Manufacturing Engineering Technology in SI Units, 6th Edition

Chapter 11:
Metal Casting Processes and Equipment

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Chapter Outline
¨ Introduction
¨ Expendable-mold, Permanent-pattern Casting Processes
¨ Expendable-mold, Expendable-pattern Casting Processes
¨ Permanent-mold Casting Processes
¨ Casting Techniques for Single-crystal Components
¨ Rapid Solidification
¨ Inspection of Castings
¨ Melting Practice and Furnaces
¨ Foundries and Foundry Automation

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Introduction

¨ Various casting processes developed over time to

meet specific design requirements

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Introduction

¨ Molding categories:
1. Expendable molds
2. Permanent molds
3. Composite molds

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Introduction

¨ General characteristics of sand casting and casting

processes are summarized

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Expendable-mold , Permanent-pattern Casting Processes:
Sand Casting

¨ Most prevalent form of casting

¨ Application for machine bases, large turbine
impellers, propellers, plumbing fixtures

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Expendable-mold, Permanent-pattern Casting Processes:
Sand Casting

Sand
¨ Sand-casting operations use silica sand as the
mold material
¨ Sand is inexpensive and suitable high melting
point process
¨ 2 types of sand: naturally bonded (bank sand)
and synthetic (lake sand)
¨ Fine grained sand enhances mold strength and
lower mold permeability

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Expendable-mold, Permanent-pattern Casting Processes:
Sand Casting

Types of Sand Molds

3 basic types:
1. Green-sand mold
Sand in the mold is moist or damp while the metal
is being poured into it
2. Cold-box mold
Organic and inorganic binders are blended into
the sand to bond the grains chemically
3. No-bake mold
Synthetic liquid resin is mixed with the sand and
allow to hardens at room temperature
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Expendable-mold, Permanent-pattern Casting Processes:
Sand Casting

Major features of molds in sand casting

¨ Flask
¨ Cope on top and a drag on the bottom
¨ Pouring basin / Pouring cup
¨ Sprue
¨ Runner system, gates
¨ Risers
¨ Cores
¨ Vents
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Expendable-mold, Permanent-pattern Casting Processes:
Sand Casting

Pattern
¨ Patterns are used to mold the sand mixture into
the shape of the casting
¨ Selection of a pattern material depends on the
1. Size and shape of the casting
2. Dimensional accuracy
3. Quantity of castings required
4. Molding process

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Expendable-mold, Permanent-pattern Casting Processes:
Sand Casting

Pattern
¨ Match-plate patterns
2 patterns are constructed by securing each half of
one or more split patterns to the opposite sides of
a single plate
¨ Pattern design should provide
for metal shrinkage to allow
the pattern to be easily
removed

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Expendable-mold, Permanent-pattern Casting Processes:
Sand Casting

Cores
¨ Cores are placed in the mold cavity to form the
interior surfaces of the casting
¨ It is removed from the finished part during
shakeout and further processing

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Expendable-mold, Permanent-pattern Casting Processes:
Sand Casting

Sand-molding Machines
¨ In vertical flaskless molding, the halves of the
pattern form a vertical chamber wall against
which sand is blown and compacted

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Expendable-mold, Permanent-pattern Casting Processes:
Sand Casting

The Sand-casting Operation

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Expendable-mold, Permanent-pattern Casting Processes:
Sand Casting

The Sand-casting Operation

¨ Finishing operations may involve machining,
straightening, or forging with dies (sizing) to
obtain final dimensions
¨ Inspection is carried out to ensure that the casting
meets all design and quality-control requirements

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Expendable-mold, Permanent-pattern Casting Processes:
Shell Molding

¨ Shell molding can produce many types of castings

with close dimensional tolerances and a good
surface finish at low cost
¨ Applications include small mechanical parts
requiring high precision such as gear housings
¨ Shell sand has lower permeability than sand used
for green-sand molding
¨ Complex shapes can be produced with less labor
since it can be automated easily

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Expendable-mold, Permanent-pattern Casting Processes:
Shell Molding

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Expendable-mold, Permanent-pattern Casting Processes:
Plaster-mold Casting

¨ Precision casting produce high dimensional

accuracy and good surface finish products
¨ Typical parts made are lock components, gears,
valves, fittings, tooling, and ornaments
¨ In plaster-molding process, the mold is made of
plaster of paris with the addition of talc and silica
flour to improve strength

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Expendable-mold, Permanent-pattern Casting Processes:
Ceramic-mold Casting

¨ Ceramic-mold casting process is similar to the

plaster-mold process but uses refractory mold
materials suitable for high-temperature
applications

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Expendable-mold, Expendable-pattern Casting Processes:
Evaporative-pattern Casting (Lost-foam Process)

¨ Evaporative-pattern casting process uses a

polystyrene pattern, which evaporates upon
contact with molten metal to form a cavity for the
casting
¨ Used for ferrous and nonferrous metals which is
applicable to automotive industry
¨ The advantages are:
1. Simple
2. Inexpensive flasks and polystyrene
3. Minimal finishing and cleaning operations
4. Process can be automated
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Expendable-mold, Expendable-pattern Casting Processes:
Evaporative-pattern Casting (Lost-foam Process)

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Expendable-mold, Expendable-pattern Casting Processes:
Evaporative-pattern Casting (Lost-foam Process)

CASE STUDY 11.1

Lost-foam Casting of Engine Blocks
a) Metal is poured into a mold for lost-foam casting
of a 60-hp, three-cylinder marine engine
b) Finished engine block

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Expendable-mold, Expendable-pattern Casting Processes:
Investment Casting

¨ Also called lost-wax process

¨ Used to make office equipment, and mechanical
components such as gears
¨ Pattern is invested (surrounded) with the
refractory material
¨ Mold is heated up to drive off the water of
crystallization and to burn off any residual wax
¨ Process is capable of producing intricate shapes
from ferrous and nonferrous metals and alloys

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Expendable-mold, Expendable-pattern Casting Processes:
Investment Casting

¨ Also called lost-wax process

¨ Used to make office equipment, and mechanical
components such as gears

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Expendable-mold, Expendable-pattern Casting Processes:
Investment Casting

Ceramic-shell Investment Casting

¨ Process is economical and is used for the
precision casting of steels and high-temperature
alloys

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Expendable-mold, Expendable-pattern Casting Processes:
Investment Casting

EXAMPLE 11.1
Investment-cast Superalloy Components for Gas Turbines
¨ Figure shows a cross section and microstructure
of two rotors:
1. (Top) Investment cast
2. (Bottom) Conventionally cast

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Expendable-mold, Expendable-pattern Casting Processes:
Investment Casting

CASE STUDY 11.2

Investment Casting of Total Knee Replacements
¨ Manufacture of total knee replacements

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Expendable-mold, Expendable-pattern Casting Processes:
Investment Casting

CASE STUDY 11.2

Investment Casting of Total Knee Replacements
¨ Progression of the tree

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Permanent-mold Casting Processes:
Permanent-mold Casting

¨ 2 halves of a mold are made from materials with

high resistance to erosion and thermal fatigue
¨ In order to increase the life of permanent molds,
the surfaces of the mold cavity are coated with a
refractory slurry or sprayed with graphite
¨ Equipment costs is high but labor costs are kept
low through automation
¨ Not economical for small production runs

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Permanent-mold Casting Processes:
Vacuum Casting

¨ Vacuum casting is an alternative to other casting

and is suitable for thin-walled complex shapes
with uniform properties
¨ A mixture of fine sand and urethane is molded
over metal dies and cured with amine vapor
¨ Automated and production costs are similar
green-sand casting

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Permanent-mold Casting Processes: Die
Casting

¨ Die-casting process is a further example of

permanent-mold casting
¨ 2 basic types of die-casting machines:
1. Hot-chamber process use a piston to forces a
certain volume of metal into the die cavity
through a gooseneck and nozzle
2. Cold-chamber process is where molten metal is
poured into the injection cylinder (shot chamber)

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Permanent-mold Casting Processes: Die
Casting (Hot Chamber)

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Permanent-mold Casting Processes: Die
Casting (Cold Chamber)

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Permanent-mold Casting Processes: Die
Casting

Process Capabilities and Machine Selection

¨ Die casting is able to produce strong and high-
quality parts with complex shapes
¨ Also produces good dimensional accuracy and
surface details
¨ Strength-to-weight ratio of die-cast parts
increases with decreasing wall thickness

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Permanent-mold Casting Processes: Die
Casting

Process Capabilities and Machine Selection

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Permanent-mold Casting Processes: Die
Casting

Process Capabilities and Machine Selection

¨ Die-casting dies can be
1. Single cavity
2. Multiple cavity (several identical cavities)
3. Combination cavity (several different cavities)
4. Unit dies

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Permanent-mold Casting Processes:
Centrifugal Casting

¨ Centrifugal-casting process utilizes inertial forces

to distribute the molten metal into the mold
cavities
True Centrifugal Casting
¨ Cylindrical parts (such as pipes, gun barrels) are
produced by the technique

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Permanent-mold Casting Processes:
Centrifugal Casting

Semicentrifugal Casting
¨ Used to cast parts with rotational symmetry, such
as a wheel with spokes.

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Permanent-mold Casting Processes:
Centrifugal Casting

Centrifuging
¨ Mold cavities of any shape are placed at a certain
distance from the axis of rotation
¨ Properties of the castings can vary by distance
from the axis of rotation, as in true centrifugal
casting

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Permanent-mold Casting Processes:
Squeeze Casting and Semisolid-metal Forming

Squeeze Casting
¨ Involves the solidification of molten metal under
high pressure
¨ Products made are automotive components and
mortar bodies

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Permanent-mold Casting Processes:
Composite-mold Casting Operations

¨ Composite molds are made of two or more

different materials
¨ Used for casting complex shapes such as
impellers for turbines
¨ Composite molds
1. Increase the strength of the mold
2. Improve the dimensional accuracy and surface
finish
3. Help reduce overall costs and processing time

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Casting Techniques for
Single-crystal Components

Conventional Casting of Turbine Blades

¨ Uses a ceramic mold
¨ Molten metal is poured into the mold and solidify
at the ceramic walls
¨ Grain structure developed is polycrystalline
¨ Grain boundaries cause structure to creep and
cracking along the boundaries

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Casting Techniques for
Single-crystal Components
Directionally Solidified Blades
¨ Ceramic mold is preheated by radiant heating
¨ Metal is poured into the mold and allow crystals
to grow

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Casting Techniques for
Single-crystal Components
Single-crystal Blades
¨ The mold has a constriction in the shape of a
corkscrew or helix
¨ Only the most favourably oriented crystals are
able to grow through the helix
¨ Blades are more expensive, lack of grain
boundaries has resistant to creep
and thermal shock
¨ Longer and more
reliable service life
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Casting Techniques for
Single-crystal Components
Single-crystal Growing
¨ 2 basic methods of crystal growing:
1. Czochralski (CZ) process
- a seed crystal is dipped into the
molten metal and then pulled out
slowly while being rotated
- liquid metal solidify on the seed
and crystal structure of the seed is
continued throughout

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Casting Techniques for
Single-crystal Components
Single-crystal Growing
2. Floating-zone method
- a rod of polycrystalline silicon resting on a
single crystal
- induction coil heats these
two pieces while the coil
moves slowly upward
- single crystal grows
upward while maintaining
its orientation
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Rapid Solidification

¨ Technique for making amorphous alloys involves

cooling the molten metal at high rates
¨ Thus does not have sufficient time to crystallize
¨ For melt spinning, the alloy is melted by
induction in a ceramic crucible and propelled
under high gas pressure against a rotating copper
disk

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Inspection of Castings

¨ Control of all casting stages is essential to

maintaining good quality
¨ Castings can be inspected visually or optically for
surface defects
¨ In destructive testing, specimens are determined
for the presence, location, and distribution of
porosity and defects
¨ Pressure tightness of cast components is
determined by sealing the openings in the casting
and pressurizing it with water, oil, or air
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Melting Practice and Furnaces

¨ Melting practice has a direct bearing on the

quality of castings
¨ Fluxes are inorganic compounds that refine the
molten metal by removing dissolved gases and
various impurities
¨ Added manually or injected automatically into the
molten metal

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Melting Practice and Furnaces

Melting Furnaces
¨ Commonly used melting furnaces:
1. Electric-arc furnaces
2. Induction furnaces
3. Crucible furnaces
4. Cupolas
5. Levitation melting

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Foundries and Foundry Automation

¨ Casting operations usually are carried out in

foundries
¨ Modern foundries have automated and computer-
integrated facilities for all aspects of their
operations
¨ Automation minimizes labor, reduces the
possibility of human error, increases the
production rate and attains higher quality level

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