IR Remote Tester Using BC557

Abstract:
This project details the construction of an infrared (IR) remote tester using a BC557
transistor. The IR remote tester serves as a diagnostic tool to verify the functionality of IR
remote controls by detecting the presence of IR signals emitted when buttons are pressed.

The circuit consists of an IR receiver module, a BC557 transistor, a resistor, an LED, and a
power source. The IR receiver module captures IR signals from a remote control and outputs
a signal when IR radiation is detected. This signal is fed into the base of the BC557 transistor,
which acts as a switch. When the transistor is activated by the signal from the IR receiver
module, current flows through the LED, causing it to light up.

The resistor connected to the base of the transistor serves as a pull-up resistor to ensure
proper transistor operation. The LED provides a visual indication of the presence of IR
signals, allowing users to easily verify the functionality of their remote controls.

By pointing an IR remote control towards the IR receiver module and pressing any button,
users can observe whether the LED lights up. If the LED illuminates, it indicates that the IR
remote control is transmitting signals properly. This simple yet effective IR remote tester
provides a convenient way to troubleshoot and verify the functionality of IR remote controls
in various applications.
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

In an era characterized by the proliferation of electronic devices, remote controls have

become indispensable tools for controlling various appliances, entertainment systems, and
other electronic equipment. From televisions to air conditioners, remote controls rely on
Infrared (IR) signals to communicate commands to their respective devices wirelessly. While
these devices offer convenience and efficiency, they are not immune to malfunctions, often
leaving users frustrated when they fail to operate as expected.

The inability to ascertain whether a remote control is functioning correctly can be a source of
inconvenience and annoyance. When faced with unresponsive devices, users are often left to
wonder whether the issue lies with the remote control itself, the device it is meant to control,
or some other external factor. In such situations, having a reliable means of testing the
functionality of remote controls becomes essential.

Enter the IR remote tester – a practical and straightforward solution designed to alleviate the
uncertainty surrounding the operation of IR remote controls. By leveraging basic electronic
components and principles, an IR remote tester provides users with a tangible way to verify
whether their remote controls are transmitting signals effectively. Through the use of light-
emitting diodes (LEDs) and infrared receiver modules, this device offers a visual indication
of IR signal reception, empowering users to diagnose and address issues with confidence.

The purpose of this project is to guide enthusiasts, hobbyists, and electronics enthusiasts
through the process of building their own IR remote tester. By providing detailed
instructions, circuit diagrams, and practical insights, we aim to demystify the construction of
this invaluable tool, making it accessible to individuals of all skill levels. Whether you're a
novice eager to embark on your first electronics project or a seasoned DIY enthusiast seeking
a practical solution to a common problem, this project offers something for everyone.

In the following sections, we will explore the fundamental principles behind IR

communication, the components required for building an IR remote tester, and the step-by-
step process of assembling the circuit on a breadboard. We will also discuss testing
procedures, troubleshooting tips, and potential modifications to enhance the functionality of
the device. By the end of this guide, you will have the knowledge and confidence to create
your own IR remote tester and put it to use in diagnosing and resolving issues wit your
remote controls.

Join us on this journey as we delve into the fascinating world of IR communication and
embark on a hands-on exploration of electronics, creativity, and problem-solving. Together,
we will illuminate the path to a better understanding of remote control technology and equip
ourselves with the tools necessary to navigate its intricacies with ease.

So, let's roll up our sleeves, gather our components, and embark on this exciting adventure in
DIY electronics. Whether you're a curious beginner or a seasoned tinkerer, there's plenty to
discover and explore as we embark on the journey of building our very own IR remote tester.
 CHAPTER 2

LITEARTURE REVIEW

1.Title: "Infrared Communication: Fundamentals and Applications"

Authors: John Doe, Jane Smith

Journal/Source: IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials

Year: 20XX

Summary: This survey paper provides an overview of infrared communication technology,

covering its principles, applications, and recent advancements. It discusses the role of
infrared communication in remote control systems and highlights key challenges and future
directions in the field.

2. Title: "Performance Evaluation of IR Receiver Modules for Remote Control Applications"

Authors: Michael Johnson, Emily Brown

Journal/Source: International Journal of Electronics

Year: 20XX

Summary: This research article investigates the performance characteristics of various IR

receiver modules commonly used in remote control applications. It assesses factors such as
sensitivity, noise immunity, and spectral response, providing valuable insights for selecting
suitable components in IR remote tester designs.

3. Title: "DIY Electronics: A Comprehensive Guide for Beginners"

Authors: David Williams

Book/Publisher: Wiley

Year: 20XX

Summary: This book offers a comprehensive introduction to DIY electronics projects,

catering to beginners and enthusiasts alike. It covers basic electronic principles, component
identification, circuit design, and troubleshooting techniques, providing a solid foundation for
building projects like IR remote testers.

4. Title: "Universal Remote Control Systems: Design and Implementation"

Authors: Sarah Johnson, Robert Martinez

Journal/Source: Journal of Electrical Engineering

Year: 20XX

Summary: This research paper explores the design and implementation of universal remote
control systems, focusing on the use of infrared communication technology. It discusses
signal encoding methods, protocol standards, and compatibility issues, offering valuable
insights for designing versatile IR remote testers.

5. Title: "IR Remote Tester: Design and Performance Evaluation"

Authors: Mark Thompson, Jennifer Lee

Conference/Proceedings: Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Consumer

Electronics

Year: 20XX

Summary: This conference paper presents a detailed design of an IR remote tester and
evaluates its performance in detecting and analyzing infrared signals from remote controls. It
discusses circuit topology, component selection, and testing procedures, providing practical
guidance for DIY enthusiasts.

6. Title: "Troubleshooting IR Remote Control Systems: Common Issues and Solutions"

Authors: Amanda White, Kevin Brown

Journal/Source: Electronics World

Year: 20XX

Summary: This article identifies common issues encountered in IR remote control systems
and proposes practical solutions for troubleshooting. It covers topics such as signal
interference, line-of-sight limitations, and component failures, offering valuable insights for
DIY projects like IR remote testers.

7. Title: "Arduino-Based IR Remote Tester: Design and Implementation"

Authors: Alex Johnson, Maria Garcia

Journal/Source: Arduino Project Hub

Year: 20XX

Summary: This online resource provides a step-by-step guide to building an IR remote tester
using Arduino microcontrollers. It includes circuit diagrams, code snippets, and
troubleshooting tips, making it accessible to Arduino enthusiasts interested in DIY electronics
projects.

8. Title: "Understanding Infrared Communication Protocols: A Practical Guide"

Authors: Daniel Wilson

Journal/Source: Embedded Systems Programming

Year: 20XX

Summary: This technical article offers a practical overview of infrared communication

protocols commonly used in remote control systems. It explains the structure of IR signals,
modulation techniques, and protocol standards, providing essential background knowledge
for designing IR remote testers.

9. Title: "Enhancing IR Remote Tester Performance Using Signal Processing Techniques"

Authors: Jessica Taylor, Christopher Davis

Journal/Source: Signal Processing Letters

Year: 20XX

Summary: This research letter investigates signal processing techniques for improving the
performance of IR remote testers. It explores methods for noise reduction, signal
amplification, and data analysis, offering insights into advanced techniques for enhancing the
reliability and accuracy of IR signal detection.
10. Title: "Exploring DIY Electronics Communities: Insights from Online Forums"

Authors: Ryan Adams, Sophia Roberts

Journal/Source: ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction

Year: 20XX

Summary: This study examines online communities dedicated to DIY electronics projects,
focusing on user interactions, knowledge sharing, and collaborative problem-solving. It
analyzes forum discussions related to IR remote testers, highlighting user experiences,
challenges, and innovative solutions in the DIY electronics community.
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Components Required:
 BC557 NPN Transistor
 Infrared (IR) Receiver Module
 Resistors (typically 220Ω and 10kΩ)
 LED
 Power source (such as a battery)
 Breadboard
 Connecting wires

Applictions:
 Repair Shops
 Home
 Quality Assurance in Manufacturing
555 timer IC

555 timer IC

Signetics NE555 in 8-pin DIP package

Type Active, integrated circuit

Invented Hans Camenzind (1971)

First production 1972

Electronic symbol

Internal block diagram[1]

The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit used in a variety of timer, delay, pulse generation,
and oscillator applications. It is one of the most popular timing ICs due to its flexibility and
price. Derivatives provide two (556) or four (558) timing circuits in one package. [2] The
design was first marketed in 1972 by Signetics[3][4] and used bipolar junction transistors. Since
then, numerous companies have made the original timers and later similar low-
power CMOS timers. In 2017, it was said that over a billion 555 timers are produced annually
by some estimates, and that the design was "probably the most popular integrated circuit ever
made".[5]

History

Silicon die of the first 555 chip (1971)

Die of a CMOS NXP ICM7555 chip

The timer IC was designed in 1971 by Hans Camenzind under contract to Signetics. In 1968,
he was hired by Signetics to develop a phase-locked loop (PLL) IC. He designed an oscillator
for PLLs such that the frequency did not depend on the power supply voltage or temperature.
Signetics subsequently laid off half of its employees due to the 1970 recession, and
development on the PLL was thus frozen. [6] Camenzind proposed the development of a
universal circuit based on the oscillator for PLLs and asked that he develop it alone,
borrowing equipment from Signetics instead of having his pay cut in half. Camaenid’s idea
was originally rejected, since other engineers argued the product could be built from existing
parts sold by the company; however, the marketing manager approved the idea.

The first design for the 555 was reviewed in the summer of 1971. After this design was tested
and found to be without errors, Camenzind got the idea of using a direct resistance instead of
a constant current source, finding that it worked satisfactorily. The design change decreased
the required 9 external pins to 8, so the IC could be fit in an 8-pin package instead of a 14-pin
package.[8] This revised version passed a second design review, and the prototypes were
completed in October 1971 as the NE555V (plastic DIP) and SE555T (metal TO-5). The 9-
pin version had already been released by another company founded by an engineer who had
attended the first review and had retired from Signetics; that firm withdrew its version soon
after the 555 was released. The 555 timer was manufactured by 12 companies in 1972, and it
became a best-selling product.[6]

The 555 found many applications beyond timers. Camenzind noted in 1997 that "nine out of
10 of its applications were in areas and ways I had never contemplated. For months I was
inundated by phone calls from engineers who had new ideas for using the device."

Name

Several books report the name "555" timer IC derived from the three 5 kΩ resistors inside the
chip. However, in a recorded interview with an online transistor museum curator, Hans
Camenzind said "It was just arbitrarily chosen. It was Art Fury (marketing manager) who
thought the circuit was gonna sell big who picked the name '555' timer IC.."

Design

Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 package incorporated the equivalent of
25 transistors, 2 diodes, and 15 resistors on a silicon chip packaged into an 8-pin dual in-line
package (DIP-8).[15] Variants available included the 556 (a DIP-14 combining two complete
555s on one chip),[16] and 558 / 559 (both variants were a DIP-16 combining four reduced-
functionality timers on one chip).

The NE555 parts were commercial temperature range, 0 °C to +70 °C, and the SE555 part
number designated the military temperature range, −55 °C to +125 °C. These chips were
available in both high-reliability metal can (T package) and inexpensive epoxy plastic (V
package) form factors. Thus, the full part numbers were NE555V, NE555T, SE555V, and
SE555T.

Low-power CMOS versions of the 555 are now available, such as the Intersil ICM7555 and
Texas Instruments LMC555, TLC555, TLC551.

Internal schematic[edit]

The internal block diagram and schematic of the 555 timer are highlighted with the same
color across all three drawings to clarify how the chip is implemented:[2]

 Voltage divider: Between the positive supply voltage VCC and the ground GND is
a voltage divider consisting of three identical resistors (5 kΩ for bipolar timers,
100 kΩ or higher for CMOS) to create reference voltages for the analog comparators.
CONTROL is connected between the upper two resistors, allowing an external
voltage to control the reference voltages:

o When CONTROL is not driven, this divider creates an upper reference voltage
of 2⁄3 VCC and a lower reference voltage of 1⁄3 VCC.

o When CONTROL is driven, the upper reference voltage will instead be

VCONTROL and the lower reference voltage will be 1⁄2 VCONTROL.

 Threshold comparator: The comparator's negative input is connected to voltage

divider's upper reference voltage, and the comparator's positive input is connected to
THRESHOLD.

 Trigger comparator: The comparator's positive input is connected to voltage divider's

lower reference, and the comparator's negative input is connected to TRIGGER.

 Latch: A set-reset latch stores the state of the timer and is controlled by the two
comparators. RESET overrides the other two inputs, thus the latch (and therefore the
entire timer) can be reset at any time.

 Output: The output of the latch is followed by an output stage with push–pull output
drivers that can supply up to 200 mA for bipolar timers, lower for CMOS timers.
  Discharge: Also, the output of the latch controls a transistor acting as an electronic
switch that connects DISCHARGE to ground (convenient for discharging a timing
capacitor) or leaves it disconnected.

555 internal block diagram

555 internal schematic of bipolar version


555 internal schematic of CMOS version

Pinout

The pinout of the 8-pin 555 timer and 14-pin 556 dual timer[21] are shown in the following
table. Since the 556 is conceptually two 555 timers that share power pins, the pin numbers for
each half are split across two columns.

In the following table, longer pin designations are used, because manufacturers never
standardized the abbreviated pin names across all datasheets.

555 556 (unit 556 (unit Pin

Pin name Pin description[1][21][2]
pin# 1) 2) direction

Ground supply: this pin is

1 7 GND Power the ground reference voltage
(zero volts).[22]

Trigger: when VTRIGGER falls

below 1⁄2 VCONTROL (1⁄3 VCC, except
when CONTROL is driven by an
external signal), OUTPUT goes
2 6 8 TRIGGER Input to the high state and a timing
interval starts.[22] As long as
TRIGGER continues to be kept
at a low voltage, OUTPUT will
remain in the high state.

3 5 9 OUTPUT Output Output: this pin is a push-

pull (P.P.) output that is driven
to either a low state (GND) or a
high state (VCC minus
approximately 1.7 volts for
bipolar timers, or VCC for CMOS
timers). For bipolar timers, this
pin can drive up to 200 mA, but
 CMOS timers are able to drive
less (varies by chip). For bipolar
timers, if this pin drives an edge-
sensitive input of a digital logic
chip, a 100 to
1000 pF decoupling
capacitor (between this pin and
GND) may need to be added to
prevent double triggering.[2]

Reset: a timing interval may be

reset by driving this pin to GND,
but the timing does not begin
again until this pin rises above
approximately 0.7 volts. This pin
4 4 10 RESET Input overrides TRIGGER, which in
turn overrides THRESHOLD. If
this pin is not used, it should be
connected to VCC to prevent
electrical noise accidentally
causing a reset.[23][22]

5 3 11 CONTROL Input Control: this pin provides access

to the internal voltage
divider (2⁄3 VCC by default). By
applying a voltage to this pin,
the timing characteristics can be
changed. In astable mode, this
pin can be used to frequency-
modulate the OUTPUT state.
[16]
If this pin is not used, it
should be connected to a
10 nF decoupling
capacitor (between this pin and
 GND) to ensure electrical noise
doesn't affect the internal voltage
divider.[2][23][22]

Threshold: when the voltage at

this pin is greater
than VCONTROL (2⁄3 VCC by default
except when CONTROL is
6 2 12 THRESHOLD Input driven by an external signal),
then the OUTPUT high state
timing interval ends, causing
OUTPUT to go to the low state.
[22]

Discharge: This pin is an open-

collector (O.C.) output for
bipolar timers, or an open-drain
(O.D.) output for CMOS timers.
This pin can be used to discharge
7 1 13 DISCHARGE Output
a capacitor when OUTPUT is
low. In bistable latch and
bistable inverter modes, this pin
is unused, which allows it to be
used as an alternate output.[22]

8 14 VCC Power Positive supply: For bipolar

timers, the supply voltage range
is typically 4.5 to 16 volts (some
are spec'ed for up to 18 volts,
though most will operate as low
as 3 volts). For CMOS timers,
the supply voltage range is
typically 2 to 15 volts (some are
spec'ed for up to 18 volts, and
 some are spec'ed as low as 1
volt). See the supply min and
max columns in the derivatives
table in this article. Decoupling
capacitor(s) are generally applied
(between this pin and GND) as a
good practice.[24][23]

Pinout of 555 single timer.

Pinout of 556 dual timer.

Modes

The 555 IC has the following operating modes:

1. Astable (free-running) mode – The 555 operates as an electronic oscillator.

Applications include:
 o Light emitting diode and lamp flashers, pulse generation, pulse-width
modulation (PWM), logic clocks, tone generation, security alarms, pulse-
position modulation, etc.

o Analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) from an analog value represented by a

resistance or capacitance into a digital pulse length.

 e.g., selecting a thermistor as timing resistor allows the use of the 555
in a temperature sensor with the period of the output pulse determined
by the temperature. A microprocessor can then convert the pulse
period to temperature, linearize it, and even provide calibration.

2. Monostable (one-shot) mode – The 555 operates as a "one-shot" pulse generator.

Applications include:

o timers, missing pulse detection, bounce-free switches, touch switches,

frequency dividers, triggered measurement of resistance or capacitance, PWM,
etc.

3. Bistable (latch) mode – The 555 operates as a set-reset latch. Applications include:

o switch debouncing.

4. Schmitt trigger (inverter) mode – the 555 operates as a Schmitt trigger inverter gate.
Application:

o Converts a noisy input into a clean digital output.

The astable configuration is implemented using two resistors, and and one
capacitor . The threshold and trigger pins are both connected to the capacitor; thus
they have the same voltage.

Its repeated operating cycle (starting with the capacitor uncharged) is:

1. Since the capacitor's voltage will be below 1⁄3 VCC, the trigger pin causes the 555's
internal latch to change state, causing OUT to go high and the internal discharge
transistor to cut-off.
 2. Since the discharge pin is no longer short-circuited to ground, the capacitor starts

charging via current from Vcc through the resistors and .

3. Once the capacitor charge reaches 2⁄3 Vcc, the threshold pin causes the 555's internal
latch to change state, causing OUT to go low and the internal discharge transistor to
go into saturation (maximal-conductivity) mode.

4. This discharge transistor provides a discharge path, so the capacitor starts discharging

through .

5. Once the capacitor's voltage drops below 1⁄3 VCC, the cycle repeats from step 1.

During the first pulse, the capacitor charges from 0 V to 2⁄3 VCC, however, in later pulses, it
only charges from 1⁄3 VCC to 2⁄3 VCC. Consequently, the first pulse has a longer high time
interval compared to later pulses. Moreover, the capacitor charges through both resistors but
only discharges through , thus the output high interval is longer than the low interval. This is
shown in the following equations:

 Particularly with bipolar 555 types, low values of must be avoided so that the output
stays saturated near zero volts during discharge, as assumed by the above equation.

Otherwise, the output low time will be greater than calculated above. should
never be a potentiometer or trimmer, because when turned to zero ohms it would
cause the 555 timer discharge pin to "short" the VCC power rail to GND, thus
damaging or destroying the 555 timer IC; but adding a series resistor will prevent this
from happening.

Shorter duty cycle[edit]

To create an output high time shorter than the low time (i.e., a duty cycle less than 50%) a
fast diode (i.e. 1N4148 signal diode) can be placed in parallel with R 2, with the cathode on
the capacitor side.[16] This bypasses R2 during the high part of the cycle, so that the high
interval depends only on R1 and C, with an adjustment based on the voltage drop across the
diode. The
where Vdiode is when the diode's "on" current is 1⁄2 of VCC/R1 (which depends on the type of
diode and can be found in datasheets or measured). When V diode is small relative to Vcc, this
charging is faster and approaches but is slower the closer Vdiode is to Vcc:

As an extreme example, when VCC = 5 V, and Vdiode = 0.7 V, high time is 1.00 R1C, which is
45% longer than the "expected" 0.693 R1C. At the other extreme, when Vcc = 15 V, and
Vdiode = 0.3 V, the high time is 0.725 R1C, which is closer to the expected 0.693 R1C. The
equation approaches 0.693 R1C as Vdiode approaches 0 V.

Voltage-controlled pulse-width modulation[edit]

In the previous example schematics, the control pin was not used, thus it should connected to
ground through a 10 nF decoupling capacitor to shunt electrical noise. However if a time-
varying voltage source was applied to the control pin, then the pulse widths would be
dependent on the control voltage.

Monostable[edit]
Schematic of a 555 in monostable mode. Example values C = 100 nF, R = 180 kΩ to 220 kΩ
for debouncing a pulled-up pushbutton.

Waveform in monostable mode

See also: RC circuit

Monostable mode produces an output pulse when the trigger signals drops below 1⁄3 VCC.

An RC circuit sets the output pulse's duration as the time in seconds it takes to
charge C to 2⁄3 VCC:[16]

the output pulse.[25]

should never be a potentiometer or trimmer, because when turned to zero ohms it would
cause the 555 timer discharge pin to "short" the VCC power rail to GND, thus damaging or
destroying the 555 timer IC; but adding a series resistor will prevent this from happening.

After the timing interval completes, the capacitor is almost instantly discharged through the
Discharge pin, to then allow for subsequent triggering.

A 555 timer can act as an active-low SR latch (though without an inverted Q output) with two
outputs: output pin is a push-pull output, discharge pin is an open-collector output (requires
a pull-up resistor).

For the schematic on the right, a Reset input signal connects to the RESET pin and
connecting a Set input signal to the TR pin. Thus, pulling Set momentarily low acts as a "set"
and transitions the output to the high state (VCC). Conversely, pulling Reset momentarily low
acts as a "reset" and transitions the Out pin to the low state (GND).
No timing capacitors are required in a bistable configuration. The threshold input is grounded
because it is unused.[26] The trigger and reset inputs may be held high via pull-up resistors if
they are normally Hi-Z and only enabled by connecting to ground.

Bistable schmitt trigger inverter gate[edit]

Schematic of a 555 timer in bistable Schmitt trigger inverter mode. Example values C = 100
nF, R1 & R2 = 100 kΩ.

Schmitt trigger inverter symbol.

See also: Inverter gate

A 555 timer can be used to create a Schmitt trigger inverter gate with two outputs: output pin
is a push-pull output, discharge pin is an open-collector output (requires a pull-up resistor).

For the schematic on the right, an input signal is AC-coupled through a low value series

capacitor, then biased by identical high-resistance resistors and , which

causes the signal to be centered at 1⁄2 Vcc. This centered signal is connected to both the trigger
and threshold input pins of the timer. The input signal must be strong enough to excite the
trigger levels of the comparators to exceed the lower 1⁄3 VCC and upper 2⁄3 VCC thresholds in
order to cause them to change state, thus providing the schmitt trigger feature.[27]

No timing capacitors are required in a bistable configuration.

Packages
Texas Instruments NE555 in DIP-8 and SO-8 packages[1]

RESISTANCE

The electrical resistance of an object is a measure of its opposition to the passage of a steady
electric current. An object of uniform cross section will have a resistance proportional to its
length and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area, and proportional to the resistivity
of the material. Discovered by Georg Ohm in the late 1820s, electrical resistance shares some
conceptual parallels with the mechanical notion of friction. Thionate electrical resistance is
the ohm, symbol Ω. Resistance’s reciprocal quantity is electrical conductance measured in
Siemens, symbol S. The resistance of a resistive object determines the amount of current
through the object for a given potential difference across the object, in accordance with
Ohm's law: Where R is the resistance of the object, measured in ohms, equivalent to
J·s/C2Vis the potential difference across the object, measured in volts I is the current through
the object, measured in amperes. For a wide variety of materials and conditions, the electrical
resistance does not depend on the amount of current through or the amount of voltage across
the object, meaning that the resistance R inconstant the given temperature and material.
Therefore, the resistance of an object can be defined as the ratio of voltage to current: In the
case of nonlinear objects(not purely resistive, or not obeying Ohm's law),this ratio can change
ascurrent or voltage changes; the ratio taken at any particular point, the inverse slope of a
chord to anI – V curve, is sometimes referred to as a"chordal resistance" or "static
resistance".
BC547 TRANSISTOR

Where to use BC547

The BC547 is a widely used transistor that can be used in any general purpose applications
or as a substitute and replacement to many transistors. The BC547 can be used in variety of
electronic circuits, for example, switch small load on very low input voltage and current. And
it can also be used in amplification applications like amplification of small audio and other
signals. The max transition frequency of the transistor is 300MHz so it will also perform well
in RF circuits under 300MHz frequency.

How to use BC547

BC547 is an NPN transistor hence the collector and emitter will be left open (Reverse biased)
when the base pin is held at ground and will be closed (Forward biased) when a signal is
provided to base pin. BC547 has a gain value of 110 to 800, this value determines the
amplification capacity of the transistor. The maximum amount of current that could flow
through the Collector pin is 100mA, hence we cannot connect loads that consume more than
100mA using this transistor. To bias a transistor we have to supply current to base pin, this
current (IB) should be limited to 5mA.

When this transistor is fully biased then it can allow a maximum of 100mA to flow across the
collector and emitter. This stage is called Saturation Region and the typical voltage allowed
across the Collector-Emitter (VCE) or Base-Emitter (VBE) could be 200 and 900 mV
respectively. When base current is removed the transistor becomes fully off, this stage is
called as the Cut-off Region and the Base Emitter voltage could be around 660 mV.

BC547 as Switch

When a transistor is used as a switch it is operated in the Saturation and Cut-Off Region as
explained above. As discussed, a transistor will act as an Open switch during Forward Bias
and as a Closed switch during Reverse Bias, this biasing can be achieved by supplying the
required amount of current to the base pin. As mentioned the biasing current should
maximum of 5mA. Anything more than 5mA will kill the Transistor; hence a resistor is
always added in series with base pin. The value of this resistor (RB) can be calculated using
below formula.

RB = VBE / IB

Where, the value of VBE should be 5V for BC547 and the Base current (IB depends on the
Collector current (IC). The value of IB should not exceed 5mA.

 BC547 as Amplifier

A Transistors acts as an Amplifier when operating in Active Region. It can amplify power,
voltage and current at different configurations.

Some of the configurations used in amplifier circuits are:

 Common emitter amplifier

 Common collector amplifier

 Common base amplifier

Of the above types common emitter type is the popular and mostly used configuration. When
uses as an Amplifier the DC current gain of the Transistor can be calculated by using the
below formula

DC Current Gain = Collector Current (IC) / Base Current (IB)

BC547 Operational States

The BC547 has two working states: forward biased and reverse biased.

 In the forward biased state, the collector and emitter act as a closed switch, where the
current flows from collector to emitter.

 In the reverse biased state, the collector and emitter act as an open switch, where no
current flows through the transistor.

BC547 VS BC548
For the most part, both transistors are the same. They have the same maximum collector
rating of 100 mA, and a peak collector rating of 200 mA. They both have the same power
dissipation rating of 500 mW. For the hFE current gain, both transistors are available in all
three groups A, B, and C. Hence that is identical as well.

The main difference is in the maximum breakdown voltages. For BC548 Vcbo, Vces, and
Vceo, are rated at 30 V, and Veb is 5 V. For BC547 Vcbo, and Vces are rates at 50 V. Vceo
is 45 V, and Vebo is 6V.

The semiconductor device like a transistor is one kind of switch which controls electrically. It
consists of three terminals like an i/p, o/p & a control line. These are named as the emitter
(E), collector(C) and base (B). A transistor works like a switch as well as an amplifier to
convert the waves from audio to electronic. Transistors are smaller in size, long life and can
operate with low voltage supplies. The first transistor was designed with Ge (germanium). In
modern electronics, it is the basic building block and used in various electrical and electronic
systems. This article discusses an overview of BC547 transistor working and its applications.

BC547 Transistor

The BC547 transistor is an NPN transistor. A transistor is nothing but the transfer of
resistance which is used for amplifying the current. A small current of the base terminal of
this transistor will control the large current of emitter and base terminals. The main function
of this transistor is to amplify as well as switching purposes. The maximum gain current of
this transistor is 800A.
bc547-transistor

The similar transistors are like BC548 & BC549. This transistor works in a fixed DC voltage
in the preferred region of its characteristics which is called the biasing. Further, the series of
this transistor can be divided into three groups based on the current gain like BC547A,
BC547B & BC547C.

BC547 Transistor Pin Configuration

The BC547 transistor includes three pins which include the following.

bc547-transistor-pin-configuration

 Pin1 (Collector): This pin is denoted with symbol ‘C’ and the flow of current will be
through the collector terminal.

 Pin2 (Base): This pin controls the transistor biasing.

 Pin3 (Emitter): The current supplies out through emitter terminal

A Transistor works as an amplifier while functions in the active region to amplify voltage,
current, and power at various configurations. The amplifier circuit uses three configurations
which include the following.
  Common emitter (CE) amplifier

 Common collector (CC) amplifier

 Common base (CB) amplifier

From the above three configurations, CE is the most widely used configuration.

Working States of Transistor

The working states of BC547 transistor include the following.

 Forward Bias.

 Reverse Bias.

In a forward bias mode, the two terminals like emitter & collector are connected to allow the
flow of current through it. Whereas in a reverse bias mode, it doesn’t allow the flow of
current through it because it works as an open switch.

Features

The features of the BC547 transistor include the following.

 The gain of DC current (hFE) = 800 A

 Continuous Ic (collector current) = 100mA

 VBE (emitter-base voltage) = 6V

 IB (base current) = 5mA

 The polarity of the transistor is NPN

 The transition frequency is 300MHz

 It is obtainable in semiconductor package like-92

 Power dissipation is 625mW

BC547 Transistor Circuit Diagram

The ON/OFF touch switch using transistor BC547 is shown below. The circuit is activated
once the power supply is given to the circuit. Once the supply is given to the circuit, the relay
gets off mode. Thus, the base terminal of the Q3 transistor is high throughout the R7 resistor
to maintain in cut-off condition.

touch-switch-circuit-using-bc547

When the S2 switch is ON, the Q4 transistor will start conducting & relay ‘L3’ can be
latched. The base terminal of the Q3 transistor will be pulled downward, and then L2 LED
will blink to indicate power is ON. The Q4 transistor is ON because of the voltage at the
collector terminal of the transistor Q3 using R8 resistor

When the switch S1 is pressed for a moment the base terminal of transistor Q3 will be pulled
up then the L2 will turn off because of the Q4 transistor’s pull-down base throughout the R8
resistor so the relay L3 will be turned off.

Precautions of this Transistor

The precautions of this transistor include the following.

 To run the transistor for a long time in a circuit, it is very important that it doesn’t
increase the load more than 100mA.

 The voltage should not exceed to 45V DC across the transistor.

 The base resistor should be used for providing the necessary current intended for
saturation.

 Maintain the temperature from the above +150oC to -65 oC.

  Always verify the three terminals of the transistor while connecting in-circuit
otherwise the performance can be reduced and the circuit can be damaged.

Applications of BC547 transistor include the following.

 This BC547 transistor is used general-purpose, widely used and it is used as an

alternative as well as a substitute to different kinds of transistors. Thus, it can use in
different electronic circuits

 The utmost transition frequency of BC547 is 300MHz so that it will perform well
within RF circuits.

 Amplification of current

 Audio Amplifiers

 Switching Loads < 100mA

 Transistor Darlington Pairs

 Drivers like an LED driver, Relay Driver, etc.

 Amplifiers like Audio, signal, etc..

 Darlington pair

 Quick switching

 PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)

These transistors are used to build various electrical and electronic circuits which include the
following.

 Alarm circuits

 LED flasher circuit

 Water level indicator

 Sensor-based circuits
  Audio Preamp circuits

 RF Circuits

 Touch-sensitive switch circuit

 Heat sensor circuit

 Moisture sensitive alarm

 Latch circuit

 Street light circuit

 Relay driver based on one channel

 Indication of volume level

CMOS BILATERAL SWITCH(CD4066)

The CD4066B is a quad bilateral switch intended for the transmission or multiplexing of
analog or digital signals. It is pin-for-pin compatible with theCD4016B, but exhibits a much
lower on-state resistance. In addition, theon-state resistance is relatively constant over the full
signal-input range.The CD4066B consists of four bilateral switches, each with independent
controls. Both the p and the n devices in a given switch are biased on or off

simultaneously by the control signal. As shown in Figure 1, the well of then-channel device
on each switch is tied to either the input (when the switch is on) or to VSS (when the switch
is off). This configuration eliminates the variation of the switch-transistor threshold voltage
with input signal and ,thus, keeps the on-state resistance low over the full operating-signal
range. The advantages over single-channel switches include peak input-signal voltage swings
equal to the full supply voltage and more constant on state impedance over the input-signal
range. However, for sample-and-hold applications, the CD4016B is recommended.

Applications

Analog Signal Switching/Multiplexing: Signal Gating, Modulator, Demodulator, Chopper,

Commutating Switch, Digital Signal Switching/Multiplexing, Transmission-Gate
Logic Implementation, Analog-to-Digital and Digital-to- Analog Conversion, Digital Control
of Frequency, Impedance, Phase, and Analog- Signal Gain.

What Is a Capacitor?

 A capacitor is defined as a passive component which is used for storing electrical

energy. A capacitor is made of two conductors that are separated by the dielectric
material. These dielectric materials are in the form of plates which can accumulate
charges.

 One plate is for a positive charge while the other is for a negative charge.

 Capacitance is the effect of the capacitor. Capacitance is defined as the ratio of

electric charge Q to the voltage V and it is expressed as

C = Q/V

 Where,

 Q is the electric charge measured in coulombs

 C is the capacitance measured in farad

 V is the voltage across the plates measured in volts

How Are Capacitors Classified?

According to structure, capacitors are classified as:

 Fixed Capacitors

 Variable Capacitors

 Trimmer Capacitors

The capacitors are classified into two types according to polarization:

 Polarized
  Unpolarized

A polarized capacitor is an important electronic circuit component and is often termed an

electrolytic capacitor. These capacitors are used to achieve high capacitive density.

Unpolarized capacitors are preferred over polarized capacitors because it doesn’t get
destroyed by reverse voltage and can be used in pure AC circuits. They also find applications
in DC circuits as they don’t have positive and negative ends. The frequency of the
unpolarized capacitor is high, and the leakage current is low. After understanding the
classification of capacitors, let us learn about capacitor types.

Types of Capacitors

Let us now know various types of capacitors. Capacitors are categorized into 2 mechanical
groups. Fixed Capacitors consist of fixed capacitance value and variable capacitance with
variable capacitance value. Beneath are a brief description of various capacitor types and
their properties.

 Ceramic Capacitors

 Film Capacitors

 Power Film Capacitors

 Electrolytic Capacitors

 Ceramic capacitors

 Film capacitors

 Paper Capacitors

 Electrolytic capacitors
Ceramic Capacitors

A ceramic capacitor is considered to be one of the most commonly used capacitors. The
material used in this capacitor type is dielectric. Also, ceramic capacitors are non-polar
devices which means that they can be used in any direction in the circuit.

Ceramic Capacitor Symbol

Depending on the availability of the capacitor, ceramic capacitors are classified into three
groups:

 Leaded disc ceramic capacitors

 Surface mount multi-layered ceramic capacitors

 Microwave bare lead-less disc ceramic capacitors

Depending on the temperature range, temperature drift, and tolerance, ceramic capacitors are
classified into the following classes:

 Class 1 ceramic capacitors: These capacitors are considered to be the most stable
capacitors with linear characteristics.
  Class 2 ceramic capacitors: These capacitors perform better for volumetric
efficiency but their accuracy and stability are at stake. They find applications in
coupling and decoupling.

 Class 3 ceramic capacitors: These capacitors have high volumetric efficiency with
low accuracy and low dissipation factor. They are used in decoupling.

Applications of Ceramic Capacitors

 Ceramic capacitors are used in printed circuit boards that are used in high-density
applications.

 Their non-polarity makes them suitable for general usage.

 They find applications in DC motors as they are used for reducing the RF noise.

 Ceramic capacitors are used in transmitter stations where resonant circuits are used.

Film Capacitors

Film capacitors are also known as a polymer film, plastic film, or film dielectric. The
advantage of film capacitors is that they are inexpensive and come with limitless shelf life.
The film capacitor uses a thin dielectric material with the other side of the capacitor
metalized. Depending on the application, the film capacitor is rolled into thin films. The
general voltage range of these capacitors is from 50 V to 2 kV.

Film Capacitor Symbol

Types of Film Capacitors

Depending on the dielectric material used and applications, the following is the classification
of the film capacitor:

 Heavy-duty snubber capacitors

 SMD style capacitors

 Axial style capacitors

 Radial style capacitors

Applications of Film Capacitors

 These capacitors are used as safety capacitors and in electromagnetic interference.

 Power film capacitors find applications in power electronics.

 These capacitors are used for safeguarding the devices from sudden voltage spikes.
  Film capacitors are used for improving the power factor of the device.

Related Articles:

 Capacitor And Capacitance

 Parallel Plate Capacitor

Power Film Capacitors

Construction techniques and materials that are used in power film capacitors are similar to
that of ordinary film capacitors. Polypropylene film is used as a dielectric in a capacitor.

Electrolytic Capacitors

In an electrolytic capacitor metallic anode coated with an oxidized layer used as a dielectric.
These capacitors are polarized. Electrolytic capacitors are categorized based on their
dielectric.

 Aluminum electrolytic capacitors – aluminum oxide (dielectric).

 Tantalum electrolytic capacitors – tantalum pentoxide (dielectric).

 Niobium electrolytic capacitors – niobium pentoxide (dielectric).

Electrolytic Capacitor Symbol

Applications of Electrolytic Capacitors

 Electrolytic capacitors are used when there is a requirement for large capacitance.

 They are used as filtering devices that lower the ripple voltage.

 They are used in audio amplifiers to reduce the electrical noise that is induced by the
main supply.

 Electrolytic capacitors are used in smoothing the input and output signals in a DC
signal that has a weak AC component.

Accelerate Your JEE Main & Advanced Exam Preparation by

Watching this Video about Magnetism and Force on Dielectric in Charged Capacitor

Paper capacitor is also known as a fixed capacitor in which paper is used as the dielectric
material. The amount of electric charge stored by the paper capacitor is fixed. It consists of
two metallic plates, and paper, which is used as a dielectric material, is placed between these
plates.

Paper Capacitor Symbol

Applications of Paper Capacitor

 These capacitors are used in noise filtering, coupling, and decoupling systems.

 They are also used for blocking the DC signals so that AC signals are passed through.

 Sensors such as humidity sensors, fuel level sensors, etc used paper capacitors.

 Paper capacitors are used in audio systems of cars as they provide extra power to the
amplifiers.

What Are Common Capacitors?

Capacitors are mainly divided into two mechanical groups:

 Fixed capacitors

 Variable capacitors

Some common capacitors and their names are mentioned in the table below.

Ceramic capacitors

Aluminum, tantalum, and niobium electrolytic capacitors

Film and paper capacitors

Polymer capacitors

Silver mica, glass, silicon, air-gap, and vacuum capacitors

Double-layer capacitors

Pseudo capacitors

Hybrid capacitors

Values of Capacitor

Knowing the capacitor types, and applications, let us now learn the value of capacitor.
Depending on the type of capacitor, the values of the capacitor vary. For example,
electrolytic capacitors have their values printed on their body along with the pins. Disc
capacitors have their values represented in terms of PF, uF, KPF, etc. a black band is used to
represent the negative terminal of the capacitor.

Therefore, the following are the ways in which capacitors values could be read:

 The capacitance value of the capacitor is expressed in picofarads.

 If a capacitor has the third number as zero, then the value is expressed as P.

 If a capacitor has 3 digits, then the third number represents the number of zeros of that
capacitor. This is usually after the second number.

 The conversion of values to KPF or uF becomes easy if the value is in PF.

What is an IC Socket?

IC sockets (integrated circuit sockets) act as static connectors between integrated

circuits (ICs) and printed circuit boards (PCBs). IC Sockets are used for two primary reasons:
 1. IC sockets prevent damage to ICs caused by soldering IC chips directly to the circuit
board. Instead, the more durable IC sockets are soldered to the board and the chip is
simply inserted into the socket.

2. IC sockets allow ICs to be inserted and removed easily. This means damaged IC chips
can be replaced with relative ease without damaging the PCB.

IC Socket Styles

IC sockets are manufactured in a variety styles but perhaps the most common style is dual-in-
line (DIL). Dual-in-line sockets feature two rows of sockets separated and aligned by a
rectangular thermoplastic insulator. Other IC configurations include press-fit IC sockets and
right angle mount IC sockets.

IC Socket Applications

IC sockets are utilized in nearly any application that uses an integrated circuit. This means
that the vast majority of electronic devices could or do utilize IC sockets.

Top IC Socket Manufacturers

 Mill-Max

 3M

 Assmann WSW Components

 Advanced Interconnections

 TE Connectivity