Lecture -4 Polar Coordinates

You know that position of any point in the plane can be obtained by the two
perpendicular lines known as x and y axis and together we call it as Cartesian coordinates
for plane. Beside this coordinate system we have another coordinate system which can
also use for obtaining the position of any point in the plane. In that coordinate system we
represent position of each particle in the plane by “r” and “θ ”where “r” is the distance
from a fixed point known as pole and θ is the measure of the angle.

P (r, θ)

O θ Initial ray

“O” is known as pole.

Conversion formula from polar to Cartesian coordinates and vice versa

P(x, y) =P(r, θ )

r y
θ
x

From above diagram and remembering the trigonometric ratios we can write x = r cos θ,
y = r sin θ. Now squaring these two equations and adding we get,

x2 + y2 = r2

Dividing these equations we get

y/x = tanθ

These two equations gives the relation between the Plane polar and Plane Cartesian
coordinates.

Rectangular co-ordinates for 3d

Since you know that the position of any point in the 3d can be obtained by the three
mutually perpendicular lines known as x ,y and z – axis and also shown in figure below,
these coordinate axis are known as Rectangular coordinate system.
Cylindrical co-ordinates

Beside the Rectangular coordinate system we have another coordinate system which is
used for getting the position of the any particle is in space known as the cylindrical
coordinate system as shown in the figure below.

Spherical co-ordinates

Beside the Rectangular and Cylindrical coordinate systems we have another coordinate
system which is used for getting the position of the any particle is in space known as the
spherical coordinate system as shown in the figure below.
Conversion formulas between rectangular and cylindrical co-ordinates

Now we will find out the relation between the Rectangular coordinate system and
Cylindrical coordinates. For this consider any point in the space and consider the position
of this point in both the axis as shown in the figure below.

In the figure we have the projection of the point P in the xy-Plane and write its position in
plane polar coordinates and also represent the angle θ now from that projection we draw
perpendicular to both of the axis and using the trigonometric ratios find out the following
relations.

(r, θ, z) →(x, y, z)

x = rcosθ, y = rsinθ, z=z

y
r= x2 +y2 , tanθ = , z=z
x

Conversion formulas between cylindrical and spherical co-ordinates

Now we will find out the relation between spherical coordinate system and Cylindrical
coordinate system. For this consider any point in the space and consider the position of
this point in both the axis as shown in the figure below.
First we will find the relation between Planes polar to spherical, from the above figure
you can easily see that from the two right angled triangles we have the following
relations.

(ρ ,θ,φ ) → (r, θ, z)

r = ρ sin φ , θ = θ, z = ρ cos φ

Now from these equations we will solve the first and second equation for ρ and φ. Thus
we have

(r, θ, z) → (ρ ,θ,φ )
r
ρ= r2 +z 2 θ = θ, tan φ =
z

Conversion formulas between rectangular and spherical co-ordinates

(ρ, θ, Φ) → (x, y, z)
Since we know that the relation between Cartesian coordinates and Polar coordinates are

x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ and z = z .We also know the relation between Spherical and
cylindrical coordinates are,

r = ρ sin φ , θ = θ, z = ρ cos φ

Now putting this value of “r” and “z” in the above formulas we get the relation between
spherical coordinate system and Cartesian coordinate system. Now we will find

( x, y, z) → ( ρ, θ, Φ)

2 2 2 2 2 2
x + y +z = (ρsin Φ cos θ) + (ρsin Φ sin θ) + (ρ cos Φ)
2 2 2 2 2
= ρ {sin Φ(cos θ + sin θ) +cos Φ)}
 2 2 2 2 2
= ρ (sin Φ + cos Φ) = ρ

ρ= x2 + y2 +z2
z
Tanθ = y/x and Cos Φ = x2 + y2 +z2

Constant surfaces in rectangular co-ordinates

The surfaces represented by equations of the form

x = x0, y = y0, z = z0

where xo, yo, zo are constants, are planes parallel to the xy-plane, xz-plane and xy-
plane, respectively. Also shown in the figure

Constant surfaces in cylindrical co-ordinates

The surface r = ro is a right cylinder of radius ro centered on the z-axis. At each point
(r, θ, z) this surface on this cylinder, r has the value r0 , z is unrestricted and
0 ≤ θ < 2π.

The surface θ = θ0 is a half plane attached along the z-axis and making angle θ0 with the
positive x-axis. At each point (r, θ, z) on the surface ,θ has the value θ0, z is unrestricted
and r ≥0. The surfaces z = zo is a horizontal plane. At each point (r, θ, z) this surface z
has the value z0 , but r and θ are unrestricted as shown in the figure below.
Constant surfaces in spherical co-ordinates

The surface ρ = ρo consists of all points whose distance ρ from origin is ρo. Assuming
that ρo to be nonnegative, this is a sphere of radius ρo centered at the origin. The surface
θ = θ0 is a half plane attached along the z-axis and making angle θ0 with the positive x-
axis. The surface Φ = Φ0 consists of all points from which a line segment to the origin
makes an angle of Φ0 with the positive z-axis. Depending on whether 0< Φ0 < π/2 or
π/2 < Φ0< π, this will be a cone opening up or opening down. If Φ0 = π/2, then the cone
is flat and the surface is the xy-plane.

Spherical Co-ordinates in Navigation

Spherical co-ordinates are related to longitude and latitude coordinates used in

navigation. Let us consider a right handed rectangular coordinate system with origin at
earth’s center, positive z-axis passing through the north pole,and x-axis passing through
the prime meridian. Considering earth to be a perfect sphere of radius ρ = 4000 miles,
then each point has spherical coordinates of the form (4000,θ,Φ) where Φ and θ
determine the latitude and longitude of the point. Longitude is specified in degree east or
west of the prime meridian and latitudes is specified in degree north or south of the
equator.

Domain of the Function

• In the above definitions the set D is the domain of the function.

• The Set of all values which the function assigns for every element of the domain
is called the Range of the function.
• When the range consist of real numbers the functions are called the real valued
function.

NATURAL DOMAIN

Natural domain consists of all points at which the formula has no divisions by zero and
produces only real numbers.

Examples

Consider the Function ϖ = y − x 2 . Then the domain of the function is

y ≥ x 2 Which can be shown in the plane as

and Range of the function is [ 0, ∞ ) .

Domain of function w = 1/xy is the whole xy- plane Excluding x-axis and y-axis, because
at x and y axis all the points has x and y coordinates as 0 and thus the defining formula
for the function gives us 1/0. So we exclude them.