hFE where Vc = chip supply voltage

RB =
5 × Ic (in a simple circuit with one supply this is Vs)
5. For a simple circuit where the chip and the load share the same power supply (Vc = Vs) you may prefer
to use: RB = 0.2 × RL × hFE
6. Then choose the nearest standard value for the base resistor.
7. Finally, remember that if the load is a motor or relay coil a protection diode is required.
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Example
The output from a 4000 series CMOS chip is required to operate a relay with a 100 coil.
The supply voltage is 6V for both the chip and load. The chip can supply a maximum current of 5mA.
1. Load current = Vs/RL = 6/100 = 0.06A = 60mA, so transistor must have Ic(max) > 60mA.
2. The maximum current from the chip is 5mA, so transistor must have hFE(min) > 60 (5 × 60mA/5mA).
3. Choose general purpose low power transistor BC182 with Ic(max) = 100mA and hFE(min) = 100.
4. RB = 0.2 × RL × hFE = 0.2 × 100 × 100 = 2000 . so choose RB = 1k8 or 2k2.
5. The relay coil requires a protection diode.
Choosing a suitable PNP transistor

The circuit diagram shows how to connect a PNP
transistor, this will switch on the load when the chip
output is low (0V). If you need the opposite action, with
the load switched on when the chip output is high
please see the circuit for an NPN transistor above.
The procedure for choosing a suitable PNP transistor is

exactly the same as that for an NPN transistor described
above.
PNP transistor switch
(load is on when chip output is low)
Page 63 of 108
Using a transistor switch with sensors
The top circuit diagram shows an LDR (light sensor)
connected so that the LED lights when the LDR is in
darkness. The variable resistor adjusts the brightness at
which the transistor switches on and off. Any general
purpose low power transistor can be used in this circuit.
The 10k fixed resistor protects the transistor from

excessive base current (which will destroy it) when the
variable resistor is reduced to zero. To make this circuit
switch at a suitable brightness you may need to
experiment with different values for the fixed resistor, but it
must not be less than 1k .
LED lights when the LDR is dark
If the transistor is switching a load with a coil, such as a
motor or relay, remember to add a protection diode across
the load.
The switching action can be inverted, so the LED lights

when the LDR is brightly lit, by swopping the LDR and
variable resistor. In this case the fixed resistor can be
omitted because the LDR resistance cannot be reduced to
zero.
Note that the switching action of this circuit is not

particularly good because there will be an intermediate
brightness when the transistor will be partly on (not
saturated). In this state the transistor is in danger of LED lights when the LDR is bright
overheating unless it is switching a small current. There is
no problem with the small LED current, but the larger current for a lamp, motor or relay is
likely to cause overheating.
Other sensors, such as a thermistor, can be used with this circuit, but they may require a
different variable resistor. You can calculate an approximate value for the variable resistor
(Rv) by using a multimeter to find the minimum and maximum values of the sensor's
resistance (Rmin and Rmax):
Variable resistor, Rv = square root of (Rmin × Rmax)
For example an LDR: Rmin = 100 , Rmax = 1M , so Rv = square root of (100 × 1M) = 10k .
You can make a much better switching circuit with sensors connected to a suitable IC (chip).
The switching action will be much sharper with no partly on state.
Page 64 of 108
A transistor inverter (NOT gate)
Inverters (NOT gates) are available on logic chips but if you
only require one inverter it is usually better to use this
circuit. The output signal (voltage) is the inverse of the
input signal:
• When the input is high (+Vs) the output is low (0V).

• When the input is low (0V) the output is high (+Vs).
Any general purpose low power NPN transistor can be

used. For general use RB = 10k and RC = 1k , then the
inverter output can be connected to a device with an input impedance (resistance) of at least
10k such as a logic chip or a 555 timer (trigger and reset inputs).
If you are connecting the inverter to a CMOS logic chip input (very high impedance) you can
increase RB to 100k and RC to 10k , this will reduce the current used by the inverter.
Page 65 of 108
Analogue and Digital Systems
Analogue systems
Analogue systems process analogue signals which can take any value within a range, for
example the output from an LDR (light sensor) or a microphone.
An audio amplifier is an example of an analogue system.

The amplifier produces an output voltage which can be
any value within the range of its power supply.
An analogue meter can display any value within the range

available on its scale. However, the precision of readings
is limited by our ability to read them. For example the
meter on the right shows 1.25V because the pointer is
Analogue signal
estimated to be half way between 1.2 and 1.3. The
analogue meter can show any value between 1.2 and 1.3
but we are unable to read the scale more precisely than
about half a division.
All electronic circuits suffer from 'noise' which is unwanted

signal mixed in with the desired signal, for example an Analogue meter display
audio amplifier may pick up some mains 'hum' (the 50Hz frequency of the UK mains
electricity supply). Noise can be difficult to eliminate from analogue signals because it may
be hard to distinguish from the desired signal.
Digital systems
Digital systems process digital signals which can take
only a limited number of values (discrete steps), usually
just two values are used: the positive supply voltage
(+Vs) and zero volts (0V).
Digital (logic) signal
Digital systems contain devices such as logic gates, flip-
flops, shift registers and counters. A computer is an
example of a digital system.
Digital meter display
A digital meter can display many values, but not every
value within its range. For example the display on the right can show 6.25 and 6.26 but not a
value between them. This is not a problem because digital meters normally have sufficient
digits to show values more precisely than it is possible to read an analogue display.
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Logic signals
Most digital systems use the simplest possible type of signal which has just Logic states
two values. This type of signal is called a logic signal because the two values
(or states) can be called true and false. Normally the positive supply voltage True False
+Vs represents true and 0V represents false. Other labels for the true and 1 0
false states are shown in the table on the right.
High Low
Noise is relatively easy to eliminate from digital signals because it is easy to +Vs 0V
distinguish from the desired signal which can only have particular values. For
On Off
example: if the signal is meant to be +5V (true) or 0V (false), noise of up to
2.5V can be eliminated by treating all voltages greater than 2.5V as true and all voltages less
than 2.5V as false.
Page 67 of 108
Logic Gates
Introduction
Logic gates process signals which represent true or false. Normally the Logic states
positive supply voltage +Vs represents true and 0V represents false. Other
terms which are used for the true and false states are shown in the table on True False
the right. It is best to be familiar with them all. 1 0
Gates are identified by their function: NOT, AND, NAND, OR, NOR, EX-OR High Low
and EX-NOR. Capital letters are normally used to make it clear that the term +Vs 0V
refers to a logic gate.
On Off
Note that logic gates are not always required because simple logic functions can be
performed with switches or diodes:
• Switches in series (AND function)

• Switches in parallel (OR function)
• Combining chip outputs with diodes (OR function)
Logic gate symbols

There are two series of symbols for logic gates:
• The traditional symbols have distinctive shapes making them easy to recognise so
they are widely used in industry and education.
• The IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) symbols are rectangles with

a symbol inside to show the gate function. They are rarely used despite their official
status, but you may need to know them for an examination.
Inputs and outputs

Gates have two or more inputs, except a NOT gate which
has only one input. All gates have only one output. Usually
the letters A, B, C and so on are used to label inputs, and Q
is used to label the output. On this page the inputs are
shown on the left and the output on the right.
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The inverting circle (o)
Some gate symbols have a circle on their output which means that their
function includes inverting of the output. It is equivalent to feeding the
output through a NOT gate. For example the NAND (Not AND) gate
symbol shown on the right is the same as an AND gate symbol but with the addition of an
inverting circle on the output.
Truth tables
A truth table is a good way to show the function of a logic gate. It Input A Input B Output Q
shows the output states for every possible combination of input
states. The symbols 0 (false) and 1 (true) are usually used in truth 0 0 0
tables. The example truth table on the right shows the inputs and 0 1 0
output of an AND gate. 1 0 0
1 1 1
There are summary truth tables below showing the output states
for all types of 2-input and 3-input gates. These can be helpful if you are trying to select a
suitable gate.
Logic ICs
Logic gates are available on special ICs (chips)
which usually contain several gates of the same
type, for example the 4001 IC contains four 2-input
NOR gates. There are several families of logic ICs
and they can be split into two groups:
• 4000 Series
• 74 Series
To quickly compare the different families please

see:
• Summary table of logic families
The 4000 and 74HC families are the best for battery powered projects because they will work
with a good range of supply voltages and they use very little power. However, if you are
using them to design circuits and investigate logic gates please remember that all unused
inputs MUST be connected to the power supply (either +Vs or 0V), this applies even if that
part of the chip is not being used in the circuit!
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NOT gate (inverter)
The output Q is true when the input A is NOT true, the output is the inverse of the input:
Q = NOT A
A NOT gate can only have one input. A NOT gate is also called an inverter.
Input A Output Q
0 1
1 0
Traditional symbol IEC symbol Truth Table
AND gate
The output Q is true if input A AND input B are both true: Q = A AND B
An AND gate can have two or more inputs, its output is true if all inputs are true.
Input A Input B Output Q

0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
NAND gate (NAND = Not AND)

This is an AND gate with the output inverted, as shown by the 'o' on the output.
The output is true if input A AND input B are NOT both true: Q = NOT (A AND B)
A NAND gate can have two or more inputs, its output is true if NOT all inputs are true.

0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Page 70 of 108
OR gate
The output Q is true if input A OR input B is true (or both of them are true): Q = A OR B
An OR gate can have two or more inputs, its output is true if at least one input is true.

0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
NOR gate (NOR = Not OR)

This is an OR gate with the output inverted, as shown by the 'o' on the output.
The output Q is true if NOT inputs A OR B are true: Q = NOT (A OR B)
A NOR gate can have two or more inputs, its output is true if no inputs are true.

0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
EX-OR (EXclusive-OR) gate

The output Q is true if either input A is true OR input B is true, but not when both of them
are true: Q = (A AND NOT B) OR (B AND NOT A)
This is like an OR gate but excluding both inputs being true.
The output is true if inputs A and B are DIFFERENT.
EX-OR gates can only have 2 inputs.

0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
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EX-NOR (EXclusive-NOR) gate
This is an EX-OR gate with the output inverted, as shown by the 'o' on the output.
The output Q is true if inputs A and B are the SAME (both true or both false):
Q = (A AND B) OR (NOT A AND NOT B)
EX-NOR gates can only have 2 inputs.

0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Summary truth tables

The summary truth tables below show the output states for all types of 2-input and 3-input
gates.
Summary for all 2-input gates Summary for all 3-input gates
Inputs Output of each gate Inputs Output of each gate
A B AND NAND OR NOR EX-OR EX-NOR A B C AND NAND OR NOR
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0
1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 0
Note that EX-OR and EX-NOR 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
gates can only have 2 inputs. 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 0 1 0
Combinations of logic gates

Logic gates can be combined to produce more complex functions. They can also be
combined to substitute one type of gate for another.
For example to produce an output Q which is true only when input Input A Input B Output Q
A is true and input B is false, as shown in the truth table on the
0 0 0
right, we can combine a NOT gate and an AND gate like this:
0 1 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
Page 72 of 108
Q = A AND NOT B
Working out the function of a combination of gates

Truth tables can be used to work out the function of a combination of gates.
For example the truth table on the right show the intermediate outputs Inputs Outputs
D and E as well as the final output Q for the system shown below.
A B C D E Q
0 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 1 1
D = NOT (A OR B)
E = B AND C
Q = D OR E = (NOT (A OR B)) OR (B AND C)
Substituting one type of gate for another

Logic gates are available on ICs which usually contain several gates of the same type, for
example four 2-input NAND gates or three 3-input NAND gates. This can be wasteful if only a
few gates are required unless they are all the same type. To avoid using too many ICs you
can reduce the number of gate inputs or substitute one type of gate for another.
Reducing the number of inputs

The number of inputs to a gate can be reduced by connecting two (or
more) inputs together. The diagram shows a 3-input AND gate
operating as a 2-input AND gate.
Making a NOT gate from a NAND or NOR gate

Reducing a NAND or NOR gate to just one input creates a NOT gate.
The diagram shows this for a 2-input NAND gate.
Page 73 of 108
Any gate can be built from NAND or NOR gates
As well as making a NOT gate, NAND or NOR gates can be combined to create any type of
gate! This enables a circuit to be built from just one type of gate, either NAND or NOR. For
example an AND gate is a NAND gate then a NOT gate (to undo the inverting function). Note
that AND and OR gates cannot be used to create other gates because they lack the inverting
(NOT) function.
To change the type of gate, such as changing OR to AND, you must do three things:
• Invert (NOT) each input.

• Change the gate type (OR to AND, or AND to OR)
• Invert (NOT) the output.
For example an OR gate can be built from NOTed inputs fed into a NAND (AND + NOT)
gate.
NAND gate equivalents

The table below shows the NAND gate equivalents of NOT, AND, OR and NOR gates:
Gate Equivalent in NAND gates
NOT
AND
OR
NOR
Page 74 of 108
Substituting gates in an example logic system
The original system has 3 different gates:
NOR, AND and OR. This requires three ICs
(one for each type of gate).
To re-design this system using NAND gates

only begin by replacing each gate with its
NAND gate equivalent, as shown in the
diagram below.
Then simplify the system by deleting adjacent pairs of NOT gates (marked X above). This
can be done because the second NOT gate cancels the action of the first.
The final system is shown on the right.

It has five NAND gates and requires
two ICs (with four gates on each IC).
This is better than the original system
which required three ICs (one for each
type of gate).
Substituting NAND (or NOR) gates

does not always increase the number
of gates, but when it does (as in this
example) the increase is usually only
one or two gates. The real benefit is
reducing the number of ICs required by
using just one type of gate.
Page 75 of 108
Capacitance and Uses of Capacitors
Capacitance
Capacitance (symbol C) is a measure of a capacitor's ability to
store charge. A large capacitance means that more charge can
be stored. Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol F. However
1F is very large, so prefixes (multipliers) are used to show the
unpolarised capacitor symbol
smaller values:
• µ (micro) means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000µF = 1F

• n (nano) means 10-9 (thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1µF
• p (pico) means 10-12 (million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF
polarised capacitor symbol
Charge and Energy Stored

The amount of charge (symbol Q) stored by a capacitor is given by:
Q = charge in coulombs (C)
Charge, Q = C × V where: C = capacitance in farads (F)
V = voltage in volts (V)
When they store charge, capacitors are also storing energy:
Energy, E = ½QV = ½CV² where E = energy in joules (J).
Note that capacitors return their stored energy to the circuit. They do not 'use up' electrical
energy by converting it to heat as a resistor does. The energy stored by a capacitor is much
smaller than the energy stored by a battery so they cannot be used as a practical source of
energy for most purposes.
Capacitive Reactance Xc
Capacitive reactance (symbol Xc) is a measure of a capacitor's opposition to AC (alternating
current). Like resistance it is measured in ohms, , but reactance is more complex than
resistance because its value depends on the frequency (f) of the electrical signal passing
through the capacitor as well as on the capacitance, C.
1 Xc = reactance in ohms ( )
Capacitive reactance, Xc = where: f = frequency in hertz (Hz)
2 fC
C = capacitance in farads (F)
Page 76 of 108
The reactance Xc is large at low frequencies and small at high frequencies. For steady DC
which is zero frequency, Xc is infinite (total opposition), hence the rule that capacitors pass
AC but block DC.
For example a 1µF capacitor has a reactance of 3.2k for a 50Hz signal, but when the
frequency is higher at 10kHz its reactance is only 16 .
Note: the symbol Xc is used to distinguish capacitative reactance from inductive reactance
XL which is a property of inductors. The distinction is important because XL increases with
frequency (the opposite of Xc) and if both XL and Xc are present in a circuit the combined
reactance (X) is the difference between them. For further information please see the page on
Impedance.
Capacitors in Series and Parallel

Combined capacitance (C) of 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + ...
C C1 C2 C3
C = C1 + C2 + C3 + ...
Combined capacitance (C) of
capacitors connected in parallel:
Two or more capacitors are rarely deliberately connected in series in real circuits, but it can
be useful to connect capacitors in parallel to obtain a very large capacitance, for example to
smooth a power supply.
Note that these equations are the opposite way round for resistors in series and parallel.
Charging a capacitor
The capacitor (C) in the circuit diagram is being charged from
a supply voltage (Vs) with the current passing through a
resistor (R). The voltage across the capacitor (Vc) is initially
zero but it increases as the capacitor charges. The capacitor
is fully charged when Vc = Vs. The charging current (I) is
determined by the voltage across the resistor (Vs - Vc):
Charging current, I = (Vs - Vc) / R (note that Vc is

increasing)
Page 77 of 108
At first Vc = 0V so the initial current, Io = Vs / R
Vc increases as soon as charge (Q) starts to build up (Vc = Q/C), this reduces the voltage
across the resistor and therefore reduces the charging current. This means that the rate of
charging becomes progressively slower.
time constant is in seconds (s)

time constant = R × C where: R = resistance in ohms ( )
For example:
If R = 47k and C = 22µF, then the time constant, RC = 47k × 22µF = 1.0s.
If R = 33k and C = 1µF, then the time constant, RC = 33k × 1µF = 33ms.
A large time constant means the capacitor charges

Graphs showing the current and
slowly. Note that the time constant is a property of the
voltage for a capacitor charging
circuit containing the capacitance and resistance, it time constant = RC
is not a property of a capacitor alone.
The time constant is the time taken for the charging

(or discharging) current (I) to fall to 1/e of its initial
value (Io). 'e' is the base of natural logarithms, an
important number in mathematics (like ).
e = 2.71828 (to 6 significant figures) so we can
roughly say that the time constant is the time taken
for the current to fall to 1/3 of its initial value.
After each time constant the current falls by 1/e (about

1
/3). After 5 time Time Voltage Charge
constants (5RC) the
current has fallen to 0RC 0.0V 0%
less than 1% of its
initial value and we
can reasonably say 1RC 5.7V 63%
that the capacitor is
fully charged, but in
fact the capacitor 2RC 7.8V 86%
takes for ever to
charge fully!
3RC 8.6V 95%
The bottom graph 4RC 8.8V 98%

shows how the
voltage (V)
increases as the 5RC 8.9V 99%
capacitor charges.
At first the voltage
changes rapidly
Page 78 of 108
because the current is large; but as the current decreases, the charge builds up more slowly
and the voltage increases more slowly.
After 5 time constants (5RC) the capacitor is almost fully charged with its voltage almost
equal to the supply voltage. We can reasonably say that the capacitor is fully charged after
5RC, although really charging continues for ever (or until the circuit is changed).
Discharging a capacitor
The top graph shows how the current (I) decreases Graphs showing the current and
as the capacitor discharges. The initial current (Io) is voltage for a capacitor discharging
determined by the initial voltage across the capacitor time constant = RC
(Vo) and resistance (R):
Initial current, Io = Vo / R.
Note that the current graphs are the same shape for
both charging and discharging a capacitor. This type
of graph is an example of exponential decay.
Time Voltage Charge
0RC 9.0V 100%
Page 79 of 108
The bottom graph shows how the voltage (V) decreases as the 1RC 3.3V 37%
capacitor discharges.
At first the current is large because the voltage is large, so charge 2RC 1.2V 14%
is lost quickly and the voltage decreases rapidly. As charge is lost
the voltage is reduced making the current smaller so the rate of
discharging becomes progressively slower.
3RC 0.4V 5%
4RC 0.2V 2%
After 5 time constants (5RC) the voltage across the capacitor is

almost zero and we can reasonably say that the capacitor is fully 5RC 0.1V 1%
discharged, although really discharging continues for ever (or until
the circuit is changed).
Uses of Capacitors
Capacitors are used for several purposes:
• Timing - for example with a 555 timer IC controlling the charging and discharging.
• Smoothing - for example in a power supply.
• Coupling - for example between stages of an audio system and to connect a
loudspeaker.
• Filtering - for example in the tone control of an audio system.
• Tuning - for example in a radio system.
• Storing energy - for example in a camera flash circuit.
Capacitor Coupling (CR-coupling)

Sections of electronic circuits may be
linked with a capacitor because
capacitors pass AC (changing)
signals but block DC (steady)
signals. This is called capacitor
coupling or CR-coupling. It is used
between the stages of an audio
system to pass on the audio signal
(AC) without any steady voltage (DC)
which may be present, for example to
connect a loudspeaker. It is also used
for the 'AC' switch setting on an
oscilloscope.
Page 80 of 108
The precise behaviour of a capacitor coupling is determined by its time constant (RC). Note
that the resistance (R) may be inside the next circuit section rather than a separate resistor.
For successful capacitor coupling in an audio system the signals must pass through with
little or no distortion. This is achieved if the time constant (RC) is larger than the time period
(T) of the lowest frequency audio signals required (typically 20Hz, T = 50ms).
Output when RC >> T

When the time constant is much larger than the time period of the input signal the capacitor
does not have sufficient time to significantly charge or discharge, so the signal passes
through with negligible distortion.
Output when RC = T
When the time constant is equal to the time period you can see that the capacitor has time to
partly charge and discharge before the signal changes. As a result there is significant
distortion of the signal as it passes through the CR-coupling. Notice how the sudden changes
of the input signal pass straight through the capacitor to the output.
Output when RC << T

When the time constant is much smaller than the time period the capacitor has time to fully
charge or discharge after each sudden change in the input signal. Effectively only the sudden
changes pass through to the output and they appear as 'spikes', alternately positive and
negative. This can be useful in a system which must detect when a signal changes suddenly,
but must ignore slow changes.
Page 81 of 108
Impedance and Reactance
Impedance
Impedance (symbol Z) is a measure of the overall opposition of
a circuit to current, in other words: how much the circuit Impedance, Z = V
impedes the flow of current. It is like resistance, but it also
takes into account the effects of capacitance and inductance.
Impedance is measured in ohms, symbol .
Resistance, R = V
Impedance is more complex than resistance because the
effects of capacitance and inductance vary with the frequency
of the current passing through the circuit and this means
impedance varies with frequency! The effect of resistance is V = voltage in volts (V)
constant regardless of frequency. I = current in amps (A)
Z = impedance in ohms ( )
The term 'impedance' is often used (quite correctly) for simple R = resistance in ohms ( )
circuits which have no capacitance or inductance - for example
to refer to their 'input impedance' or 'output impedance'. This can seem confusing if you are
learning electronics, but for these simple circuits you can assume that it is just another word
for resistance.
Four electrical quantities determine the impedance (Z) of a circuit:

resistance (R), capacitance (C), inductance (L) and frequency (f).
Impedance can be split into two parts:
• Resistance R (the part which is constant regardless of frequency)

• Reactance X (the part which varies with frequency due to capacitance and inductance)
For further details please see the section on Reactance below.
The capacitance and inductance cause a phase

shift* between the current and voltage which means
that the resistance and reactance cannot be simply
added up to give impedance. Instead they must be
added as vectors with reactance at right angles to
resistance as shown in the diagram.
* Phase shift means that the current and voltage are out of
step with each other. Think of charging a capacitor. When the
voltage across the capacitor is zero, the current is at a maximum; when the capacitor has charged and the
voltage is at a maximum, the current is at a minimum. The charging and discharging occur continually with AC
and the current reaches its maximum shortly before the voltage reaches its maximum: so we say the current
Page 82 of 108
leads the voltage.
Reactance, X
Reactance (symbol X) is a measure of the opposition of capacitance and inductance to
current. Reactance varies with the frequency of the electrical signal. Reactance is measured
in ohms, symbol .
There are two types of reactance: capacitive reactance (Xc) and inductive reactance (XL).
The total reactance (X) is the difference between the two: X = XL - Xc
• Capacitive reactance, Xc
1 Xc = reactance in ohms ( )
Xc = 2 fC where: f = frequency in hertz (Hz)
•
Xc is large at low frequencies and small at high frequencies.
For steady DC which is zero frequency, Xc is infinite (total opposition),
hence the rule that capacitors pass AC but block DC.
• For example: a 1µF capacitor has a reactance of 3.2k for a 50Hz signal,
but when the frequency is higher at 10kHz its reactance is only 16 .
• Inductive reactance, XL
XL = 2 fL where: XL = reactance in ohms ( )

f = frequency in hertz (Hz)
L = inductance in henrys (H)
•
XL is small at low frequencies and large at high frequencies.
For steady DC (frequency zero), XL is zero (no opposition),
hence the rule that inductors pass DC but block high frequency AC.
• For example: a 1mH inductor has a reactance of only 0.3 for a 50Hz signal,
but when the frequency is higher at 10kHz its reactance is 63 .
Input Impedance ZIN

Input impedance (ZIN) is the impedance 'seen' by
anything connected to the input of a circuit or device
(such as an amplifer). It is the combined effect of all
the resistance, capacitance and inductance connected
to the input inside the circuit or device.
It is normal to use the term 'input impedance' even for

simple cases where there is only resistance and the
Page 83 of 108
term 'input resistance' could be used instead. In fact it is usually reasonable to assume that
an input impedance is just resistance providing the input signal has a low frequency (less
than 1kHz say).
The effects of capacitance and inductance vary with frequency, so if these are present the
input impedance will vary with frequency. The effects of capacitance and inductance are
generally most significant at high frequencies.
Usually input impedances should be high, at least ten times the output impedance of the
circuit (or component) supplying a signal to the input. This ensures that the input will not
'overload' the source of the signal and reduce the strength (voltage) of the signal by a
substantial amount.
Output Impedance ZOUT

The output of any circuit or device is equivalent to an
output impedance (ZOUT) in series with a perfect
voltage source (VSOURCE). This is called the equivalent
circuit and it repesents the combined effect of all the
voltage sources, resistance, capacitance and
inductance connected to the output inside the circuit
or device. Note that VSOURCE is usually not the same as
the supply voltage Vs.
It is normal to use the term 'output impedance' even

for simple cases where there is only resistance and
The equivalent circuit of any output
the term 'output resistance' could be used instead. In
fact it is usually reasonable to assume that an output
impedance is just resistance providing the output
signal has a low frequency (less than 1kHz say).
The effects of capacitance and inductance vary with frequency, so if these are present the
output impedance will vary with frequency. The effects of capacitance and inductance are
generally most significant at high frequencies.
Page 84 of 108
Usually output impedances should be low, less than a tenth of the load impedance
connected to the output. If an output impedance is too high it will be unable to supply a
sufficiently strong signal to the load because most of the signal's voltage will be 'lost' inside
the circuit driving current through the output impedance ZOUT. The load could be a single
component or the input impedance of another
circuit.
• Low output impedance, ZOUT << ZLOAD

Most of VSOURCE appears across the load,
very little voltage is 'lost' driving the
output current through the output
impedance. Usually this is the best
arrangement.
• Matched impedances, ZOUT = ZLOAD
Half of VSOURCE appears across the load,
the other half is 'lost' driving the output
current through the output impedance.
The load can be a single component or
This arrangement is useful in some the input impedance of another circuit
situations (such as an amplifier driving a
loudspeaker) because it delivers
maximum power to the load. Note that
an equal amount of power is wasted driving the output current through ZOUT, an
efficiency of 50%.
• High output impedance, ZOUT >> ZLOAD
Only a small portion of appears across the load, most is 'lost' driving the output current
through the output impedance. This arrangement is unsatisfactory.
Page 85 of 108
The output resistance of a voltage divider
Voltage dividers are widely used in electronics, for
example to connect an input transducer such as an LDR
to a circuit input.
For successful use the output impedance of the voltage

divider should be much smaller than the input impedance
of the circuit it is connected to. Ideally the output
impedance should be less than a tenth of the input
impedance.
In the equivalent circuit of a voltage divider the output

Voltage divider
impedance is just a resistance and the term 'output
resistance' could be used. ROUT is equal to the two
resistances (R1 and R2) connected in parallel:
R1 × R2
Output impedance, ROUT =
R1 + R2
The voltage source VSOURCE in the equivalent circuit is the

value of the output voltage Vo when there is nothing
connected to the output (and therefore no output current).
It is sometimes called the 'open circuit' voltage.
Equivalent circuit of a voltage divider

Vs × R2
Voltage source, VSOURCE =
R1 + R2
In most voltage dividers one of the resistors will be an

input transducer such as an LDR. The transducer's
resistance varies and this will make both VSOURCE and ROUT
vary too. To check that ROUT is sufficiently low you should
work out its highest value which will occur when the
transducer has its maximum resistance (this applies
wherever the transducer is connected in the voltage
divider).
For example: If R1 = 10k and R2 is an LDR with Voltage divider with an LDR
maximum resistance 1M , ROUT = 10k × 1M / (10k + 1M)
= 9.9k (say 10k ). This means it should be connected
to a load or input resistance of at least 100k .
Page 86 of 108
555 and 556 Timer Circuits
Introduction
The 8-pin 555 timer must be one of the most useful
chips ever made and it is used in many projects. With
just a few external components it can be used to build
many circuits, not all of them involve timing!
A popular version is the NE555 and this is suitable in

most cases where a '555 timer' is specified. The 556
is a dual version of the 555 housed in a 14-pin
package, the two timers (A and B) share the same
power supply pins. The circuit diagrams on this page Example circuit symbol (above)
show a 555, but they could all be adapted to use one
half of a 556. Actual pin arrangements (below)
Low power versions of the 555 are made, such as the

ICM7555, but these should only be used when
specified (to increase battery life) because their
maximum output current of about 20mA (with a 9V
supply) is too low for many standard 555 circuits. The
ICM7555 has the same pin arrangement as a
standard 555.
The circuit symbol for a 555 (and 556) is a box with

the pins arranged to suit the circuit diagram: for
example 555 pin 8 at the top for the +Vs supply, 555
pin 3 output on the right. Usually just the pin numbers
are used and they are not labelled with their function.
The 555 and 556 can be used with a supply voltage

(Vs) in the range 4.5 to 15V (18V absolute maximum).
Standard 555 and 556 chips create a significant

'glitch' on the supply when their output changes state.
This is rarely a problem in simple circuits with no other There is more information about
555 timers and their circuits on the
ICs, but in more complex circuits a smoothing Electronics in Meccano website.
capacitor (eg 100µF) should be connected across the
+Vs and 0V supply near the 555 or 556.
The input and output pin functions are described briefly below and there are fuller
explanations covering the various circuits:
• Astable - producing a square wave

• Monostable - producing a single pulse when triggered
• Bistable - a simple memory which can be set and reset
• Buffer - an inverting buffer (Schmitt trigger)
Page 87 of 108
Datasheets are available from:
• DatasheetArchive.com
• Datasheets.org.uk
• DatasheetCatalog.com
Inputs of 555/556
Trigger input: when < 1/3 Vs ('active low') this makes the
output high (+Vs). It monitors the discharging of the timing
capacitor in an astable circuit. It has a high input impedance
> 2M .
Threshold input: when > 2/3 Vs ('active high') this makes the
output low (0V)*. It monitors the charging of the timing
capacitor in astable and monostable circuits. It has a high input
impedance > 10M .
* providing the trigger input is > 1/3 Vs, otherwise the trigger input will
override the threshold input and hold the output high (+Vs).
Reset input: when less than about 0.7V ('active low') this makes the output low (0V),
overriding other inputs. When not required it should be connected to +Vs. It has an input
impedance of about 10k .
Control input: this can be used to adjust the threshold voltage which is set internally to be
2
/3 Vs. Usually this function is not required and the control input is connected to 0V with a
0.01µF capacitor to eliminate electrical noise. It can be left unconnected if noise is not a
problem.
The discharge pin is not an input, but it is listed here for convenience. It is connected to 0V
when the timer output is low and is used to discharge the timing capacitor in astable and
monostable circuits.
Page 88 of 108
Output of 555/556
The output of a standard 555 or 556 can sink and source up to
200mA. This is more than most chips and it is sufficient to supply
many output transducers directly, including LEDs (with a resistor
in series), low current lamps, piezo transducers, loudspeakers
(with a capacitor in series), relay coils (with diode protection) and
some motors (with diode protection). The output voltage does not
quite reach 0V and +Vs, especially if a large current is flowing.
To switch larger currents you can connect a transistor.
The ability to both sink and source current means that two devices
can be connected to the output so that one is on when the output is low and the other is on
when the output is high. The top diagram shows two LEDs connected in this way. This
arrangement is used in the Level Crossing project to make the red LEDs flash alternately.
Loudspeakers
A loudspeaker (minimum resistance 64 ) may be connected to
the output of a 555 or 556 astable circuit but a capacitor (about
100µF) must be connected in series. The output is equivalent to a
steady DC of about ½Vs combined with a square wave AC (audio)
signal. The capacitor blocks the DC, but allows the AC to pass as
explained in capacitor coupling.
Piezo transducers may be connected directly to the output and do

not require a capacitor in series.
Relay coils and other inductive loads

Like all ICs, the 555 and 556 must be protected from the brief high
voltage 'spike' produced when an inductive load such as a relay coil
is switched off. The standard protection diode must be connected
'backwards' across the the relay coil as shown in the diagram.
However, the 555 and 556 require an extra diode connected in

series with the coil to ensure that a small 'glitch' cannot be fed back
into the IC. Without this extra diode monostable circuits may re-
trigger themselves as the coil is switched off! The coil current
passes through the extra diode so it must be a 1N4001 or similar
rectifier diode capable of passing the current, a signal diode such as
a 1N4148 is usually not suitable.
Page 89 of 108
555/556 Astable
An astable circuit produces a 'square wave', this is
a digital waveform with sharp transitions between
low (0V) and high (+Vs). Note that the durations of
the low and high states may be different. The circuit
555 astable output, a square wave
is called an astable because it is not stable in any (Tm and Ts may be different)
state: the output is continually changing between
'low' and 'high'.
The time period (T) of the square wave is the time

for one complete cycle, but it is usually better to
consider frequency (f) which is the number of cycles
per second.
555 astable circuit
1.4
T = 0.7 × (R1 + 2R2) × C1 and f =
(R1 + 2R2) × C1
T = time period in seconds (s)

f = frequency in hertz (Hz)
R1 = resistance in ohms ( )
C1 = capacitance in farads (F)
The time period can be split into two parts: T = Tm + Ts

Mark time (output high): Tm = 0.7 × (R1 + R2) × C1
Space time (output low): Ts = 0.7 × R2 × C1
Many circuits require Tm and Ts to be almost equal; this is achieved if R2 is much larger than
R1.
For a standard astable circuit Tm cannot be less than Ts, but this is not too restricting
because the output can both sink and source current. For example an LED can be made to
flash briefly with long gaps by connecting it (with its resistor) between +Vs and the output.
This way the LED is on during Ts, so brief flashes are achieved with R1 larger than R2,
making Ts short and Tm long. If Tm must be less than Ts a diode can be added to the circuit
as explained under duty cycle below.
Page 90 of 108
Choosing R1, R2 and C1
R1 and R2 should be in the range 1k to 555 astable frequencies
1M . It is best to choose C1 first because
capacitors are available in just a few values. R2 = 10k R2 = 100k R2 = 1M
C1
R1 = 1k R1 = 10k R1 = 100k
• Choose C1 to suit the frequency 0.001µF 68kHz 6.8kHz 680Hz
range you require (use the table as a 0.01µF 6.8kHz 680Hz 68Hz
guide).
• Choose R2 to give the frequency (f) 0.1µF 680Hz 68Hz 6.8Hz
you require. Assume that R1 is much 1µF 68Hz 6.8Hz 0.68Hz
smaller than R2 (so that Tm and Ts 0.68Hz 0.068Hz
are almost equal), then you can use: 10µF 6.8Hz
(41 per min.) (4 per min.)
0.7
R2 =
f × C1
• Choose R1 to be about a tenth of R2 (1k min.) unless you want the mark time Tm to
be significantly longer than the space time Ts.
• If you wish to use a variable resistor it is best to make it R2.
• If R1 is variable it must have a fixed resistor of at least 1k in series
(this is not required for R2 if it is variable).
Astable operation
With the output high (+Vs) the
capacitor C1 is charged by
current flowing through R1 and
R2. The threshold and trigger
inputs monitor the capacitor
voltage and when it reaches
2
/3Vs (threshold voltage) the
output becomes low and the
discharge pin is connected to
0V.
The capacitor now discharges with current flowing through R2 into the discharge pin. When
the voltage falls to 1/3Vs (trigger voltage) the output becomes high again and the discharge
pin is disconnected, allowing the capacitor to start charging again.
This cycle repeats continuously unless the reset input is connected to 0V which forces the
output low while reset is 0V.
An astable can be used to provide the clock signal for circuits such as counters.
A low frequency astable (< 10Hz) can be used to flash an LED on and off, higher frequency
flashes are too fast to be seen clearly. Driving a loudspeaker or piezo transducer with a low
frequency of less than 20Hz will produce a series of 'clicks' (one for each low/high transition)
and this can be used to make a simple metronome.
Page 91 of 108
An audio frequency astable (20Hz to 20kHz) can be used to produce a sound from a
loudspeaker or piezo transducer. The sound is suitable for buzzes and beeps. The natural
(resonant) frequency of most piezo transducers is about 3kHz and this will make them
produce a particularly loud sound.
Duty cycle
The duty cycle of an astable circuit is the proportion of the
complete cycle for which the output is high (the mark time).
It is usually given as a percentage.
For a standard 555/556 astable circuit the mark time (Tm)

must be greater than the space time (Ts), so the duty cycle
must be at least 50%:
Tm R1 + R2
Duty cycle = =
Tm + Ts R1 + 2R2
To achieve a duty cycle of less than 50% a

diode can be added in parallel with R2 as shown in
the diagram. This bypasses R2 during the charging
(mark) part of the cycle so that Tm depends only
on R1 and C1:
Tm = 0.7 × R1 × C1 (ignoring 0.7V across diode)

Ts = 0.7 × R2 × C1 (unchanged)
Tm R1
Duty cycle with diode = =
Tm + Ts R1 + R2
555 astable circuit with diode across R2
Use a signal diode such as 1N4148.
Page 92 of 108
555/556 Monostable
A monostable circuit produces a single output
pulse when triggered. It is called a monostable
because it is stable in just one state: 'output
low'. The 'output high' state is temporary. 555 monostable output, a single pulse
The duration of the pulse is called the time

period (T) and this is determined by resistor R1
and capacitor C1:
time period, T = 1.1 × R1 × C1
T = time period in seconds (s)

C1 = capacitance in farads (F)
The maximum reliable time period is about 10
minutes.
555 monostable circuit with manual trigger
2
Why 1.1? The capacitor charges to /3 = 67% so it is a bit
longer than the time constant (R1 × C1) which is the time taken to charge to 63%.
• Choose C1 first (there are relatively few values available).

• Choose R1 to give the time period you need. R1 should be in the range 1k to 1M ,
so use a fixed resistor of at least 1k in series if R1 is variable.
• Beware that electrolytic capacitor values are not accurate, errors of at least 20% are
common.
• Beware that electrolytic capacitors leak charge which substantially increases the time
period if you are using a high value resistor - use the formula as only a very rough
guide!
For example the Timer Project should have a maximum time period of 266s (about 4½ minutes), but
many electrolytic capacitors extend this to about 10 minutes!
Monostable operation
The timing period is triggered
(started) when the trigger input
(555 pin 2) is less than 1/3 Vs, this
makes the output high (+Vs) and
the capacitor C1 starts to charge
through resistor R1. Once the
time period has started further
trigger pulses are ignored.
The threshold input (555 pin 6)

monitors the voltage across C1
and when this reaches 2/3 Vs the
time period is over and the
Page 93 of 108
output becomes low. At the same time discharge (555 pin 7) is connected to 0V,
discharging the capacitor ready for the next trigger.
The reset input (555 pin 4) overrides all other inputs and the timing may be cancelled at any
time by connecting reset to 0V, this instantly makes the output low and discharges the
capacitor. If the reset function is not required the reset pin should be connected to +Vs.
Power-on reset or trigger

It may be useful to ensure that a monostable circuit is reset or triggered
automatically when the power supply is connected or switched on. This is
achieved by using a capacitor instead of (or in addition to) a push switch
as shown in the diagram.
The capacitor takes a short time to charge, briefly holding the input close
Power-on reset or
to 0V when the circuit is switched on. A switch may be connected in trigger circuit
parallel with the capacitor if manual operation is also required.
This arrangement is used for the trigger in the Timer Project.
Edge-triggering
If the trigger input is still less than 1/3 Vs at the end of the time period
the output will remain high until the trigger is greater than 1/3 Vs. This
situation can occur if the input signal is from an on-off switch or
sensor.
The monostable can be made edge triggered, responding only to

changes of an input signal, by connecting the trigger signal through
a capacitor to the trigger input. The capacitor passes sudden
changes (AC) but blocks a constant (DC) signal. For further
edge-triggering circuit
information please see the page on capacitance. The circuit is
'negative edge triggered' because it responds to a sudden fall in the input signal.
The resistor between the trigger (555 pin 2) and +Vs ensures that the trigger is normally high
(+Vs).
Page 94 of 108
555/556 Bistable (flip-flop) - a memory
circuit
The circuit is called a bistable because it is
stable in two states: output high and output low.
It is also known as a 'flip-flop'.
It has two inputs:
• Trigger (555 pin 2) makes the output

high.
Trigger is 'active low', it functions when
< 1/3 Vs.
• Reset (555 pin 4) makes the output low. 555 bistable circuit
Reset is 'active low', it resets when
< 0.7V.
The power-on reset, power-on trigger and edge-triggering circuits can all be used as
described above for the monostable.
555/556 Inverting Buffer (Schmitt trigger) or NOT

gate
The buffer circuit's input has a very high impedance
(about 1M ) so it requires only a few µA, but the output
can sink or source up to 200mA. This enables a high
impedance signal source (such as an LDR) to switch a
low impedance output transducer (such as a lamp).
It is an inverting buffer or NOT gate because the output

logic state (low/high) is the inverse of the input state:
• Input low (< 1/3 Vs) makes output high, +Vs

• Input high (> 2/3 Vs) makes output low, 0V 555 inverting buffer circuit
(a NOT gate)
When the input voltage is between 1/3 and 2/3 Vs the
output remains in its present state. This intermediate input
region is a deadspace where there is no response, a
property called hysteresis, it is like backlash in a
mechanical linkage. This type of circuit is called a
Schmitt trigger. NOT gate symbol
If high sensitivity is required the hysteresis is a problem,

but in many circuits it is a helpful property. It gives the input a high immunity to noise
because once the circuit output has switched high or low the input must change back by at
least 1/3 Vs to make the output switch back.
Page 95 of 108
Counting Circuits
Binary numbers
Electronic circuits count in binary. This is the simplest possible
Logic states
counting system because it uses just two digits, 0 and 1, exactly like
logic signals where 0 represents false and 1 represents true. The True False
terms low and high are also used for 0 and 1 respectively as shown 1 0
in the table.
High Low
Counting one, two, three, four, five in binary: 1, 10, 11, 100, 101. +Vs 0V
Binary numbers rapidly become very long as the count increases On Off
and this makes them difficult for us to read at a glance. Fortunately it
is rarely necessary to read more than 4 binary digits at a time in
counting circuits. Seen on a T-shirt:
In a binary number each digit represents a multiple of two (1, 2, 4, 8, There are 10 kinds of
16 etc), in the same way that each digit in decimal represents a people - those who
multiple of ten (1, 10, 100, 1000 etc). understand binary,
For example 10110110 in binary equals 182 in decimal: and those who don't.
Digit value: 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

Binary number: 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
Decimal value: 128 + 0 + 32 + 16 + 0 + 4 + 2 + 0 = 182
Bits, bytes and nibbles

Each binary digit is called a bit, so 10110110 is an 8-bit number.
A block of 8 bits is called a byte and it can hold a maximum number of 11111111 = 255 in
decimal. Computers and PIC microcontrollers work with blocks of 8 bits. Two (or more) bytes
make a word, for example PICs work with a 16-bit word (two bytes) which can hold a
maximum number of 65535.
A block of 4 bits is called a nibble (half a byte!) and it can hold a maximum number of 1111
= 15 in decimal. Many counting circuits work with blocks of 4 bits because this number of bits
is required to count up to 9 in decimal. (The maximum number with 3 bits is only 7).
Hexadecimal (base 16)

Hexadecimal (often just called 'hex') is base 16 counting with 16 digits. It starts with the
decimal digits 0-9, then continues with letters A (10), B (11), C (12), D (13), E (14) and F
(15). Each hexadecimal digit is equivalent to 4 binary digits, making conversion between the
two systems relatively easy. You may find hexadecimal used with PICs and computer
systems but it is not generally used in simple counting circuits.
Example: 10110110 binary = B6 hexadecimal = 182 decimal.
Page 96 of 108
4-bit numbers
The table on the right shows the 4-bit numbers and their decimal Binary Decimal Hex
values. DCBA base 16
0000 0 0
The labels A,B,C,D are widely used in electronics to represent the 0001 1 1
four bits: 0010 2 2
0011 3 3
• A = 1, the 'least significant bit' (LSB) 0100 4 4
• B=2 0101 5 5
• C=4 0110 6 6
• D = 8, the 'most significant bit' (MSB) 0111 7 7
1000 8 8
Binary Coded Decimal, BCD 1001 9 9
Binary Coded Decimal, BCD, is a special version of 4-bit binary 1 0 1 0 10 A
where the count resets to zero (0000) after the ninth count (1001). It 1 0 1 1 11 B
is used by decade counters and is easily converted to display the 1 1 0 0 12 C
decimal digits 0-9 on a 7-segment display. 1101 13 D
1110 14 E
Several decade counters using BCD can be linked together to 1 1 1 1 15 F
separately count the decimal ones, tens, hundreds, and so on. This is much easier than
attempting to convert large binary numbers (such as 10110110) to display their decimal
value.
Do not confuse BCD which stands for Binary Coded Decimal with the labels A,B,C,D used to
represent the four binary digits; it is an unfortunate coincidence that the letters BCD occur in both!
Page 97 of 108
Counters
All counters require a 'square wave' clock signal to
make them count. This is a digital waveform with sharp A square wave clock signal
transitions between low (0V) and high (+Vs), such as
the output from a 555 astable circuit.
The bouncing output from a switch
Most switches bounce when the contacts close giving a
rapid series of pulses. Connecting a switch directly to a
clock input will usually give several counts when the
switch is operated once! One way to 'debounce' the
switch is to make it trigger a 555 monostable circuit with
a short time period (such as 0.1s) and use the
monostable output to drive the clock input.
The animated block diagram shows a clock signal

driving a 4-bit (0-15) counter with LEDs connected to A 4-bit counter and clock input
show the state of the clock and counter outputs QA-QD In this example counting advances on
(Q indicates an output). the falling-edge of the clock signal
LED on = 1 LED off = 0
The LED on the first output QA flashes at half the frequency of the clock LED. In fact the
frequency of each stage of the counter is half the frequency of the previous stage. You can
see this pattern too in the table above showing the 4-bit numbers.
Notice how output QA changes state every time the clock input changes from high to low
(that is when the clock LED turns off), this is called the falling-edge. If you watch the
counting closely you can see that QB changes on the falling-edge of QA, QC on the falling-
edge of QB and so on.
You may be surprised to see the diagram drawn with the input on the right and signals flowing from right to left,
the opposite way to the usual convention in electronics! Drawing counter circuits like this means that the outputs
are in the correct binary order for us to read easily and I think this is more helpful than rigidly sticking to the
usual 'left to right' convention.
Ripple and synchronous counters

There are two main types of counter: ripple and
synchronous. In simple circuits their behaviour
appears almost identical, but their internal structure
is very different.
A ripple counter contains a chain of flip-flops with

the output of each one feeding the input of the next. The operation of a flip-flop
A flip-flop output changes state every time the input Notice how the output frequency
changes from high to low (on the falling-edge). This is half the input frequency
simple arrangement works well, but there is a slight
delay as the effect of the clock 'ripples' through the chain of flip-flops.
Page 98 of 108
In most circuits the ripple delay is not a problem because it is far too short to be seen on a
display. However, a logic system connected to ripple counter outputs will briefly see false
counts which may produce 'glitches' in the logic system and may disrupt its operation. For
example a ripple counter changing from 0111 (7) to 1000 (8) will very briefly show 0110,
0100 and 0000 before 1000!
A synchronous counter has a more complex internal structure to ensure that all its outputs
change precisely together on each clock pulse, avoiding the brief false counts which occur
with ripple counters.
Rising-edge and falling-edge clock inputs

Counting occurs when the clock input changes state.
• Most synchronous counters count on the

rising-edge which is the low to high transition
of the clock signal.
• Most ripple counters count on the falling-
edge which is the high to low transition of the
clock signal.
It may seem odd that ripple counters use the falling-edge, but in fact this makes it easy to link counters because
the most significant bit (MSB) of one counter can drive the clock input of the next. This works because the next
bit must change state when the previous bit changes from high to low - the point at which a carry must occur to
the next bit. Synchronous counters usually have carry out and carry in pins for linking counters without
introducing any ripple delays.
Resetting a counter
Counters can be reset to zero before their maximum
count by connecting one (or more) of their outputs to
their reset input, using an AND gate to combine outputs
if necessary.
If the reset input is 'active-low' a NOT or NAND gate

will be required to produce a low output at the desired
count. If you see a line drawn above reset it means it is
active low, for example: (say 'reset-bar').
The reset function normally occurs immediately and

you should reset on the next count above the maximum
you require. For example to count 0-5 (0000-0101) you
should reset on 6 (0110).
Some synchronous counters have a synchronous

reset which occurs on the next clock pulse rather than
immediately. This is important because you must reset
on the maximum count you require. For example to
count 0-5 (0000-0101), reset on 5 (0101).
Page 99 of 108
Presetting
Some counters can be preset by presenting a number to their inputs A-D and activating a
preset input to load the number into the counter. By making inputs A-D all low you can also
use this to reset the counter to zero.
Frequency division
Counters can be used to reduce the frequency of an input (clock) signal. Each stage of a
counter halves the frequency, so for a 4-bit (0-15) counter QA is 1/2, QB is 1/4, QC is 1/8 and
QD is 1/16 of the clock frequency. Division by numbers that are not powers of 2 is possible by
resetting counters.
Frequency division is one of the main purposes of counters with more than 4 bits and their
outputs are usually labelled Q1, Q2 and so on. Qn is the nth stage of the counter,
representing 2n. For example Q4 is 24 = 16 (1/16 of clock frequency) and Q12 is 212 = 4096
(1/4096 of clock frequency).
Decoders
The most popular type is a 1-of-10 decoder which contains
a network of logic gates to make one of its ten outputs Q0-
9 become high (or low) in response to the BCD (binary
coded decimal) inputs A-D. For example an input of binary
0101 (=5) will activate output Q5.
Decoders can be used for a simple counting display and for

switching LEDs in sequences. The outputs must never be
directly connected together, but diodes can be used to
combine them as shown in the diagram.
For example using diodes to combine the 2nd (Q1) and 4th
(Q3) outputs will make an LED flash twice followed by a
longer gap. The top diagram shows this for a decoder
where the outputs become low when activated (such as the 7442), and the bottom diagram
for a decoder where the outputs become high when activated (such as the 4028).
Page 100 of 108

7-segment display drivers
The inputs A-D of a display driver are connected to the BCD
(binary coded decimal) outputs QA-D from a decade counter. A
network of logic gates inside the display driver makes its outputs
a-g become high or low as appropriate to light the required
segments a-g of a 7-segment display. A resistor is required in
series with each segment to protect the LEDs, 330 is a suitable
value for many displays with a 4.5V to 6V supply. Beware that
these resistors are sometimes omitted from circuit diagrams!
There are two types of 7-segment displays:
• Common Anode (CA or SA) with all the LED anodes

connected together. These need a display driver with
outputs which become low to light each segment, for
example the 7447. Connect the common anode to +Vs.
• Common Cathode (CC or SC) with all the cathodes
connected together. These need a display driver with Decade counter with display
outputs which become high to light each segment, for driver and 7-segment display
example the 4511. Connect the common cathode to 0V.
The common anode/cathode is often available on 2 pins. Displays also have a decimal point
(DP) but this is not controlled by the display driver. The segments of larger displays have two
LEDs in series. For display connections please see your supplier's catalogue or
manufacturer's datasheet.
Multiplexing
If there are many 7-segment display digits multiplexing is usually used. This is a system of
switching so that of all the decade counters share a single display driver which is connected
to all of the displays. The output of each counter is connected in turn to the inputs of the
display driver and at the same time the common anode/cathode of the corresponding 7-
segment display is connected so that only one display lights at a time.The switching is done
very rapidly (typically 400 - 1000Hz) and the segment current is larger than normal so the
display appears continuous and of normal brightness. Multiplexing requires ICs to do the
switching, but the complete circuit has fewer ICs than having one display driver for each
display.
Linking Counters
Counters may be linked together in a chain to count larger numbers. It may seem tempting to
use a 12-bit or 14-bit counter, but it is not practical to convert their large binary numbers to
decimal. You should use a chain of decade (0-9) counters which use BCD (binary coded
decimal) to make the conversion to decimal very easy: the first counts the units, the second
counts the tens, the third the hundreds and so on.
Some dual counter ICs are available with two separate counters on the same IC, the two
counters must be linked externally if required (there is no internal link).
Page 101 of 108

The way that counters are linked depends on the nature of the counter. The diagrams below
show the general arrangements for standard ripple and synchronous counters but it is
important to read the detailed information for particular counters, consulting a datasheet if
necessary.
Linking ripple counters

The diagram below shows how to link standard ripple counters. Notice how the highest
output QD of each counter drives the clock (CK) input of the next counter. This works
because ripple counters have clock inputs that are 'active-low' which means that the count
advances as the clock input becomes low, on the falling-edge.
Remember that with all ripple counters there will be a slight delay before the later outputs
respond to the clock signal, especially with a long counter chain. This is not a problem in
simple circuits driving displays, but it may cause glitches in logic systems connected to the
counter outputs.
Linking synchronous counters

The diagram below shows how to link standard synchronous counters. Notice how all the
clock (CK) inputs are linked, and carry out (CO) is used to feed the carry in (CI) of the next
counter. This ensures that the entire counter chain is synchronous, with every output
changing at the same time. Carry in (CI) of the first counter should be made low or high to
suit the particular counter IC being used.
Page 102 of 108

Quantities and Units in Electronics
Usual Unit
Quantities Quantity Symbol Unit Symbol
The table shows electrical quantities which are used Voltage V volt V
in electronics.
Current I amp* A
The relationship between quantities can be written Charge Q coulomb C
using words or symbols (letters), but symbols are Resistance R ohm
normally used because they are much shorter; for
example V is used for voltage, I for current and R Capacitance C farad F
for resistance: Inductance L henry H
Reactance X ohm
As a word equation:
Impedance Z ohm
voltage = current × resistance Power P watt W
Energy E joule J
The same equation using symbols: V = I × R
Time t second s
To prevent confusion we normally use the same Frequency f hertz Hz
symbol (letter) for each quantity and these symbols * strictly the unit is ampere, but this is
are shown in the second column of the table. almost always shortened to amp.
Please click on the quantities in the table for further information.
Prefix
Units Prefix Symbol Value
The first table shows the unit (and unit symbol) milli m 10-3 = 0.001
which is used to measure each quantity. For
example: Charge is measured in coulombs and micro µ 10-6 = 0.000 001
the symbol for a coulomb is C. nano n 10-9 = 0.000 000 001
pico p 10-12 = 0.000 000 000 001
Some of the units have a convenient size for
electronics, but most are either too large or too kilo k 103 = 1000
small to be used directly so they are used with mega M 106 = 1000 000
the prefixes shown in the second table. The giga G 109 = 1000 000 000
prefixes make the unit larger or smaller by the
value shown. tera T 1012 = 1000 000 000 000
Some examples:
25 mA = 25 × 10-3 A = 25 × 0.001 A = 0.025 A
47µF = 47 × 10-6 F = 47 × 0.000 001 F = 0.000 047 F
270k = 270 × 103 = 270 × 1000 = 270 000
Page 103 of 108
Why not change the units to be better sizes?
It might seem a good idea to make the farad (F) much smaller to avoid having to use µF, nF
and pF, but if we did this most of the equations in electronics would have to have factors of
1000000 or more included as well as the quantities. Overall it is much better to have the units
with their present sizes which are defined logically from the equations.
In fact if you use an equation frequently you can use special sets of prefixed units which are
more convenient...
For example: Ohm's Law, V = I × R

the standard units are volt (V), amp (A) and ohm ( ),
but you could use volt (V), milliamp (mA) and kilo-ohm (k ) if you prefer.
Take care though, you must never mix sets of units: using V, A and k in Ohm's Law would give you wrong
values.
Page 104 of 108

Books about Electronics
Books for Studying Electronics
The table below shows a selection of books about electronics which may be of interest if you
are studying electronics as part of a course at school, or if you have been building projects
and wish to learn how the circuits work. Some of the project books explain the operation of
their circuits and this can be a good way to learn how they work.
Please note that some books are now out of print but you may still be able to obtain them
from secondhand bookshops and suppliers such as Amazon.
Textbooks
Books for beginners, GCSE courses and AS/A level courses.
Book Title and
ISBN and Publisher Comments
Author
Basic Skills: ISBN: 0 7195 4449 1
Electronics Publisher: This is a suitable textbook for a beginner.
by Tom Duncan John Murray
Starting
ISBN: 0 7506 4435 4 The practical approach of this book makes it
Electronics
Publisher: Newnes suitable for beginners.
by Keith Brindley
Teach Yourself ISBN: 0 3404 2230 0
A self-study book covering the essentials of
Electronics Publisher:
electronics.
by Malcolm Plant Hodder & Stoughton
Electronics - A A suitable textbook for GCSE, Intermediate GNVQ
ISBN: 0 7506 5545 3
First Course and City & Guilds courses. Practical work is
Publisher: Newnes
by Owen Bishop introduced almost immediately.
Electronics for
ISBN: 0 7195 7413 7
Today and A suitable textbook for GCSE and AS/A level. No
Publisher:
Tomorrow projects or practical exercises.
John Murray
by Tom Duncan
Success in ISBN: 0 7195 7205 3
A self-study textbook for GCSE and AS/A level. No
Electronics Publisher:
projects or practical exercises.
by Tom Duncan John Murray
Electronics
ISBN: 0 17 448303 1
Explained An AS/A level textbook with many practical
Publisher:
by M W exercises.
Nelson Thornes
Brimicombe
An AS/A level textbook with many practical
Analogue
ISBN: 0 3407 1925 7 investigations to support its discovery-based
Electronics
Publisher: Newnes approach. Transistors, operational amplifiers,
by John C Morris
thyristors and triacs are covered.
Page 105 of 108

An AS/A level textbook with many practical
Digital
ISBN: 0 3405 5638 2 investigations to support its discovery-based
Electronics
Publisher: Newnes approach. The 555 timer, logic gates, counters,
by John C Morris
shift registers and displays are covered.
Reference Books
Learn how to use the integrated circuits covered by these books.
ISBN: 0 85934 047 3 The 555 timer IC is used in many projects and this
IC 555 Projects
Publisher: book thoroughly explains its operation and use.
by E Parr
Bernard Babani There are many circuit diagrams of projects.
This book explains how to use the 4000 series
A Beginners
ISBN: 0 85934 333 2 CMOS logic gates, counters, display drivers and
Guide to CMOS
Publisher: so on. They are ideal for battery powered projects
Digital ICs
Bernard Babani because they use little power and can tolerate a
by R Penfold
wide range of supply voltages.
A Beginners
ISBN: 0 85934 332 4
Guide to TTL This book explains how to use the 74 series TTL
Publisher:
Digital ICs logic gates, counters, display drivers and so on.
Bernard Babani
by R Penfold
Operational amplifiers are very versatile devices
How to Use Op- ISBN: 0 85934 063 5
and this book thoroughly explains their operation
Amps Publisher:
and use, with many circuit designs for the more
by E Parr Bernard Babani
experienced constructor.
Master IC Technical information on many popular integrated
Cookbook ISBN: 0 8306 6550 1 circuits (ICs), including the 74 series and 4000
by Clayton out of print series logic ICs. The book concentrates on the ICs
Hallmark & try Amazon themselves rather than the circuits in which they
Delton Horn can be used.
Practical Books
Learn by building projects on breadboard, no soldering is required.
Book Title and
Author
Adventures ISBN: 0 7195 3554 9 An introduction to electronics by building transistor
with Electronics Publisher: circuits on S-Dec, a breadboard system which
by Tom Duncan John Murray does not require soldering.
Adventures Learn about electronics by building integrated
ISBN: 0 7195 3671 5
with Micro- circuit ('chip') projects on standard breadboard (no
Publisher:
Electronics soldering required). This is more advanced than
John Murray
by Tom Duncan Adventures with Electronics (above).
Learn about digital electronics by building projects
Adventures
ISBN: 0 7195 3875 0 such as traffic lights and a binary 4-bit adder using
with Digital
out of print 4000 series ICs on standard breadboard (no
Electronics
try Amazon soldering required). This is the most advanced of
by Tom Duncan
the three 'Adventures with...' books.
Rapid Electronics stock a wide range of electronics books including some shown in the table
above.
Page 106 of 108

Books for Electronics Projects
All these books are a good source of circuit diagrams for projects but in most cases you will
need to design your own stripboard or PCB layout to build the project. If you plan to build
projects from books or magazines that are more than about 10 years old you should check
that all the components required are still available.
If you want to try designing your own circuits you will need to have a good understanding of
electronics. It is best to start by adapting a circuit given in a book. The books for studying
electronics include many useful circuit diagrams.
Project Books
Many of these books just give circuit diagrams. Please be aware that you will need to design
your own stripboard or PCB layout to build the project.
Book Title and
Author
ISBN: 0 85934 047 3 The 555 timer IC is used in many projects and
IC 555 Projects
Publisher: this book thoroughly explains its operation and
by E Parr
Bernard Babani use. There are many circuit diagrams of projects.
Operational amplifiers are very versatile devices
How to Use Op- ISBN: 0 85934 063 5
and this book thoroughly explains their operation
Amps Publisher:
and use, with many circuit designs for the more
by E Parr Bernard Babani
experienced constructor.
Circuit Source ISBN: 0 85934 321 9
Circuit diagrams to help the experienced
Book 1 Publisher:
constructor design their own projects.
by R Penfold Bernard Babani
Circuit Source ISBN: 0 85934 322 7
Circuit diagrams to help the experienced
Book 2 Publisher:
constructor design their own projects.
by R Penfold Bernard Babani
Practical
ISBN: 0 85934 384 7
Electronic Model The projects include stripboard layouts, so this is
Publisher:
Railway Projects a good book for the beginner.
Bernard Babani
by R Penfold
How to Design
ISBN: 0 85934 096 1
and Make Your This book is ideal for the home constructor and
Publisher:
Own PCBs contains many practical tips.
Bernard Babani
by R Penfold
There are many other electronics project books published by Bernard Babani and Newnes.
Rapid Electronics stock a wide range of electronics books including some shown in the table
above.
Page 107 of 108

The End
This book is compiled by:
Joe KOTRO
InfoSys and Telecommunication Section
Lihir Gold Limited
P.O Box 789
Port Moresby, N.C.D
Papua New Guinea
Page 108 of 108

Studying Electronics

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Studying Electronics

This is the section to browse for the theoretical side of electronics.

Remember to check the Frequently Asked Questions too!

Audio Amplifier System

• Microphone - a transducer which converts sound to voltage.

Radio Receiver System

• Aerial - picks up radio signals from many stations.

Regulated Power Supply System

• Transformer - steps down 230V AC mains to low voltage AC.

Feedback Control System

• Sensor - a transducer which converts the state of the controlled quantity to an

Circuit diagrams and component layouts

The circuit diagram and stripboard layout for

A circuit diagram is useful when testing a circuit

Drawing circuit diagrams

• Make sure you use the correct symbol for each

If the circuit is complex:

• Try to arrange the diagram so that signals flow from left

Drawing circuit diagrams the 'electronics way'

Circuit diagrams for science are traditionally drawn with

I suggest that you always draw your circuit diagrams the

[I hope your science teacher won't mind too much!]

Note that the negative supply is usually called 0V (zero volts).

Wires and connections

Supplies electrical energy. A battery is more than

Output Devices: Lamps, Heater, Motor, etc.

A transducer which converts electrical energy to

A transducer which converts electrical energy to

A transducer which converts electrical energy to

A coil of wire which creates a magnetic field

DPDT = Double Pole, Double Throw.

An electrically operated switch, for example

Variable Capacitor A variable capacitor is used in a radio tuner.

This type of variable capacitor (a trimmer) is

LED A transducer which converts electrical energy to

A special diode which is used to maintain a

A transistor amplifies current. It can be used with other

A transistor amplifies current. It can be used with other

Phototransistor A light-sensitive transistor.

Audio and Radio Devices

A transducer which converts sound to electrical

A transducer which converts electrical energy to

A transducer which converts electrical energy to

A transducer which converts electrical energy to

An amplifier circuit with one input. Really it is a block

Meters and Oscilloscope

Ammeter An ammeter is used to measure current.

A galvanometer is a very sensitive meter which is

An ohmmeter is used to measure resistance.

An oscilloscope is used to display the shape of

Sensors (input devices)

A transducer which converts brightness (light) to

A transducer which converts temperature (heat)

An AND gate can have two or more inputs.

A NAND gate can have two or more inputs.

An OR gate can have two or more inputs.

A NOR gate can have two or more inputs.

An EX-OR gate can only have two inputs.

An EX-NOR gate can only have two inputs.

Sets of circuit symbols to download