Value Added Course:

Science and
Society

2
Learning Outcomes

3
 SYLLABUS
UNIT- I Science and Technology- from Ancient to Modern Times UNIT II: Scientific Principles, and Concepts in Daily Life

• Philosophy of science, the scientific method, importance of • Observing and documenting flora and fauna of College campus/city.

observation, questions and experimental design, rational • Visits to science laboratories in the college
thinking, myths vs. Facts
• Visits to science museums, planetarium.
• Science, Technology and Traditional Practices: Water harvesting
• Visits to biodiversity parks and nature walks.
structures and Practices; Construction, architecture and design
- use of natural environment-friendly designs and materials; • Participation in a citizen science project/initiative.

Agriculture including domestication of plants and animals.

• Contributions of Indian scientists since ancient times and the

contributions of women in science

• Science and Technology in Modern Times: Public HeaIth:

Nutrition, Hygiene, Physical and MentaI HeaIth, Vaccines and
Antibiotics, Antimicrobial resistance; Food Security: Green
Revolution, White Revolution; IT Revolution, E-Governance;
Clean Energy, Renewable Energy; Space Science and
Exploration; Evolution, Ecology and Environment
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 SYLLABUS
Suggested Experiments (minimum any four): • How can a mosquito sit on a water surface or a blade float on
water?
• Measuring the height of the college building using a stick.
• How does a submarine dip or rise in the ocean?
• Measuring the curvature of earth, using distance and shadow
length. • How and why does the path of the sun in the sky change with the
seasons?
• Isolation of DNA (DNA Spooling)
• Identification of celestial objects with the naked eye
• Observing transpiration and photosynthesis in plants
• Types of clouds
• The blood typing game (online)
• Science of musical sounds
• Are fruit juices, soap, carbonated drinks acidic or alkaline? (using
pH strips or • Science of splitting of colours from white light: rainbow, CD-ram,
prism, oil films.
developing your own Litmus Test)
• Lenses, mirrors and the human eye
• Do plants learn and remember?

• Experiments on how migratory birds find their way. (Online)

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References

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 Philosophy of Science
Philosophy of science majorly tries to answer a critical question - What It tries to give an account how science attempts to construct a picture of
is distinctive about science? the world that is accountable to the world in a particular way.

Along with how science differs from other human activities, what Also, how that picture of the world develops and changes in response to
grounds its body of knowledge, what features are essential to scientific further empirical information.
engagement with phenomena, etc.
Along with what kind of explanations can be given for the success of
Thus philosophy of science deals with – scientific accounts.

• Finding the line between science and non-science. The goal of philosophy of science is not to answer scientific questions,
but to answer questions about science.
• Figuring out the logic with which scientific claims are grounded
As well, some philosophers are more concerned with an idealized
• Working to understand the relation between theory and empirical
picture of science as an optimally rational knowledge building activity --
data.
something they will emphasize is quite different from science as actually
• Working out the common thread that unites many disparate scientific practiced.
fields

Frequently, the philosopher is concerned with "Science" rather than a

particular field of science.

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 Philosophy of Science
Major Difference between a scientist and a philosopher science: There are some people who will argue that studying philosophy of
science could be detrimental to the practicing scientist.
• A scientist uses his knowledge and practical tools for studying the
scientific problems. Following which the empirical data is used to • Here is a story that illustrate the dangers for scientists of falling in
draw conclusions. with the philosophers and historians and sociologists of science:

• Philosopher of science is aimed at answering different questions than • A centipede is doing a beautiful and complicated dance. An ant walks
the working scientist is trying to answer. up to the centipede and says, "That dance is lovely! How do you
coordinate all your feet so perfectly to do it?" The centipede pauses
• The goal of philosophy of science is not to answer scientific
to think about this and eventually replies, "I don't know." Then the
questions, but to answer questions about science.
centipede watches his feet and tries to do the dance again -- and
Does a working scientist need to have learned philosophy of can’t!
science in order to get the scientific job done?

• Probably not. Neither does a scientist need to have studied

A scientist can do science while taking the methodology of her field for
Shakespeare or history to be a good scientist -- but these still might
granted. But having to give a philosophical account of or a justification
be worthwhile endeavors for the scientist as a person.
for that methodology deeper than this may render that methodology
strange looking and hard to keep using.

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 Philosophy of Science
 Thus, science is directed at the phenomena of the natural world and was developed by humans as a tool. The goal
of science is to explain, predict, and understand the phenomena of the natural world.

 However, it would be impossible to use science as a tool to investigate the natural world were systematic and
theoretical investigation of science's foundations not possible.

 Science can only function because we, the people who use science, are able to investigate and evaluate how
science itself functions.

 To see why this is, let’s consider two questions:

1. When a high school student considers studying physics in college and asks his high school physics teacher
which schools he should apply to, how does his teacher know what advice to give?

2. When new geological data appear to be incompatible with well-established geological theories, how do geologists
know whether to question the data, the theories, both, or something else entirely?

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 Philosophy of Science
Notice that none of these questions is specifically about the natural phenomena themselves, but, instead about
theory, the relationship between evidence and theory, about the relationship between old and new interpretations
of evidence, about how scientific traditions and the scientific community should be viewed, about which
methodologies are better and which are worse, about what progress looks like, and about what science is, as its
most fundamental, foundational level.

Systematic and theoretical evaluation of science's foundations cannot be accomplished by science itself. Here
comes, the application of the philosophy of science, which allows for critical analysis of the foundations of
science—something that is required for science to function, but something that science itself cannot achieve on
its own.

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 The branches of philosophy of science
 Epistemology: It is a discipline of philosophy that studies the nature of knowledge and how it is obtained. It is concerned with
questions regarding the nature of scientific knowledge, the techniques used to obtain it, and the standards used to assess
scientific assertions.

 Empiricism: This is a philosophical approach that stresses the significance of empirical evidence in knowledge development. It is
concerned with the importance of observation and experimentation in scientific investigation, as well as the extent to which
scientific hypotheses may be justified based on empirical evidence.

 Ethics: This type of philosophy addresses the problems related to right and wrong, good and bad, the moral ideals that drive
human action, basically the ethical implications of scientific research and scientists’ societal duties.

 Induction: The process of reasoning from specific observations to broader conclusions is known as induction, which is the
problem of justifying the inference from specific observations to universal rules or hypotheses. Inductive reasoning is a crucial
aspect of scientific investigation, yet it is also open to criticism and debate. You notice that whenever you drop an apple, it falls to
the ground. Based on this observation, you infer that when apples are dropped, they all fall to the ground.

https://mindthegraph.com/blog/what-is-the-philosophy-of-science/?gad=1&gclid=Cj0KCQjw6KunBhDxARIsAKFUGs-DaG7UBRHKqZdmaAedJLFvSl-fyuW0E4OzeFQmJdxu45abFJrnwLEaAicwEALw_wcB
https://undsci.berkeley.edu/the-philosophy-of-science/
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 The branches of philosophy of science
 Deduction: It is very similar to inductive reasoning, although it is frequently seen to be more rigorous than inductive reasoning.
The deduction is used to put scientific ideas to the test by making specific predictions or hypotheses based on them. You believe
that all living beings need oxygen to survive. You deduct that removing oxygen from an environment containing live beings will
cause them to die.

 Parsimony/Occam’s razor: The principle of parsimony is the preference for the simplest explanation that can account for a
phenomena. Occam’s razor is a specific statement of this concept, credited to the medieval philosopher William of Ockham,
which asserts that no more assumptions should be made than are necessary. In simple terms, it is an idea that, all other things
being equal, we should prefer a simpler explanation over a more complex one.

 Paradigm shifts and scientific revolutions: Thomas Kuhn proposed the concepts of paradigm shifts and scientific revolutions
in his book “The Structure of Scientific Revolutions.” It is a view of science which suggests that the history of science can be
divided up into times of normal science (when scientists add to, elaborate on, and work with a central, accepted scientific theory)
and briefer periods of revolutionary science. Kuhn asserted that during times of revolutionary science, anomalies refuting the
accepted theory have built up to such a point that the old theory is broken down and a new one is built to take its place in a so-
called “paradigm shift.”

https://mindthegraph.com/blog/what-is-the-philosophy-of-science/?gad=1&gclid=Cj0KCQjw6KunBhDxARIsAKFUGs-DaG7UBRHKqZdmaAedJLFvSl-fyuW0E4OzeFQmJdxu45abFJrnwLEaAicwEALw_wcB
https://undsci.berkeley.edu/the-philosophy-of-science/
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13
 Defining science and non-science
 There is no commonly acknowledged set of criteria for categorizing a theory or practice as scientific or non-scientific.

 Thus, discriminating between scientific and non-scientific beliefs, techniques, and practices, is a long-standing dilemma in the philosophy of
science.

 Karl Popper, a well-known philosopher of science, contended that scientific ideas must meet the falsifiability criteria. Falsifiability is a
deductive standard for evaluating scientific theories and hypotheses.

 A theory or hypothesis is falsifiable (or refutable) if it can be logically disproved by an empirical test. This standard is significant since it
allows scientific hypotheses to be rigorously tested and evaluated, as well as allowing scientists to develop and enhance their theories
throughout time.

 However, not all theories fulfill the criteria for falsifiability. Some theories, for example, may rely on untestable assumptions or unobservable
events, making empirical testing difficult or impossible.

 Modern philosophers of science largely agree that there is no single, simple criterion that can be used to demarcate the boundaries of
science.

https://mindthegraph.com/blog/what-is-the-philosophy-of-science/?gad=1&gclid=Cj0KCQjw6KunBhDxARIsAKFUGs-DaG7UBRHKqZdmaAedJLFvSl-fyuW0E4OzeFQmJdxu45abFJrnwLEaAicwEALw_wcB

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 Science
Science is the organized systematic enterprise that gathers The main purpose of science is to trace, within the chaos and flux

knowledge about the world and condenses the knowledge into of phenomena, a consistent structure with order and meaning.

testable laws and principles. Therefore, science is based on the philosophy of rationalism,

Its defining traits are- Rationalism is a method of inquiry that regards reason as the chief
source and test of knowledge. It holds that, because reality itself
1. the confirmation of discoveries and support of hypotheses
has an inherently rational structure, there are truths--especially in
through repetition by independent investigators, preferably with logic and mathematics but also in ethics and metaphysics (area of
different tests and analyses; philosophy that deals with the nature of existence, truth and
knowledge).
2. Mensuration, the quantitative description of the phenomena on
universally accepted scales; According to the extreme rationalist doctrine, all the truths of
physical science and even history could in principle be discovered
3. Economy, by which the largest amount of information is
by pure thinking. This view is opposed to the various systems which
abstracted into a simple and precise form, which can be
regard the mind as a tabula rasa (blank tablet) in which the
unpacked to re-create detail;
outside world, as it were, imprints itself through the senses.
4. Heuristics, the opening of avenues to new discovery and
interpretation.
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 Science
 The opposition between rationalism and empiricism is, however, rarely so simple and direct, in as much as many thinkers have admitted
both sensation and reflection.

 Locke, for example, is a rationalist in the weakest sense, holding that the materials of human knowledge (ideas) are supplied by sense
experience or introspection, but that knowledge consists in seeing necessary connections between them, which is the function of reason.

 Most philosophers who are called rationalists have maintained that the materials of knowledge are derived not from experience but
deductively from fundamental elementary concepts. This attitude may be studied in Ren Descartes, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, and
Christian von Wolff. It is based on Descartes's fundamental principle that knowledge must be clear, and seeks to give to philosophy the
certainty and demonstrative character of mathematics, from the a priori principle of which all its claims are derived. The attack made by
David Hume on the causal relation led directly to the new rationalism of Kant, who argued that it was wrong to regard thought as mere
analysis. In Kant's views, a priori concepts do exist, but if they are to lead to the amplification of knowledge, they must be brought into
relation with empirical data.

 A priori knowledge is independent from any experience. For example, "Every apple is a fruit" is an a priori statement, since it shows simple
logical reasoning and isn't a statement of fact about a specific case; "apples are sweet" is a posteriori, as it expresses something the
speaker knows from experience.

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 Science
 Logical systems are idealized, abstract languages originally developed by modern logicians as a means of analyzing the concept of
deduction. Logical models are structures which may be used to provide an interpretation of the symbolism embodied in a formal system.
Together the concepts of formal system and model constitute one of the most fundamental tools employed in modern physical theories.

 A formal logical system is a collection of abstract symbols, together with a set of rules for assembling the symbols into strings. Such a
system has four components: 1) an alphabet, a set of abstract symbols, 2) grammar, rules which specify the valid ways one can combine
the symbols, 3) axioms, a set of well-formed statements accepted as true without proof, and 4) rules of inference, procedures by which one
can combine and change axioms into new strings.

 Scientific Understanding = a consistent and logical statement, oriented towards discovery of patterns, a system, and ordered structure.

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 Science
 Science is also a dialogue between mankind and Nature. Science is far from a perfect instrument of knowledge, but it provides something
that other philosophies fail to, concrete results.

 Science is a 'candle in the dark" to illuminate irrational beliefs or superstitions. Science does not, by itself, advocate courses of human
action, but it can certainly illuminate the possible consequences of alternative courses. In this regard, science is both imaginative and
disciplined, which is central to its power of prediction.

 Science emphasis on data/evidence, prediction, not answers

 Philosopher Popper states that true science operates under the principle of falsifiability science is not about truth, it's about testability.

 Science is any system of knowledge that is concerned with the physical world and its phenomena and entails unbiased observations and/or
systematic experimentation. In general, a science involves a pursuit of knowledge covering general truths or the operations of fundamental
laws of nature.

 Science does not, by itself, advocate courses of human action, but it can certainly illuminate the possible consequences of alternative
courses. In this regard, science is both imaginative and disciplined, which is central to its power of prediction.

 Science can be separated from pseudo-science by the principle of falsifiability, the concept that ideas must be capable of being proven
false to be scientifically valid.

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 Science
 Most people's view of science: order, logic, rationalism all working together to yield the truth

 This will be strong reinforced in Aristotle's view of the world. Ultimately this means that all of nature is understandable. Later primarily
Descartes and Kant formalize determinism, reductionism and reason as a testimony to the greatness of humanity.

 Science is founded on the hope that the world is rational in all its observable aspects. Its possible that there may be some facets of reality
which lie beyond the power of human reasoning, that there may be things with explanations that we could never grasp, or no explanation at
all, but the fact that the world is rational relates to the fact that it is ordered.

 The keystone to science is proof or evidence/data, which is not to be confused with certainty. Hence science is continuously evolving.

 science is not about truth, it's about testability.

 Thus, science emphasis on

1. data/evidence

2. prediction

3. not answers

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 Principle of Falsification
 Science can be separated from pseudo-science by the principle of falsifiability, the concept that ideas must be capable of
being proven false to be scientifically valid.

 Philosopher Popper states that true science operates under the principle of falsifiability.

 Being unrestricted, scientific theories cannot be verified by any possible accumulation of observational evidence.

 The formation of hypothesis is a creative process of the imagination and is not a passive reaction to observed regularities. A
scientific test consists in a persevering search for negative, falsifying instances.

 If a hypothesis survives continuing and serious attempts to falsify it, then it has "proved its mettle" and can be provisionally
accepted, but it can never be established conclusively. Later corroboration generates a series of hypothesis to a scientific
theory. Thus, the core element of a scientific hypothesis is that it must be capability of being proven false.

 For example, the hypothesis that atoms move because they are pushed by small, invisible, immaterial demons" is pseudo-
science since the existence of the demons cannot be proven false (i.e. cannot be tested at all).

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 Scientific Methods
 Scientific arguments are of the types:

1. deduction

2. induction

3. probability

4. Statistical

Aristotle believed that scientific knowledge comes from the logical inferences built from indisputable, self-evident truths. But
where do those truths come from? Aristotle's answer was that we induce them. Induction is the acquiring of knowledge from
our senses. Thus, induction became the dominant method of science for 2000 years.

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 Scientific Methods
 Today we recognize that there are two types of science, rational and empirical. Rational refers to statements coming from
ideas, while empirical refers to science based on observations. Rational science is about on observations. Rational science
is about ideas, whereas empirical science is about experiences connected to the real world. Rational science starts from
self-evident truths and moves by rigorous logical arguments to a conclusion about some new truth, this is called deduction.

 Empirical science starts from a hypothesis which implies a tentative truth, and uses multiple observations to reach a
conclusion about the truth of the original hypothesis, this is called induction.

 Scientific arguments of logic basically take on four possible forms as; 1) the pure method of deduction where conclusion is
drawn from a set of propositions (i.e. pure logic), 2) the method of induction, where one draws general conclusions from
particular facts that appear to serve as evidence, 3) by probability, which passes from frequencies within a known domain to
conclusions of stated likelihood, and 4) by statistical reasoning, which concludes that, on the average, a certain percentage
of a set of entities will satisfy the stated conditions

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 Scientific Methods

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 Scientific Methods
 The scientific method has four steps:

1. observation/experimentation

2. deduction

3. hypothesis

4. falsification

 The goal of the scientific method is the construction of models and theories, all with the final goal of understanding.

 Theories are never proven true, only increase in robustness with every test (attempt to falsification).

 The fact that scientific reasoning is so often successful is a remarkable property of the Universe, the dependability of
Nature.

 To support these methods, a scientist also uses a large amount of skepticism to search for any fallacies in hypothesis or
scientific argument.

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 Scientific Methods
 In order to draw conclusions, a scientist uses the scientific method, a rigorous standard of procedure and discussion that
sets reason over irrational belief. Central to the scientific method is a system of logic.

 Note that there is an emphasis on falsification, not verification. If a theory passes any test then our confidence in the theory
is reinforced, but it is never proven correct in a mathematically sense.

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 Cause and Effect
 There are three components to cause and effect:

1. contiguity in space

2. temporal priority of the cause (i.e. it’s first)

3. Necessary connection

• The key to cause and effect is the concept that an object's existence and properties
are independent of the observation or experiment and rooted in the material reality
of Nature.

• The correlated events are related by a chain of causation.

• The necessary connection in cause and effect events is the exchange of energy.

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 Reductionism
 Reductionism is the belief that any complex set of phenomena can be defined or explained in terms of a relatively few
simple or primitive ones.

 Example 1: atomism is a form of reductionism in that it holds that everything in the Universe can be broken down into a few
simple entities (elementary particles) and laws and interactions among them.

 Example 2: Modern chemistry reduces chemical properties to 118 so basic elements (kinds of atoms) and their rules of
combination.

 To a reductionist, once a set of equations or mathematical relations has been found to describe a system, then the behavior
of the system is considered to be explained. Mathematical relationships are key to applying reductionism to a natural event.

 Reductionism is very similar to, and has its roots from, Occam's Razor, which states that between competing ideas, the
simplest theory that fits the facts of a problem is the one that should be selected.

 In his writings, Occam stressed the Aristotelian principle that entities must not be multiplied beyond what is necessary. This
principle became known as Occam's Razor, a problem should be stated in its basic and simplest terms. In science, the
simplest theory that fits the facts of a problem is the one that should be selected.

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 Reductionism
 Reductionism was widely accepted due to its power in prediction and formulation. It is, at least, a good approximation of the
macroscopic world (although it is completely wrong for the microscope world, see quantum physics).

 Too much success is a dangerous thing since the reductionist philosophy led to a wider paradigm, the methodology of
scientism, the view that everything can and should be reduced to the properties of matter (materialism) such that emotion,
aesthetics and religious experience can be reduced to biological instinct, chemical imbalances in the brain, etc.

 The 20th century reaction against reductionism is relativism. Modern science is somewhere in between.

 Relativism is the view that what is right or wrong and good or bad is not absolute but variable and relative, depending on
the person, circumstances, or social situation. For example: it is acknowledged that whether it is right for a man to enter a
certain house depends upon whether he is the owner, a guest, a police officer with a warrant, or a burglar.

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 Determinism
 Determinism is that all natural events are determined by previous causes in
its.

 It stresses that everything has a cause, and that a particular cause leads to a
unique effect. Another way of stating this is that for everything that happens
there are conditions such that, given them, nothing else could happen.

 Determinism is the theory that all events, including moral choices, are
completely determined by previously existing causes.

 In its extreme form, all events have unique causes and there is no free will.

 Scientific laws, in the macroscopic world, are rigidly deterministic.

 The Persian poet Omar Khayyam expressed a similar deterministic view of

the world in the concluding half of one of his quatrains: "And first Morning of
Creation wrote / What the Last Dawn of Reckoning shall read.”

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 Determinism
 Indeterminism, on the other hand, though not denying the influence of behavioral patterns and certain extrinsic forces on
human actions, insists on the reality of free choice.

 Determinism implies a clockwork Universe: Implicit to determinism is the fact that every event happens of necessity. It has
to happen; the Universe has no choice.

 Determinism also implies that everything is predictable given enough information. Since Newtonian or classical physics is
rigidly determinist, both in the predictions of its equations and its foundations, then there is no room for chance, surprise
and creativity. Everything is as it has to be, which gave rise to the concept of a clockwork Universe.

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 Laws of Nature
 Laws of Nature describe hidden order in mathematical form.

 The rise of science during the Age of Reason produced the idea that there is a hidden order in Nature, which is
mathematical in form and could be uncovered by investigation. This hidden order could be expressed in the form of
mathematical principles, or laws of Nature.

 By examination or observation or experimentation, connections between events become apparent:

Direct connections between events are usually apparent to the senses. But the underlying causes associated with the laws
of Nature are much more subtle. Observations of events are not generally intelligible. Often phenomenon requires an
abstract theoretical framework to form a context for measurements in order to link them into a framework of understanding.
This framework is called a scientific theory.

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 Laws of Nature
 Laws of Nature are human inventions to describe the regularity of the Universe.

The laws of Nature are attempts to capture the regularities of the world systematically. The existence of regularities in Nature
is an objective fact, thus we do not impose laws onto Nature. While the form of the laws are human inventions, they reflect,
albeit imperfectly, real properties in Nature. It is this absolute invariance of the laws of Nature that underwrites the
meaningfulness of the scientific enterprise and assured its success.

 New laws should lead to discovery: When a new law is developed, it is tested under different contexts which often
leads to the discovery of new, unexpected phenomena. This demonstrates that we are determining real regularities in
Nature, not imposing them with our scientific structures.

 The laws of Nature are eternal, absolute and have an independent existence outside the physical conditions of an
experiment. Success in the scientific method rests on the reproducibility of the results. An experiment is repeated and the
same laws of Nature apply, but the initial conditions of the experiment can be varied. There is a clear functional
separation between laws and initial conditions, similar to the Platonic Forms.

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 Myths vs. facts
 Myth: The scientific method

The most common myth about the nature of science is that there is a universal scientific method, with a common series of
steps that scientists follow.

The steps usually include defining the problem, forming a hypothesis, making observations, testing the hypothesis, drawing
conclusions and reporting results. In classrooms, students can be seen writing up the aim, hypothesis, method, results and
conclusion.

In reality there is no single method of science. Scientific inquiry is not a matter of following a set of rules. It is fluid, reflexive,
context dependent and unpredictable. Scientists approach and solve problems in lots of different ways using imagination,
creativity, prior knowledge and perseverance.

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 Myths vs. facts
 Example 1- Lake380

Lakes380 is a nationwide project to collect data on

10% of Aotearoa’s (New Zealand) 3,800 lakes that are
over 1 ha in size. This includes collecting water and
sediment samples to characterize what’s, what lives
there now and what the water quality is like. Moreover,
sediment cores were also analyzed. So, sediment
cores are like a storybook back in time, and we can go
back and analyze these cores and learn more about
what our lakes were once like and how and why
they’ve changed. An investigation on past climate
change to see how climate change impacts lake water
quality was also crucial to this project.

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 Myths vs. facts
 Example 2 - Volcanology methods

A volcanologist may start by conducting fieldwork, collecting rocks and samples.

Following a detailed analysis in the lab. The combination of data from all this
research will be combined to form a detailed picture of the volcano being studied.

Fieldwork methods can include- surveying, collecting rock samples, drilling core
samples, seismic monitoring, gas monitoring, ground deformation monitoring.

Laboratory techniques can include electron microprobe, radiocarbon dating, GPS instruments pick up millimetre-sized changes
potassium-argon dating. in the shape of a volcano. Swelling can sometimes
be an early sign of volcanic unrest.
With the combined information, volcanologists can start to develop an explanation.
The clues give information about when a volcano erupted, what type of eruption it
was and how much material was produced.

Sometimes, this information is not complete and some of the clues may be missing,
but over time, as more information is added, the explanation slowly becomes more
convincing.

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 Myths vs. facts
 Myth: Experiments are the main route to scientific knowledge

Experiments are certainly a useful tool in science, but they are not the main route to knowledge. True experiments involve a
range of carefully controlled procedures accompanied by control and test groups and usually have as a primary goal the
establishment of a cause-and-effect relationship.

Science does involve investigation of some sort, but experiments are just one of many different approaches used. In several
science disciplines, such as geology, cosmology or medicine, experiments are either not possible, insufficient, unnecessary
or unethical, So science also relies on approaches such as basic observations (such as astronomy) and historical
exploration (such as paleontology and evolutionary biology).

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 Myths vs. facts
 Myth: Science and its methods can answer all
questions

Science has achieved many amazing things, but it is not a

cure-all for all the problems in society.

Although it can provide some insights that may inform debate,

science cannot answer ethical, moral, aesthetic, social and
metaphysical questions.

For instance, science and the resulting technology may be

able to clone mammals, but other knowledge is needed
(cultural, sociological and philosophical) to decide whether
such cloning is moral and ethical. Not all questions can be
investigated in a scientific manner.

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 Myths vs. facts
 Myth: Science proves ideas

Popular media often talks about ‘scientific proof’. However, accumulated evidence can never provide absolute proof – it can only
ever provide support.

A single negative finding, if confirmed, is enough to overturn a scientific hypothesis or theory.

Rather than being proven ‘once and for all’, a hallmark of science is that it is subject to revision when new information is presented
or when existing information is viewed in a new light.

Example- Icebergs and glaciation

When geographers first began to document where ice was found on the Earth, they thought that icecaps had always been found
only round the North and South poles, plus a few glaciers and snowfields on particularly high mountains.

Scientists had noticed that, in some areas, there were large boulders that were quite different from the rest of the local geological
features. These “erratic” boulders had obviously been carried quite some distance from their source. They were generally believed
to have been taken there by the rushing flood, waters or else frozen in icebergs carried by that same flood.

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 Myths vs. facts
A Swiss mountaineer, suggested that these marks had been caused by boulders carried along on
the underside of ancient glaciers – in other words, areas of the modern Earth that were ice-free
had been glaciated in some earlier time. At first, this idea was not generally accepted.

However later evidence in support of the idea of widespread past glaciations were found. The idea
of catastrophism was accepted, whereby life on Earth was destroyed by global catastrophes – and
subsequently replaced through a Creation event. Another scientist to accept that there had been at
least one Ice Age in the Earth’s past was Charles Darwin’s friend and mentor, Charles Lyell.
Glacier striations: By running a
Once the concept of Ice Ages had been accepted, scientists turned to considering what had
finger along freshly exposed
caused these much colder periods in the Earth’s past. striations one can determine the
direction of the ice flow by the feel
of the rock. The moving ice leaves
the rock grains aligned with the
direction of movement, so when
the striation feels smooth, your
finger is moving in the direction of
ice flow and when it feels rough,
you are moving against the ice flow.

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 Myths vs. facts
 Myth: Science ideas are absolute and unchanging

Some ideas in science are so well established and reliable and so well supported by accumulated evidence that they
are unlikely to be thrown out, but even these ideas may be modified by new evidence or by the reinterpretation of
existing evidence.

Science knowledge is durable, but not absolute or fixed – a critical feature of science is that it is self-correcting – so we
say that scientific knowledge is tentative. This can be most easily seen at the cutting edge of research and in areas like
health and medicine where ideas may change as scientists try to figure out which explanations are the most accurate.

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 Myths vs. facts
 Myth: Science is a solitary pursuit

This myth fits the stereotypical image of a lone scientist working alone in a laboratory. In reality, only rarely does a
scientific idea arise in the mind of an individual scientist to be validated by the individual alone and then accepted by
the scientific community.

The process of science is much more often the result of collaboration of a group of scientists. Most research takes too
long, is too expensive and needs more knowledge and expertise than an individual scientist working alone. The
Science Learning Hub repeatedly shows this collaboration.

Collaboration can occur between individuals working in a team. It can also describe the way in which individuals or
organizations work together on a project. In this case, the collaboration may only be a small part of the individuals’ or
organizations' overall goals and responsibilities.

Example- where would computer technology be today without the development of the silicon chip in 1959 and then
advanced ceramic versions of it?

Microscopy developments have accelerated learning around microorganisms, cells and inorganic materials, enabling
great advances in fields from human health and medicine to materials science and space travel.

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 Myths vs. facts
Example 2 - Bone marrow transplants – timeline

Early 1900s: First ever attempt to treat patients with a donor’s bone marrow. However, this treatment is unsuccessful, as the bone
marrow is given by mouth.

1956: The first successful bone marrow transplant between a related donor and recipient was performed in New York. The patient,
who has leukemia, is given radiotherapy and then treated with healthy bone marrow from an identical twin.

1958: French immunologist identifies human leukocyte antigens (HLA), which help the immune system to recognize what belongs
in the body and what does not. HLA compatibility between a donor and recipient is necessary for transplants to be successful.

1960: Researchers discover bone marrow contains at least two kinds of stem cells – blood or haematopoietic stem cell and
stromal stem cells.

1973: First bone marrow transplant between unrelated patients. A 5-year-old patient in New York is treated with multiple infusions
of bone marrow from a donor in Denmark.

1992: First xenotransplantation of bone marrow. Bone marrow and a kidney from a baboon are transplanted into a patient. The
patient dies 26 days later from infection.

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 Myths vs. facts
 Myth: Science is procedural more than creative

Many students see science as following a series of steps and being dry, uninspiring and unimaginative. The opposite is
true.

Creativity is found in all aspects of scientific research, from coming up with a question, creating a research design,
interpreting and making sense of findings or looking at old data in new ways. Creativity is absolutely critical to science.

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 Myths vs. facts
 Myth: Scientists are particularly objective

We often assume scientists are always objective, but scientists do not bring empty heads to their research.

Their background knowledge, experiences and the existing concepts they hold mean they can’t be objective. Like all
observers, they have a myriad of preconceptions and biases that they will bring to every observation and interpretation
they make.

“If we confront the world with an empty head, then our experiences will be deservedly meaningless. Experience does
not give concepts meaning. If anything, concepts give experience meaning.” - David Theobald, 1968.

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 Myths vs. facts
 Myth: Scientific conclusions are reviewed by others for accuracy

Limited research funds and time constraints do not allow for professional scientists to be constantly reviewing each
other’s experiments.

If experiments are repeated, it is usually because a conclusion has been reached that is outside the current paradigm.

However, ideas and methods are critiqued before and during publication and acceptance. Ideas and methods are
debated and shared in the workplace, at conferences and in scientific journals

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 Myths vs. facts
 Myth: Acceptance of new scientific knowledge is straightforward

The process of building knowledge in science is often portrayed as procedural, routine and unproblematic – leading
unambiguously and inevitably to ‘proven science’.

The way science investigations and findings are reported can reinforce this myth.

However, it is impossible to make all observations relevant to a given situation, for all time – past, present and future –
and there is always a creative leap from evidence to scientific knowledge. New interpretations for evidence are not
automatically accepted by the scientific community.

A new idea that is not too far from the expectations of scientists working in a particular field would probably be
accepted and published in scientific journals, but if the idea appears to be a significant breakthrough or is rather
radical, its acceptance is by no means straightforward.

Some examples of scientific ideas that were originally rejected because they fell outside the accepted paradigm
include the Sun-centred solar system, the germ theory of disease and continental drift.

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 Myths vs. facts
 Example: The history of vaccination

China in the 1500s, tried to prevent the deadly smallpox by exposing uninfected people to the pus from the smallpox blisters
(lesions). It involved taking the pus and fluid from a lesion and using a needle under the skin of the healthy person to be protected.
This was known as variolation and is the earliest form of vaccination.

A British ambassador brought the procedure back to England where the inoculation was trialled on condemned criminals. However,
later it was accepted.

England in the late 1700s- Edward Jenner, experienced variolation as a child and survived. He went on to train as a doctor. Jenner
noticed that milkmaids who contracted cowpox from cows (less serious than smallpox) never contracted smallpox. One milkmaid told
Jenner she wouldn’t get smallpox because she’d had cowpox. Jenner tested this, by taking some infected cowpox matter and inserting
it into a cut in a young boy’s arm. After the boy recovered from the cowpox illness, Jenner intentionally infected him with smallpox by
injecting pus from a smallpox lesion directly under his skin. The boy remained healthy, and this became commonly known as the
world’s first vaccine.

Jenner named his treatment vaccination – ‘vacca’ is the Latin word for cow. (Louis Pasteur – known for his work in causes and
prevention of disease in 1800s – later adopted the word vaccination to mean immunisation against any disease). Initially, Jenner’s
study was rejected. However, in time, it became clear that Jenner was right, he is now credited as the Father of Immunology.

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 Myths vs. facts
 Myth: Science models ‘are real’

Models are just explanations of perceived representations of reality.

A good example is the particle theory of matter, which pictures atoms and molecules as tiny discrete balls that have
elastic collisions.

This is a model that explains a whole range of phenomena, but no one has actually ever seen these tiny balls. The
model is useful and it works as a means to explain and to predict a phenomenon.

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 Myths vs. facts
 Myth: A hypothesis is an educated guess

Everyday use of the word ‘hypothesis’ means an intelligent guess.

For science, it can be misunderstood to mean an assumption made before doing an experiment or an idea not yet confirmed by an
experiment.

A better definition of a hypothesis in science is ‘a tentative explanation for a scientific problem, based on currently accepted
scientific understanding and creative thinking’.

Hypotheses are supported by lines of evidence and are based on the prior experience, background knowledge and observations of
the scientists.

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 Myths vs. facts
 Myth: Hypotheses become theories that, in turn, become laws

Hypothesis, theory and law are three terms that are often confused. This myth says that facts and observations produce
hypotheses, which give rise to theories, which, in turn, produce laws if sufficient evidence is amassed – so laws are theories that
have been proved true.

Actually, hypotheses, theories and laws are as unalike as apples, oranges and bananas. They can’t grow into each other.

Theories and laws are very different types of knowledge. Laws are generalizations, principles, relationships or patterns in nature
that have been established by empirical data. Theories are explanations of those generalizations (also corroborated by empirical
data).

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 Activity 2
Aim: To learn the theory of blood types and playing the blood typing game (online).

Before Nobel Prize awarded Karl Landsteiner discovered the ABO human blood groups in 1901, it was thought that all blood
was the same. This misunderstanding led to fatal blood transfusions. Later, in 1940, Landsteiner was part of discovering
another blood group, the Rh blood group system. There are many blood group systems known today, but the ABO and the
Rh blood groups are the most important ones used for blood transfusions. The designation Rh is derived from the Rhesus
monkey in which the existence of the Rh blood group was discovered.

Blood typing is a method to tell what type of blood you have. Blood typing is done so you can safely donate your blood or
receive a blood transfusion. It is also done to see if you have a substance called Rh factor on the surface of your red blood
cells.

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 What is blood made up of?
Activity 2
An adult human has about 4–6 liters of blood circulating in the body. Among other things, blood transports oxygen to various
parts of the body. Blood consists of several types of cells floating around in a fluid called plasma.

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 Activity 2
How do the blood types differ?

Our blood types are determined by heredity. People belong to either of eight different blood types:

A Rh+, A Rh-, B Rh+, B Rh-, AB RH+, AB Rh-, 0 Rh+, or 0 Rh- .

The eight blood types have different combinations of certain molecules, antigens, on the surface of the red blood cells.
The A and B antigens are sugars, and the Rh antigens are proteins. The antigens expressed in the red blood cells determine
an individual's blood type.

Also, the combination of some other molecules floating around in the blood plasma differs between the eight blood types,
the so-called antibodies.

You can have A or/and B or/and Rh antigens or none of them.

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 Scientific Methods
The Scientific Method is a process for explaining the world we see. It is neither a formula nor any Magic.
• The Scientific Method is not the only way but is the best-known way to discover how and why the world works, without
our knowledge being tainted by religious, political, or philosophical values.
• It formulate questions about general observations and devise theories of explanation. The approach lends itself to
answering questions in fair and unbiased statements, if questions are posed correctly, in a hypothetical form that can
be tested.
• Thus, formally, the scientific method is a strategy used to try and explain natural science rationally by
obtaining and evaluating data. It involves the formulation of hypotheses and application to come up with
logical explanations.
• Do all scientists follow the scientific method exactly? No.
• For example, scientists studying how dinosaurs digested their food cannot run medical exams on feeding dinosaurs to
test their hypotheses.
• When direct experimentation is not possible, scientists modify the scientific method. But even when modified, the goal
(and many of the steps) remains the same: to discover cause and effect relationships by asking questions, carefully
gathering and examining the evidence, and seeing if all the available information can be combined into a logical
answer.

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 Scientific Methods
The scientific method is a step-by-step problem-solving
process. These steps include:
• Observation. This involves observing and gathering
information from a certain aspect of the natural world.
• Asking a question. Here, you form relevant and
testable questions based on your observations.
• Forming a hypothesis. This involves proposing an
explanation of how or why the natural phenomenon is
happening. It can be an assumption rather than a fact.
• Prediction. This is what you think will happen based on
your hypothesis.
• Testing the prediction. With testing, you carry out an
experiment to test how accurate your prediction is.
• Analyze Your Data and Draw a Conclusion. Once
your experiment is complete, you collect your
measurements and analyze them to see if they support
your hypothesis or not.
• Iteration. This involves looking back on the whole
process and the results you achieved to make new
hypotheses or predictions.

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Scientific method example: Failure to toast

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Scientific method example: Failure to toast

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 Scientific method example: Failure to toast
•If the hypothesis was supported, we might do additional tests to confirm it, or revise it to be more specific. For instance,
we might investigate why the outlet is broken.
•If the hypothesis was not supported, we would come up with a new hypothesis. For instance, the next hypothesis might
be that there's a broken wire in the toaster.
In most cases, the scientific method is an iterative process. In other words, it's a cycle rather than a straight line. The
result of one go-round becomes feedback that improves the next round of question asking.

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 What the Scientific Is Method Used For
The scientific method can be used for various purposes, such as:
• Describing how nature works. It's hard to accurately describe how nature works because there may be
limited observations, which can lead to wrong conclusions. In most cases, all you can do is make
assumptions. You can use the scientific method to disprove assumptions about the natural world by
identifying flaws in the reasoning.
• Lab scientific research. Since scientists use the scientific method when they perform experiments, you
might be able to replicate research if you have the same equipment and follow the same procedures.
• Developing critical thinking. Using the scientific method may help you develop critical thinking in your
daily life because you get used to logically finding answers. Without logical reasoning, you might be
more likely to have a distorted perspective. Having a distorted perspective can make you draw
inaccurate conclusions.

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 Why Is the Scientific Method Important?
The scientific method is important because:
• It's a standardized approach. The steps used in the scientific method are systematic, so scientists conduct
experiments in a standardized manner. This means that their experiments can become more widespread.
• It eliminates bias. Bias is the tendency to favor your own point of view over those of others. You can eliminate bias in
experiments with the help of a scientific approach because experiments require objectivity. The scientific method
requires you to carefully record any experimental detail so that it can be mirrored and publicized. To accomplish this,
the results of your experiment should be neutral.
• It helps create theories. Theories are general principles obtained from facts that can be used to explain
observations and predict future events. When a hypothesis is tested and proven to be right, it is converted into a
theory — like Einstein's theory of relativity.
• It can solve problems. With the knowledge of the scientific method, you may be able to develop important problem-
solving skills. For example, if you're trying to solve a problem, you can isolate it by considering or eliminating
irrelevant factors using the scientific method. In addition, it can help you in making continuous changes to your
solutions and retesting them.
• It creates predictive power. A hypothesis that is proven to be correct raises the likelihood of an event occurring. This
means that you can use the scientific method to predict whether or not an event will occur again in the future.

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 Difference between a fact, a theory and a hypothesis?
The words "fact," "hypothesis," "theory," and "law" have very specific meanings in the world of science, and they don't
exactly match the ones we use in everyday language.
• In science, a fact is an observation that's been confirmed so many times that scientists can, for all intents and
purposes, accept it as "true." But everything in science comes with a level of uncertainty, so nothing is ever
scientifically "true" beyond a shadow of a doubt.
• Theory is a conceptual framework that explains existing observations and predicts new ones. It is an explanation of
some aspect of the natural world that's well-substantiated by facts, tested hypotheses, and laws.
For instance, suppose you see the Sun rise. This is an existing observation which is explained by the theory of gravity
proposed by Newton. This theory, in addition to explaining why we see the Sun move across the sky, also explains many
other phenomena such as the path followed by the Sun as it moves (as seen from Earth) across the sky, the phases of
the Moon, the phases of Venus, the tides, just to mention a few. You can today make a calculation and predict the
position of the Sun, the phases of the Moon and Venus, the hour of maximal tide, all 200 years from now. The same
theory is used to guide spacecraft all over the Solar System.
Scientists continually test existing theories in order to probe how far can they be applied.
When a theory is said to be ``true'' it means that it agrees with all known experimental evidence. But even the best of
theories have, time and again, been shown to be incomplete: though they might explain a lot of phenomena using a few
basic principles, and even predict many new and exciting results, eventually new experiments (or more precise ones)
show a discrepancy between the workings of nature and the predictions of the theory.

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 Difference between a fact, a theory and a hypothesis?
• A hypothesis is a tentative explanation about an observation that can be tested. It's just a starting point for further
investigation. Any one observation usually comes with an array of hypotheses.
Thus, a hypothesis is a working assumption. Typically, a scientist devises a hypothesis and then sees if it ``holds water''
by testing it against available data (obtained from previous experiments and observations). If the hypothesis does hold
water, the scientist declares it to be a theory.
• In science, a law is a detailed description of how some aspect of the natural world behaves, usually involving math.
Newton's law of universal gravitation describes the way matter behaves with impressive precision. It makes it easy to
predict how a moon will act if it's very big and close to its planet versus very small and far away. But how is all it
describes — it doesn't explain why.

• Facts are objective statements like “It is raining.” A hypothesis is a proposed explanation of a fact like “It is probably
raining because it is too warm for condensation to freeze into snow.”

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 Activity: Observing transpiration in plants

Transpiration : It is the process of

loss of water in the form of water
vapour through the aerial parts of
the plant.
Most of the transpiration is carried
out by the leaves with the help of
stomatal pores on it.
Transpiration creates a suction
force that helps in the upward
movement of water and minerals
from roots to different parts of the
plants. It maintains osmosis and
keeps the cells rigid.
About 97-99% of the water is lost
through transpiration.

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 Activity: Observing transpiration in plants

There are three main types of transpiration, based on

where the process occurs:
1. Stomatal transpiration: Stomata make up only 3% of
the leaf surface area, but most water loss happens
through these openings due to the necessities of
photosynthesis. Stomata are open to let carbon
dioxide in for photosynthesis; however, this also
causes the water in the mesophyll tissue in leaves to
evaporate if the air outside is drier due to factors like
high temperature.

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 Activity: Observing transpiration in plants

2. Cuticular transpiration: The leaf surface has a 3. Lenticular transpiration: Lenticels, small openings in
waxy cuticle through which water vapor can some plants’ bark, are another area where some water
evaporate. Water loss here is lower compared to loss can be seen. This type of transpiration sees the
stomatal transpiration, except when the stomata lowest amounts of water loss.
are closed.

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 Activity: Observing transpiration in plants
Importance of Transpiration
1. Transpiration helps in the absorption of water from the soil.
2. The absorbed water is transported from the roots to the leaves through the xylem vessels that are greatly influenced by
transpiration pull.
3. Transpiration helps to cool down the plant surface during evaporation.
Environmental Factors that Affect the Rate of Transpiration
1. Light: Stomata are triggered to open in light so plants transpire more rapidly in the presence of light than in the dark.
2. Temperature: Plants transpire more rapidly at higher temperatures because water evaporates more rapidly as the temperature
rises.
3. Humidity: Humidity is expressed as the percentage of water vapour present in the atmosphere. The higher the relative humidity
of the outside atmosphere, the lower the rate of transpiration.
4. Wind: When there is no breeze, the air surrounding a leaf surface becomes increasingly humid, thus decreasing the rate of
transpiration. The increase in the wind velocity increases the rate of transpiration by removing the humidity from the leaf
surface.

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 Activity: Observing transpiration in plants
Activity that shows transpiration occurs through leaves:
• Take a potted plant with at least two branches.
• Remove all the leaves from one of the branches and tie a plastic bag around it.
• Tie the other plastic bag around a branch with many leaves.

Observation:
We will notice small droplets of water inside the plastic bags that were tied around the branch with the leaves, while the other plastic
bag does not have any droplets.
This shows that water vapour is released by the leaves.
Thus, transpiration has occurred.

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 Activity: Observing transpiration in plants
• In different plants, distribution, number, size and type of stomata vary. Even within a plant, the upper and lower surfaces of the
leaf may have different distributions.
• In some plants a greater number of stomata is present on the on the lower surface than on the upper surface of the leaf.
Therefore, the loss of water from the lower surface is greater than from the upper surface.
• We can study the rate of transpiration from the two surfaces of a leaf by comparing the loss of water vapour from the two
surfaces of the leaf.
• Rate of transpiration can be easily demonstrated by cobalt chloride paper test. Dry cobalt chloride paper that is blue in colour
turns pink when it comes in contact with water. Using this property of cobalt chloride paper we can demonstrate water loss during
transpiration.
• We can measure the rate of transpiration by using the time taken for the paper to change its colour from blue to pink.

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 Activity: Observing transpiration in plants
Activity that compare the rates of transpiration in the upper and the lower surface of leaves.
Procedure
• Into the Petri dish, pour the cobalt chloride solution
• Dip a few strips of filter paper into the solution
• Allow the strips to stay in the solution for a few minutes, watch them turn pink in colour
• With the help of forceps, separate the strips
• Allow the strips to dry by placing them on the wire gauze
• Upon drying, the strips turn blue in colour
• Pluck a healthy leaf from the potted plant, clean it to remove excess droplets with the help of filter paper
• After drying on the wire gauze, set the dried strips one on the upper surface of the leaf and one on the lower surface.
• Now place 2 glass slides on each surface of the leaf, i.e., the upper surface and lower surface.
• With the help of binder clips, secure the slides.
• Observe and make note of the time that is consumed by the paper to switch its colour from blue to pink.

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 Activity: Observing transpiration in plants
Observation
Through the experiment carried out, it is observed that the amount of time taken for the colour change of the cobalt chloride paper
from blue to pink on the lower surface of the leaf is lesser than the upper leaf surface.

Conclusion
The rapid switch of the colour of the cobalt chloride paper on the lower surfaces depicts that rate of loss of water vapour is higher on
the lower surface than the upper surface.

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 Introduction to Rainwater Harvesting
• Rainwater Harvesting refers to the collection and storage of run-off rainwater for subsequent use.
• It is also referred to as Rainwater Catchment or Roof Water collection, and is practices in both
developed and developing countries.
• The most common residential setup involves using the roof of a house as a catchment area for rain and
gutters, which will then channel the run-off water into some storage container.
Why Collect Rainwater?
• Rainwater harvesting has gained popularity in developing countries where water scarcity is prominent,
making rain one of the primary water sources for many.
• Furthermore, it also continues to be a popular method of water collection for residents and businesses
in developed countries such as Germany, Singapore, Australia, Japan, China, and the United States.
Why are more and more households and businesses relying on rainwater as an alternative water
source?
• In regions with adequate rainfall, rainwater harvesting creates water independence and self-sufficiency.
In almost all cases, rainwater is a free source of water. Because of its lack of chlorine, rainwater is ideal
for landscape gardens and plants. Rainwater harvesting also helps reduce runoffs and solve drainage
problems while giving you unrestricted access to free and clean water. It can act as an excellent backup
source of water. Easy maintenance

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 Advantages of Rainwater Harvesting
1. It Acts as a Backup Water Source
Water supply systems each have their uncertainties and sporadically need repair and maintenance. Also,
droughts may cause water shortages. Such major repairs or periods of drought may result in the
unavailability of water for daily use. However, a well-built and proper RWH system will allow you access to
an alternative water source for other household/business purposes while saving the little potable water for
drinking and cooking.
2. Ecological Benefits
One of the most essential benefits of rainwater harvesting is its role in the fight against water scarcity. It is
estimated that about 35% of water at home is used to flush the toilet. When you add that to the amount of
water you use to water your plants, garden, lawn, and wash cars, you see the amount of clean and
potable water wasted. RWH can help you significantly reduce the safe water used in performing these
chores. This reduction in the use of potable water will, in turn, reduce the amount of water being pumped
from groundwater sources which will, in turn, reduce the chances of drying up these water bodies.

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 Advantages of Rainwater Harvesting
3. Low Initial Capital, Reduced Utility Costs, and Easy Maintenance
Due to its relatively simple components, installing an RWH system does not require a lot of capital. And
the extra water source provided by the rainwater harvesting system will eventually bring down overall
water costs. With meager maintenance costs, the entire rainwater harvesting application is cost-effective
and can save money in the long term.
4. Helps in Reducing Flooding and Erosion
Most RWH systems that provide water to buildings feature built-in catchment areas around the rooftop,
which usually can collect and store vast amounts of water. By collecting this water, flooding and soil
erosion are significantly reduced since there is a reduction in the flow of water.

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 Practical Uses of Rainwater Harvesting
1. Farming/Landscaping
Farming and landscaping are two activities that use up enormous amounts of water. Rainwater harvesting
provides a less costly and eco-friendly water source for these activities. Rainwater is ideal for farming,
mainly because of the absence of chlorine or other chemicals that may harm plants and animals. It can
also offer an alternative water source for watering lawns, plants, gardens, and filling swimming pools.
2. In-Home Use - Drinking/Cooking
With the proper purification systems installed, rainwater harvesting can also be a water source for cooking
and drinking.
3. Fire Protection
Finally, it can also be used to protect against fires. This is especially true in regions suffering from water
scarcity or areas not connected to the main water supply. This can be done by installing fire plugs which
are innovative fire protection devices that automatically fill roof gutters with water in the event of a bushfire
threat. In Fort Davis, TX, rainwater runoff is stored for fire safety purposes by the McDonald Observatory.

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 Different Methods and Systems of Rainwater Harvesting
1. Dry System
This technique features a large container usually
located a few meters from the property. The roof
gutter is channeled into the storage tank. This system
is referred to as the “dry” system because, after
rainfall, the pipes get dry since all the water empties
into the top of the tank.

Advantages of this method include more extensive

storage preventing flooding in case of heavy rainfall,
easy implementation, and inexpensive installation.
This system is especially ideal for stormy areas.

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 Different Methods and Systems of Rainwater Harvesting
2. Wet System
While the pipes channeling water in the dry
system are located on top of the storage tank,
the lines here are located underground and
beneath the storage tank causing the pipes to be
full of water continually, hence the name “wet”
system. With this method, several lines are
connected to multiple plugs in the building and
channeled underground into an empty storage
tank. In the absence of rainfall, the water level
remains constant, with the pipes constantly full of
water.
However, because the pipes are always full of
water, it is advised that tubes be watertight to
avoid leakage into the soil. This method is the
most expensive of all three systems due to
underground piping.

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 Different Methods and Systems of Rainwater Harvesting
3. Rain Barrel
The rain barrel is probably the easiest and
cheapest RWH system and is widely used by
households. This system involves the installation
of a barrel underneath the roof drain pipe such
that all the rain falling on the roof will be guttered
and funneled into the barrel. The barrel usually
features a plug at the bottom, which makes it
possible for water to be drawn or for a hose to be
connected.

One significant advantage of this method is its

ease of use. Barrels can easily be purchased or
sourced, whether new or recycled. If you choose
to use a recycled barrel, it would be prudent to
know what the barrel was formerly used for to
ensure no chemical residues are left. Also, find a
lid for your barrel if you live in a mosquito-
infested area.

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 Components of a Rainwater Harvesting System
Catchment Area
For most RWH systems, this is usually the roof of a home. But any flat surface with a downward angle can be the
catchment area. It is essential to take several factors into consideration when building a rainwater harvesting system:
• Roofs are usually used for the catchment area. However, if you plan to build your system from scratch, a metal
roof is the best material because water slides down immediately, avoiding the risk of bacterial festering. Wood
surfaces and lead materials might require the water to be purified before use, especially if considered for
consumption.
• Another factor is the roof's slope, as it determines how quickly water will drain to gutters during rainfall. Steep
roofs cause water to run off quickly, making cleaning the roof easier and preventing contamination. On the other
hand, less-steep roofs reduce runoff, making it more possible for contamination to remain on the roof.
• Size is important as it will determine the amount of rainwater harvested. Knowing the area of your catchment area
can help you determine how much water you can harvest. The area can be calculated by adding the building's
area to the area of the roof's overhang. The larger the size, the greater the volume of water harvested.
• Use this formula to determine the amount of water that can be collected: 1" of rain x 1 sq. foot = 0.623 gallons.

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86
 Components of a Rainwater Harvesting System
Conveyance
This simply refers to the components that will transfer water from the catchment area to the collection area,
typically gutters and drain pipes. Consider the following when selecting gutters and drain pipes:
• The size of the gutters should allow adequate movement of rainwater harvested from a storm event. Thus,
storm-prone places require wider gutters than places with less-intense rainfall. Gutters should generally be at
least 5 inches wide.
• Every 100 sq. foot of catchment area should have one inch of drain pipe. The same rule should be applied to
circular PVC piping.
• It is important to properly install drainpipes and gutters for the system to function properly.
• For effective draining, gutters should be sloped at 1/16” per foot of length.
• Also, rounded-bottom gutters reduce the risk of debris buildup.
• Also, consider putting gutter hangers after every 3 ft. In areas with heavy snow, gutters should be placed after
every foot.
• Paint PVC pipes to minimize UV sunlight breakdown.

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88
 Components of a Rainwater Harvesting System
Storage
This is where the collected rainwater is stored for subsequent use. Some things to consider include:
• It is important to ensure the observation port is inaccessible to anyone to prevent accidents and unfortunate
incidents.
• Also, carefully selecting the material for your storage tank is important. Ideal storage tanks include enclosed
metal or polyethylene plastic to reduce mold growth.
• Also, the color of the tank is very important as it plays a number of roles. First, it preserves the quality of the
water. Clear (translucent) tanks encourage algae growth since sunlight can penetrate the material. It is,
therefore, important for clear tanks to be painted. Also, tank color can affect the temperature of the water.
During summer, water in tanks with lighter colors tends to be colder since the color reflects solar energy.
Remember that the container still needs to be opaque. The best way to increase solar reflection and
opaqueness is to paint a black storage container white.
• It is also important to consider the location of your tank – whether it will be underground or aboveground.
While below-ground tanks take up less space, are less visible, and maintain a constant temperature all year
round, they are prone to cracks due to soil shifting and settling. Also, they are constantly open to water
pollution, and cracks can be tough to detect. Below-ground storage tanks are also costlier to install, remove
and maintain. Aboveground storage tanks are subject to weather conditions, including sunlight, which may
affect the water quality.

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90
 Components of a Rainwater Harvesting System
Treatment
Treatment is an essential part of the system, making the water harvested safe. During harvesting, water can be
contaminated by microbiological organisms, chemicals, and debris. Microbiological organisms include viruses,
bacteria, and parasites. Chemicals include synthetic organic chemicals (SOCs), volatile organic chemicals
(VOCs), and other metals.
• To avoid chemical contamination, it is essential to prevent roof materials and gutters that contain lead or
copper.
• To avoid contamination by debris, consider installing debris-screening filters. This should be installed in the
gutter to prevent leaves and other debris from entering the system. Screening filters should also be placed in
the drainpipe to filter out debris draining from the gutter. Finally, one should be placed in the inlet into the
storage container.
• Once the water has been stored, the treatment of the water will depend on its intended use. If the water is
meant for irrigation, then the water may not need any extra treatment. However, if the water is designed for
indoor use, consider using different water filtration techniques to maximize effectiveness and eliminate
chemical and microbiological contaminations. This can include one or all of the following methods:
chlorination, UV light, ozonation, disinfection, and absorption.

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 Components of a Rainwater Harvesting System
Distribution
It is important to note that friction in the pipes will lead to a loss of pressure. This is especially true if you plan to
move the water far from your storage tank. Consider calculating friction loss using the Hazen-Williams Friction
Loss Equation.

Pressure tanks and Pumps are optional components of a distribution system. If your RWH system uses gravity
flow, there is no need for a pump. However, it is important to note that selecting the perfect pump for your
system will depend on your volume and pressure requirements. Pressure tanks make sure a certain volume of
water is pressure-stored.

Conclusion
Rainwater is a source that if harnessed correctly, can provide a system of sustainable water to those where
water isn't always readily available. It allows for full control of your own water supply for agricultural, home, and
livestock purposes. The dry, wet, and barrel systems have different methods of capturing rain, but all include
similar components: catchment, conveyance, storage, treatment, and distribution. Let's continue to educate
each other on rainwater harvesting as a viable means of combating the global water crisis.

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 Water Management Practices in Ancient India
• Across India are dotted many manmade pools of water, often in beautifully designed
wells. These are ‘step-wells’, tanks (kund), or baolis – all forms of a centuries-old method
of water storage.
• In Chennai, the City of 1000 Tanks project is repairing existing tanks, and building new
ones along with treatments stations. Previously, to prevent flooding, huge rainfalls would
be diverted as quickly as possible out of the city.
• Similarly, in Maharashtra, the NGO All World Gayatri Pariwar is bringing back to life 52
puratan kundas – ancient water reservoirs – in Alandi. These reservoirs had become
polluted through disuse. By cleaning up and maintaining this ancient water conservation
system, it can help combat water scarcity in the region.
• Here are some of the ancient structures for water management in India

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 Water Management Practices in Ancient India
• Jhalara or stepwells
The rectangularly shaped stepwells (steps down to
a well) that have tiered steps on three or four sides,
were constructed to collect the water from the
upstream reservoir or a lake. The oldest known
Jhalara dates back to 550 AD and was built to fill
the water demand-supply gap during the season of
scanty monsoon.

The Toorji Ka Jhalara stepwell in Jodhpur

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 Water Management Practices in Ancient India
• Bawari
It is another type of stepwells built around the
reservoirs to narrow and deepen them, which helps in
minimizing the loss of water through evaporation. In
the areas where rainfall is scanty, like Rajasthan, the
Bawari was the intricate part of cities’ water storage
network. With the construction of the canal that used
to divert the rainwater into the human-made tanks, the
major water issues of the population were solved. Also,
the water could percolate into the ground and raise the
water table, thus recharging the aquifers. Chand Baori,
in Rajasthan, is the deepest and largest Bawari in
India, with 3,500 narrow steps built over 13 storeys.

Ugrasen ki Baoli in Delhi

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 Water Management Practices in Ancient India
• Johads
Johads are small earthen check dams that capture
and conserve rainwater, improving percolation and
groundwater recharge.
Constructed in an area with naturally high elevation
on three sides, a storage pit is made by excavating
the area, and excavated soil is used to create a
wall on the fourth side.
Starting 1984, the last sixteen years have seen the
revival of some 3000 johads spread across more
than 650 villages in Alwar district, Rajasthan.

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 Water Management Practices in Ancient India
• Khadin
It was first developed in the 15th century in the
Jaisalmer district, Khadin is a most multi-purpose
method of water conservation.
The run-off from upland and rocky surfaces is
collected in a khadin from the adjoining valley
against an embankment having a masonry water
barrier for outflow of runoff excess.
The standing water in a khadin assists continuous
groundwater recharge. On the Khadin bed at least
one crop is cultivated even in the arid region as it
retains moisture and contains fine and fertile soil. In
the immediate vicinity downstream the sub-surface
water is extracted through bore wells.

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 Water Management Practices in Ancient India
• Kuhls
Kuhls are surface water channels found in the
mountainous regions of Himachal Pradesh.
The channels carry glacial waters from rivers and
streams into the fields. The Kangra Valley system
has an estimated 715 major kuhls and 2,500 minor
kuhls that irrigate more than 30,000 hectares in the
valley.
An important cultural tradition, the kuhls were built
either through public donations or by royal rulers. A
kohli would be designated as the master of the kuhl
and he would be responsible for the maintenance
of the kuhl.

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 Water Management Practices in Ancient India
• Zings
Zings, found in Ladakh, are small tanks that collect
melting glacier water. A network of guiding
channels brings water from the glacier to the tank.
A trickle in the morning, the melting waters of the
glacier turn into a flowing stream by the afternoon.
The water, collected by evening, is used in the
fields on the following day.
A water official called a Chirpun is responsible for
the equitable distribution of water in this dry region
that relies on melting glacial water to meet its
farming needs.

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 Water Management Practices in Ancient India
• Bamboo Drip irrigation System
It is an ingenious system of efficient water
management that has been practised for over two
centuries in northeast India.
The tribal farmers of the region have developed a
system for irrigation in which water from perennial
springs is diverted to the terrace fields using
varying sizes and shapes of bamboo pipes.
Best suited for crops requiring less water, the
system ensures that small drops of water are
delivered directly to the roots of the plants. This
ancient system is used by the farmers of Khasi and
Jaintia hills to drip-irrigate their black pepper
cultivation.

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